Feature Report

Get the Most out of

Vibration Analysis
By listening to the messages your components are sending, you will be better
able to assess the status of your machinery and take action to address problems
Sourav Kumar Chatterjee
Hindustan Petroleum Corp. Ltd. Maximum acceleration,
Maximum Spring minimum velocity

W
displacement
ith productivity, growth and (upper)
Maximum velocity,
reliability as constant driv- Mass Peak minimum acceleration
ers, the proactive evaluation Neutral or mean Peak to
position
of all machinery is critically peak
Root mean
important. In order to gain useful in- square (RMS)
Maximum
sight, the maintenance team must displacement
= 0.70 x peak
capture comprehensive data related (lower)
T
f =1/T
to machinery operation and carry out Maximum acceleration,
minimum velocity
a logical interpretation of the data.
The conventional language of Figure 1. This graphical representation shows the simple harmonic motion for an
equipment components — vibration excited spring-and-mass system
— transmits relevant information
that varies based on the type of ma- t
trum onen
chinery or asset system and the con- y spec comp
uenc tion
ditions these components are experi- Freq t vibra
inan
Amplitude, mm/s

om uency
encing. Learning to decipher vibration Pred Freq
data properly can help operators to
properly assess the condition of their
Amplitude,

machinery, gauge equipment perfor- +

mm/s

mance and plan for whatever actions +

are needed to address problems that
may have arisen.
Vibration basics
Technically, vibration occurs in re-
sponse to excitation forces acting on
an operating machinery system. Vibra-
tion is often an indication of construc-
tion-related defects of the machine or
machine parts, assembly problems,
improperly installed systems, electro-
magnetic forces and other factors.
As an elastic body in a non-equi-
librium condition experiences ex-
citation forces, it creates vibratory
sinusoidal motion (Figure 1). As the
internal forces within the displaced
body (in the form of strain energy)
are converted into kinetic energy,
the body moves in a “to-and-fro” vi-
bratory motion about a fixed posi-
tion. Hence, the most corroborative
parameters that can represent the
36 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2011
+
= nal
sig bas
ic
Raw complex p lex into rms
vibration signal Comsolvesave fo
re ne-w
( = the sum of si
wave forms on right) Tim
e
FIGURE 2. Complex vibration signals can be resolved into multiple sinusoidal
time-wave signals, which can then be converted into frequency-domain signals
using Fast Fourier Transformation (FFT) analysis
vibration signal are the following: From these primary parameters, the
• Displacement from the mean posi- mechanical vibration movement must
tion or amplitude then be converted into a signal with
• Repetition of cyclic motion in unit respect to time, so that it can be mea-
time or frequency sured and analyzed.
• Angular position of the mass in the Amplitude. As shown in Figure 1,
cycle with respect to a specified ref- amplitude refers to the magnitude of
erence or phase vibration present in a measured sig-
To assess these key parameters, the nal. In vibration analysis, amplitude
most important measurable, detect- is measured in units of displacement,
able signals of vibration are: velocity or acceleration, and is typi-
• Amplitude cally plotted on the vertical axis of any
• Frequency graphic representation of the signal.
• Phase Normal units are microns (one thou-
 CASE 1. Bad coupling 1FBL
BMBSN Time wave form
20 20
Amplitude, mm/s

Amplitude, mm/s
Horizontal
15 component 15

10 10 1FBL
alarm
5 5

1 1
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 0 100 200 300 400 500
Frequency, Hz Time, milliseconds
Details: r
4JOHMF
TUBHF
between the bearing centrifugal pump r
31.
 

r
$PVQMJOH
type –shim pack r
7JCSBUJPO
amplitude is dominant at 2 x harmonics

FIGURE 3. In this example, the engineer observed a broken shim and misaligned coupling with a loose coupling hub. In the
left-side plot, vibration amplitude is plotted against frequency (Hz). In the time-wave form (right), amplitude is plotted against
time. For this case, repeated spiking in the time-wave form within a short span confirmed misalignment, compounded by me-
chanical looseness of the rotor component

sandth of a millimeter) or mils peak-
to-peak.
Velocity is the rate at which displace-
ment changes. The unit for velocity
measurement is mm/s of peak or RMS
value, where RMS is the root mean
square value of the vibration ampli-
tude. This is the speed of the vibration.
Acceleration is the rate of change in
velocity with respect to time. Accelera-
tion is normally expressed either in
terms of gravitational units or in m/
s2 unit of the measured peak or RMS
value. This is proportional to the force
of the vibration.
The following discussion shows how
the simple harmonic motions of the
three measurable amplitudes (which
have three different characteristics
of vibratory propagation with differ-
ent measurement units) are related
mathematically. For a pure sine wave,
displacement at time t from the mean
position or origin is:
x (t) = X sin (2πft) (1)
Where:
x = the magnitude of displacement of
the mass at time t after it starts
moving from the mean position or
origin
X = the maximum magnitude
displacement from the origin
f = the frequency of vibration, cycles/s
t = the reference time interval from
the start at origin
Amplitude can be expressed in terms
of the rate of change of displacement,
or rate of change of velocity.
Velocity: V (t) = dx/dt = V cos (2πft) (2)
Where:
V = 2πfX
Acceleration: A (t) = dv/dt = d²x/dt²
= – Z sin (2πft) (3)
Where:
Z = 2πfV= (2πf)² X first-order running speed, twice the
x = the displacement at time t,
microns
X = the peak displacement, microns
f = the frequency of vibration, cycles/s
or Hertz (Hz)
If displacement — the maximum ex-
cursion of the object — is held constant
and frequency is doubled, then the ve-
locity must also double, because the
mass has to travel twice the distance
in the same increment of time. Since
the object must reverse direction twice
during every cycle, the maximum ac-
celeration experienced at the object’s
reversal in direction increases by the
increase in frequency squared.
Variation in velocity and accelera-
tion with frequency forms the basis for
vibration-severity criteria, provides
guidelines for selecting the variable
that will be most representative for
detecting and analyzing a particular
fault, and explains how failures can
occur without warning if the wrong
variable is measured. It is evident
from the discussion above that dis-
placement can appropriately repre-
sent the amplitude of low-frequency
signals, but as the frequency goes up,
velocity and acceleration become the
more-accurate variable to use to ex-
press the magnitude of vibration.
Frequency. Frequency is a measure
of the cyclic period of repetitive am-
plitude changes that the vibrating ob-
ject experiences with respect to time.
The period of vibration T is the time
taken to complete one cycle of motion
(in other words, the motion is seen to
repeat itself after time T seconds).
The number of cycles that occur in
the unit time (the frequency) is de-
noted by the letter f, and may be ex-
pressed in several ways: cycles per
minute (CPM); cycles per second (Hz);
revolutions per minute (RPM); or or-
ders of running speed (where the ro-
tational speed of the machine is the
rotational speed is the second-order
running speed, and so on). Because
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2011
certain types of faults typically occur
at certain frequencies, the ability to
identify the frequency at which the vi-
bration occurs can provide a good indi-
cator of the type of fault at hand.
Phase. Phase is the state of the sinu-
soidal signal with reference to either
time or a fixed reference point. For
instance, the angular distance trav-
eled within a given time represents
the measure of phase in terms of the
angle domain. Alternatively, the time
required to arrive at a given angu-
lar position is a measure of phase in
terms of the time domain.
The phase difference is either the
time difference between two signals
arriving at a given angular postion,
or it is the angular difference between
two signals at a given time. Note that
while the phase can be expressed in
these two ways, during vibration anal-
ysis, only the angular phase difference
is used. In time-displacement curves,
the phase of velocity is π/2 or 90 deg
ahead of displacement, while accelera-
tion is π or 180 deg ahead.
In numerous methods of determin-
ing the phase relationship between
two signals, there must be a common
denominator — time. (Figure 2). One
approach is to use time-based wave-
form comparisons (that is, graphical
waveform represenations of the vibra-
tion amplitude with respect to time)
for signals generated by two displace-
ment probes mounted 90 deg apart on
the vibrating body. (Note: To measure
the phase difference, two signals are
required). In a single-signal channel
probe, the reference pulse may be gen-
erated with a strobe light, infrared or
photo tacho-pulse system.
Multi-channel measurement
Expanding on the earlier definition,
cross-channel phase measurement
(using two sensor probes mounted
on the upper half of the body, 90 deg
apart) simplifies and expedites the
37
 CASE 2. Bad antifriction thrust bearing
Amplitude, mm/s
1.5
1.2
0.8
0.4
0 -15
0 500
1,000
Frequency, Hz
Details: r
5XPTUBHF

TJNQMZ
TVQQPSUFE
(that is, no thrust bearing in the drive end), horizontal-center-line-mounted centrifugal pump


r
31.



FIGURE 4. These plots of vibration signature and time-wave-form distribution were produced as a result of a bad anti-friction
bearing. The raised spectrum floor spread (from low order to very high order of operating harmonics) suggested a damaged bear-
ing, helping the operators to locate a broken bearing cage
acquisition of phase data. Of all cross-
channel measurements, cross-channel
phase is the most sensitive vibration
parameter because errors in mount-
ing positions for the sensors can lead
to erroneous conclusions.
Some multi-channel Fast Fourier
Transformatiom (FFT) analyzers re-
quire a specific input channel (FFT
analysis is a mathematical operation
that extracts the frequency informa-
tion from a time-domain signal and
transforms it to the frequency do-
main). This allows one sensor to be
configured as a reference input during
phase-difference checking.
If the channel is set up incorrectly,
cable changes will be required. One
way to sidestep this problem is to
take the orientation into account and
add 180 deg. Other multi-channel
FFT analyzers provide the ability to
determine which input signal can be
the reference without changing
cable connections. Listed next are
some basic considerations that must
be taken into account when acquiring
multi-channel phase data:
• An accelerometer is the only true
phase transducer
• The multi-channel FFT analyzers
have no internal phase shift be-
tween channels
• Depending on the type of fault, a
machine’s structure will either be
moving as one unit (in phase) or not
as one unit (out of phase)
Vibration excitation
For vibration excitation to happen,
two types of forces — namely the ex-
citing forces and the restraining forces
— are at work. In general:
Exciting force = Stiffness force + Damp-
ing force + Inertial force
This can be expressed as:
F(t) = Kx (t) + Cv(t) + ma(t)
or
F(t) = Kx (t) + C .dx/dt (t) + m.d2 x/dt2(t)
 (4)
38 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2011
Amplitude, mm/s
10
5
0 1FBL
-5
-10
1,500 2,000 0 50 100 150
Time, milliseconds
where:
F(t) = a measure of the exciting force
K = stiffness constant (depends upon
physical and dimensional proper-
ties of component)
C = dampening force per unit velocity
(depends upon dampening system
engaged)
m = Mass of the component subjected
to the exciting force
All the forces are expressed as a func-
tion of time. (The equations shown
are for illustrative purposes, so show-
ing specific units here is not relevant.
During the actual calculations, units
are required.)
The static deflection is controlled by
the stiffness force alone. At a low-speed
frequency range, the response (that
is, the vibration) is dominated by the
spring force and is in phase with the
excitation force.
As frequency increases, the inertial
force of the mass has an increasing in-
fluence [because by definition, force =
(mass)(acceleration)]. At a particular
frequency (called the undampened
natural frequency,) the mass and
spring terms cancel each other out. The
system is easily excited into motion
and the response is controlled only by
the dampening.
At the natural frequency, the re-
sponse lags the excitation by 90 deg.
At frequencies greater than the natu-
ral frequency, the mass term exerts
increasing control and the system be-
gins to behave as a moving mass; in
these situations, the response lags the
excitation by 180 deg.
The general rule of thumb is that for
any rotating mass, the stiffness of the
system (imparted by physical prop-
erties of material and dimensional
geometry) counters the frequency of
vibration, and the amplitude of any
vibration that does occur is controlled
by any dampening device in the sys-
tem (such as the dampening provided
by the foundation and any supports).
alarm
200 250 300 350 400
Direction of measurement
To be of greatest utility, vibration data
must be collected at the right place,
under the right conditions, using the
right procedure. For relatively large
(Class IV and above) machines, on-
line vibration data are typically col-
lected using an integrated monitoring
and display system that captures ra-
dial displacement data using sensor
probes mounted close to the rotating
body through the support housing.
For smaller units, vibration data are
typically collected off line at a preset
frequency using portable vibration-
monitoring devices. Care must be
taken during the manual collection of
vibration data to reduce the chance of
error and ensure the most comprehen-
sive data set.
The three directions of vibration
amplitude to be monitored are defined
here (and discussed further below):
• Axial — Parallel to the machine’s
axis of rotation (x-axis)
• Vertical or longitudinal — Perpen-
dicular to the machine’s axis rota-
tion (y-axis)
• Lateral or horizontal — Perpendicu-
lar to the axial direction at the same
plane (z-axis)
The following points should be strictly
observed when measuring vibration
using handheld sensors:
• Vibration data for rotating machines
should be collected as close to the
bearings as possible
• Readings should be taken at precisely
the same spot every time to ensure
consistent data for comparison over
time. Operators should mark these
spots with permanent marker or cre-
ate a shallow conical hole (45-deg
counter shank) with a drill point
• The sensor angle should always be
perpendicular to the surface (that is,
90 deg ±10 deg)
• The hand pressure should be even
and consistent (not too loose or too
firm, as that would dampen the vi-
bration signal)
 CASE 3. Resonance
 15

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SJHJE
DPVQMJOH

FIGURE 5. This case shows vibration results from resonance in a rotating

equipment system. The phase difference between the horizontal and vertical
components at the same bearing is close to zero. As seen in the photo, the
hole in the coupling hub bolt became oblong-shaped due to persistent vibra-
tion damage. The time waveform for the axial direction shows periodic spac-
ing with two humps at each peak. This situation can be addressed by modify-
ing the piping and support systems

• Magnetic mounts can help to ensure Analyzing the results agnostic analysis for machines with
measurement consistency from epi- Several different analytical techniques forced-feed, lubricated, hydrodynamic
sode to episode, while stud-mounted are described here. bearings, where the nature of the
are even better, and permanently Amplitude-based analysis. Such an dominant excitation source can be
mounted sensors are the best for approach provides a good, first-hand inferred from the profile of journal-
consistency in data collection indication of vibration severity levels bearing loading. The important diag-
If possible, it is best to avoid collecting and provides a useful diagnostic pro- nostic parameter is the shape of the
vibration data from these sources: file. Amplitude data are typically col- orbit plot, not the amplitude. Data
• Painted surfaces lected using either offline accelerom- are collected by two sensors mounted
• Unloaded zones (that is, any part eters or online displacement probes. 90 deg apart on the bearing in radial
that is separated from the vibrating Signature analysis. Using this ap- locations. A two-dimensional plot (x-
part by an isolator such as a flexible proach, time-based signals are trans- and y-axes) of data is produced. On
bellows joint) formed to a frequency-based spec- this plot, a circular orbit distribu-
• Housing splits (that is, the joint area trum via FFT. The resulting plot of tion over a larger diameter indicates
of a component’s split bearing case) frequency versus amplitude indicates imbalance. An oval-shaped distribu-
• Structural gaps the dominant sources of major excit- tion of the plot may be due to reso-
ing forces. nance, while a “figure-eight” distribu-
Directional significance Waveform analysis. This time-based tion of the plot is often an indication
Lateral or horizontal. Measure- distribution profile of vibration ampli- of misalignment.
ments in this direction typically show tude is mainly used for severity assess- Current-signature analysis. Using
the most vibration due to the machine ment and identification of probable this technique, an online spectrum
being most flexible in the horizontal fault locations. The data are typically analysis is created by capturing a
plane. Excessive horizontal vibration plotted as time versus amplitude. motor’s current and voltage signals
is often an indicator of imbalance. Phase analysis. This validation pro- and analyzing them to detect various
Vertical or longitudinal. Mea- cess helps to pinpoint probable fault faults. The graphical plot shows the
surements typically show less vibra- locations that are identified by signa- distribution of electromagnetic flux
tion in the vertical direction than in ture and waveform analysis. A dual- magnitude versus time.
the horizontal direction because of channel sensor or a reference signal Figures 3 through 9 show useful vi-
stiffness created by the mounting for a single channel is used to capture bration analyses for several different
and the force of gravity under the phase shift between two reference case-history scenarios.
ideal conditions. locations vibrating under the influ-
Axial or parallel to the axis of rota- ence of the same excitation sources. Electrical-signature analysis
tion. Measurements in this direction Coast-down testing. This confirma- Experts are always looking for new
should show very little vibration, as tion test can help to identify the source methods for identifying and predicting
most forces in dynamic machinery are of a fault between the driver and the equipment failures. Analysis of electri-
generated perpendicular to the shaft. driven equipment, and will indicate cal signals (also called current-signa-
However, misalignment and bent shaft the presence of a low-frequency reso- ture analysis) is a relatively new tech-
problems can create vibration along nance zone. nique that extracts information from
the z-axis. Note that equipment that Bump test. This test is used for iden- the line current that is supplied to the
is vertically mounted or over-hung tification of resonant vibration and motor. It entails capturing a motor’s
may show different responses. pinpoint its source. current and voltage signals and ana-
For best results, the measurements Bode plot. This is a run-away test lyzing them to detect various faults
should be gathered when the machine with combined measurement of am- in induction motors, and can provide
is operating under normal conditions, plitude and phase to confirm the pres- insight into both the electrical and me-
has reached its normal steady oper- ence of resonance and its frequency chanical health of the components.
ating temperature, and is running zone. It produces plots of speed versus Just like a vibration signal, electri-
under its normal rated conditions for phase and speed versus amplitude. cal power supply (alternating current)
flow, pressure, voltage and load. Orbit analysis. This is a useful di- is not a pure sine wave. Many fluctua-
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2011 39
 Feature Report
CASE 4. Bode plot
0 30
Phase lag, degrees
60
120
180
0 2 4 6
Unit speed, RPM x 1,000
Details: High-speed, 10-stage centrifugal compressor with RPM 12,000.
FIGURE 6. This graphical plot of vibration amplitude profile and phase change during resonance shows the special diagnostic
features for a high-speed compressor with hydrodynamic bearings. The measurement during this runaway test shows the phase
of vibration signal changes close to 180 deg with a rise in vibration amplitude at the first critical speed (4,922 RPM)
tions of different harmonics appear in
both voltage and current signals. By
performing FFT analysis, frequency
information from a time-domain signal
can be extracted, transforming it to a
frequency-domain signal or current
spectrum (that is, a graph of the am-
plitude of a signal at a given frequency
domain). In the frequency domain, the
height of the peak represents the am-
plitude of the signal.
All electrical and mechanical faults
change the flux distribution inside the
motor and thus generate harmonics in
the current. Analysis of the frequency
spectrum enables the user to see all
the harmonic components of voltage
and current. Superimposing the cur-
rent and voltage spectra enables us to
distinguish between the supply har-
monics and the fault harmonics. The
harmonics generated by each fault will
produce a different, distinctive signa-
ture that can be evaluated. Studying
the distribution of these fault harmon-
ics then allows the operator to better
identify the fault.
To capture voltage and current sig-
nature, clamp-on probes are placed
around the supply cable for low-ten-
sion (LT; also called low-voltage) mo-
tors (below 440-V supply), and around
the measuring or protection current-
transformer secondary coil. LT me-
ters and the lead for the motor-protec-
tion relay can be directly connected to
the supply cables, whereas for high-
tension (HT) motors (also called high-
voltage motors; above 440-V supply),
this cannot be done. In such cases, a
step-down transformer must be used,
which then becomes the input for vari-
ous meters and protection systems.
The meters are calibrated in accor-
dance with the transformer primary or
secondary coil-turn ratio so as to dis-
40 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2011
Amplitude, microns (µm)
20
10
0
8 10 12
play the actual supply current voltage
for the HT motors. All testing is done
at the motor- control panel so there is
no need to approach the motor.
Electrical-signature analysis, espe-
cially when used in conjunction with
vibration analysis, allows the user
to identify electrical and mechanical
disorders, such as rotor-bar damage,
misalignment or imbalance, static and
dynamic eccentricity, bearing faults,
foundation looseness, air-gap eccen-
tricity, stator mechanical and electri-
cal faults, and more. The following are
some advantages of this technique:
• It can be conducted online, so no
downtime is required
• Monitoring can be carried out re-
motely, so there is no need to ap-
proach the motor
• It provides accurate detection of
electrical and mechanical problems
To carry out current-signature analy-
ses, these parameters must be known:
• Electrical line/supply frequency (f),
Hz
• 50 Hz = 3,000 RPM
• Number of electromagnetic poles
(motor-P)
• Rotor-bar pass frequency (fb) =
Number of rotor bars times rotor
RPM
• Synchronous speed (Ns) = 2f
• Slip frequency (S) = Synchronous
speed minus rotor RPM
• Pole pass frequency, (fp) = Slip fre-
quency times number of poles
Signature interpretation
Discussed below are some rules of
thumb for reading and interpret-
ing the current-signature spectrum
(a graph of amplitude versus fre-
quency) to identify faults in the elec-
trical motor.
Rotor bar and end-ring faults.
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Unit speed, RPM x 1,000
Every individual rotor bar can be con-
sidered to form a short-pitched, single-
turn, single-phase winding. The air-
gap field produced by a slip-frequency
current flowing in a rotor bar will have
both a fundamental component rotat-
ing at a slip speed in the forward di-
rection with respect to rotor, and one
of equal magnitude that rotates at the
same speed in the backward direction.
With symmetrical rotors, the resul-
tant sum of the backward component
becomes zero. For a broken bar rotor,
however, the resultant component sum
will be non-zero.
The field, which rotates at slip fre-
quency backward with respect to the
rotor, will induce an electromagnetic
field (EMF) on the stator side that
modulates the main frequency compo-
nent at twice the slip frequency. The
side-band components around the fun-
damental of the line current spectrum
are usually measured, indicating bro-
ken bar faults.
Rotor bars and end-ring failures
give rise to a sequence of side bands
given by:
• fb = (1±2s)f, where f = supply fre-
quency
• S = slip
• Frequency-domain analysis of the
stator current
Motor-current slip ratio:
• 20 log (A/B)
where:
A = Slip frequency amplitude
B = Line frequency amplitude (or fun-
damental frequency of rotation)
• Ratio > 45 db: No fault exists
• 40<Ratio<45 db: Fault is developing
• Ratio<40 db: Fault exists
Bearing faults. Anti-friction bearings
have a set of unique defect frequencies
that can be utilized to evaluate the
health of a bearing. These signature
 CASE 5. Orbit plot
CASE 5. Orbit plot
10 10
10 10

(µm)
Amplitude,
5

(µm)
Amplitude,
5

microns
0
5

microns
0
5 5
FIGURE 7A (top). This orbit plot of the
5
10 bearing of the non-driven end of a com-
0 10 0 10 20 30 40 pressor (top; a plot of sleeve-bearing clear-
0 0 Time, milliseconds
10 20 30 40 ance around the shaft and time-wave distri-
10 Time, milliseconds
10 bution), shows an unsymmetrical pattern,

(µm)
Amplitude,
5 indicating unstable lubrication and uneven

(µm)
Amplitude,
5 5 journal loading (The two wave forms come

microns
5 0
from two sensors). The time wave forms

microns
0
5 show repetitive spacing with time, with
5 random spiking revealing irregular loading
10 10
10 Rotation from y-axis to x-axis 10 0 10 20 30 40
Rotation from y-axis to x-axis 0 Time, milliseconds
10 20 30 40 fr = rotor speed, Hz
Time, milliseconds
10 10 Eccentricity-related frequencies are
10 10
(µm)
5 generated from a combination of static
Amplitude,
(µm)
5 and dynamic eccentricity, with the
Amplitude,

0
microns

5 0 magnitudes increasing with increas-

microns

5 5
5
ing eccentricity. Static eccentricity
10 most often arises from manufacturing
0 10 0 10 20 30 40
0 10 20
Time, milliseconds30 40 defects, assembly errors such as non-
0 10 Time, milliseconds
10 concentric stator bore, soft foot and
(µm)

5 so on. Static eccentricity most often

Amplitude,
(µm)

5
Amplitude,

5 0 appears in the vibration domain at

microns

5 0
microns

5 2(f) and will not vary with respect to

5
10
speed. It can also appear at the stator-
10 bar pass frequency with side bands
Rotation from y-axis to x-axis 10 0
10 20 30 40
10 10 0 20
Time, milliseconds30 40
Rotation from y-axis to x-axis of 2(f).
Details: high-speed, 10-stage centrifugal compressor, RPM Time,
12,000milliseconds
Details: high-speed, 10-stage centrifugal compressor, RPM 12,000
By comparison, dynamic eccentric-
ity typically results from problems
that arise during operation, such as
rotor deflection, damaged bearings,
high bearing clearances for sleeve
bearings, unbalanced magnetic pull,
bowing of the rotor and so on.
Stator faults. Stator-winding faults
can be classified in many ways:
FIGURE 7B (bottom). This orbit plot of the bearing at the compressor drive end
shows no formed orbit. This indicates a breach in the lube oil film and possible rub-
• Turn-to-turn short within the wind-
bing of the shaft journal with baring-pad high spots. The highly disturbed time wave ing of the motor (results from weak
form (with sharp spiking) substantiates the bearing and profile irregularities. In the insulation between the turns of the
photo, bearing load pads show the mark of oxidized oil and surface score stator coil winding). The motor may
continue to operate, depending on
frequencies, are based on the size and frequency components, given by: the severity of the defect but dete-
design of the bearing, and can be mon- rioriate rapidly causing a rise in the
fecc = f{[R ±nd][1–s]/p±n (5)
itored for possible defects in the inner winding temperature
race, outer race, ball (roller) and cage Where: • Short between coils of the same
of the bearing. n = 1,3,5: The harmonics index or phase (results from insulation dam-
Specific bearing defects will cause order of harmonics, depends on age in any of the stator phase-wind-
variation in the magnetic flux at a motor-stator winding pattern ing coils). The motor can continue
frequency that can be corroborated nd = Dynamic eccentricity index = 1; to operate, depending on the sever-
to the bearing defect and appear in ity of the defect but deteriorate and
Static eccentricity = 0
a current-signature plot as the domi- cause unsymmetrical phase-current
nant frequency zone. R = number of rotor bars distribution in comparison to other
Eccentricity faults. When there is P = number of poles phases of the three-phase motor
an unequal air gap between the sta- S = slip (the difference between line • Phase-to-phase short (from insula-
tor and rotor, this condition leads to frequency and motor rotating fre- tion damage between phases; will
the formation of a phenomenon called quency), Hz cause disturbance in the phase se-
static-air-gap eccentricity (fecc). This This eccentricity also gives rise to quence). The motor will trip as the
can create an imbalanced magnetic the frequency-component side bands, protection system disconnects the
pull, which tends to increase vibration which are given by: power supply
and wear, or can lead to a rotor-to- • Phase-to-earth short (commonly
fecc = f ± fr  (6)
stator rub and consequential damage known as an earth fault, this occurs
to the stator core and winding. Such Where: due to grounding of the live power-
eccentricity gives rise to a sequence of f = line frequency, Hz supply cable). The motor trips as the
Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2011 41
 CASE 7. Current signature analysis CASE 8. Current rotor bar analysis
10 70

0 60
Line-frequency
-10 50 spectrum
-30

Db
Db

40
-20
30
-40
20
-50 Side bands
10
-60
-70 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Frequency, Hz Frequency, Hz
Details: Motor: Two-pole, three-phase, 6.6-kV, 50-Hertz, RPM 2,980 Details: Motor: Two-pole, three-phase, 6.6-kV, 50-Hz, RPM 2,980,
slip frequency = 0.434 Hz

FIGURE 8. In this analysis of the frequency-amplitude distri-
bution of current signal for an electrical motor, the side band
at 2 times line frequency and random band at high-frequency
indicate nominal unsymmetrical flux distribution and eddy flux
flow. The vibration-analysis expert system forecasts the quan-
tum of current imbalance is only 7% and the amplitude of the
current signature is relatively low (that is, less severe)
FIGURE 9. This rotor-bar analysis created by a vibration-anal-
ysis expert system indicates the presence of high resistance
joints in winding. It recommends further trend monitoring for
possible degradation progressing in the winding joints. The
amplitude at the frequency of the number of rotor poles times
slip frequency is marginal, hence it is considered to be a low-
severity zone

protection system disconnects the
supply
• Single phasing (a power-supply
fault, resulting in no supply to any
of the stator-winding phases). Very
low power-rated motors (those
below 5 kW) may continue to op-
erate but can experience damage
to the winding. The motor will
not rotate and will generate a hum-
ming noise
Depending upon the nature of the
stator faults, harmonics as side
bands of 2 times line frequency will
appear. These are related to the de-
gree of stator flux unbalance, the
number of stator slots, and the sup-
ply frequency. Normally due to the
structure of the stator winding in
the current domain, the side bands
will appear as odd-numbered har-
monics (1, 3, 5, 7 and so on).
Overall, current-signature analysis
is a useful tool to identify vibration
sources in the electrical motor system
because it identifies these conditions:
• Rotor faults
• Side bands around the line-fre-
quency spectrum, with their mag-
nitude indicating the severity of the
fault
• Motor problems (for instance, indi-
cated by an increase in core losses
and load current, and a decrease in
efficiency and speed)
• Bearing faults, eccentricity faults
and stator faults
However, users should keep these
points in mind when considering using
this technique:
• Knowledge of the bearings is re-
quired for detection of bearing
faults
• This technique can be applied for
rolling-element bearings only
• The magnitude of fault frequencies
is relatively small compared to the
rest of the current spectrum, but
the appearance of any unusual sig-
nature in the current spectrum in-
dicates the presence of a fault. The
previous signature is needed for
comparison to identify the source of
the fault
• The current spectra has to be in-
terpreted in two distinct frequency
bands (one in the range of f1 ± fr,
and the other in the region of static
and dynamic eccentricity frequency
components). This also requires pre-
vious signature for comparison
• The stator faults generate amplitude
peaks at a specific frequency range
appearing in the current spectrum
• When there are multiple types of
faults, the amplitude of each appears
in a complex current signature and
varies differently with increasing
fault severity. This also requires the
previous signature for comparison
Two tables provided online
Interpreting vibration data to pinpoint
the source of its origin is challenging.
This article provides two comprehen-
sive tables to help readers carry out
more detailed analysis.* Table 1 de-
scribes key relationships to help the
user correlate measurable vibration
parameters with common machin-
ery defects. The table describes the
vibration amplitude distribution in
the holizontal, axial and vertical di-
rections, and the dominant frequency,
side-band frequency profile that each
exciting source can generate in a ro-
tating machinery system.
Table 2 provides analytical tips for
developing and analyzing signature
maps (amplitude-versus-frequency
graphs), waveform (amplitude-ver-
sis-time graphs) and phase-angle
shift of vibration measured in three
directions for different types of excita-
tion sources. n
Edited by Suzanne Shelley
Author
Sourav Kumar Chatter-
jee is a the chief manager of
rotary maintenance at the
Mumbai Refinery of Hindu-
stan Petroleum Corporation
Ltd. (P.D. Patil Marg., Mahul,
Chembur, Mumbai 400074,
India; Email: skchatterjee@
hpcl.co.in). He is a Chartered
Mechanical Engineer with
India’s Institute of Engi-
neers) and a qualified boiler
proficiency engineer (Boiler Directorate, State
of West Bengal, India). He holds a Diploma in
Electrical Engineering from The Calcutta Tech-
nical School. Chatterjee has more than 25 years
experience in thermal power-plant operation and
maintenance, design maintenance and operation
of refinery rotary equipment. Chatterjee special-
izes in root-cause failure analysis and equipment
reliability. He has both presented and published
numerous technical papers. He is an associate
member of Institute of Engineers India, and a
member of the Review Committee for centrifugal
pumps and compressors IS standards under the
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS), and a mem-
ber of the BIS committee for ISO document re-
view. Chatterjee is also a committee member for
review and formulation of safety standards on
maintenance practices for pumps, compressors,
and mechanical seals under the Oil India Safety
Directorate.
* Tables 1 and 2 are available at www.che.com
along with the full version of this article (search
by the article title).

42 Chemical Engineering www.che.com January 2011

 Table 1. Guide Chart of Primary Vibration-Signal-Analysis Techniques
Possible excitation Direction and proportionate Predominant frequencies in terms of the order of first harmonics (First-
source amplitude distribution: order harmonics = the
frequency or RPM of the operating machine)
 Decreasing order of frequency Increasing order of frequency 
< 1, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 <
Note 1: Frequencies below the operating RPM appear in the spectrum as descending fraction
multipliers of the operating RPM (for instance, 0.9 times RPM, and so on). This indication is impor-
tant as some excitation sources generate vibration at frequencies that are lower than the operat-
ing RPM or operating frequency.
Note 2: The numbers denote the fraction of amplitude that can appear in the spectrum at differ-
ent harmonic brackets of operating frequeny for each excitation source. The number of harmon-
ics with significant amplitude can be two for some excitation sources, three for others, and for
four higher for others.
Note 3: The color coding of numbers illustrates the corroboration between the frequency and
the pertinent amplitude fraction: Orange (sub-harmonic frequency range or frequencies below
operating RPM); Pink (One times RPM or frequency range of first-order harmonics with amplitude
values also marked in pink); Red (Two times RPM or second-order harmonics); Black (Three times
Horizontal Vertical Axial RPM or third-order harmonics); Violet (Four times RPM or fourth-order harmonics); Brown (Six times
% % % RPM of sixth-order harmonics); Blue (Seven times RPM or seventh-order harmonics)

Mechanical unbalance
(static and dynamic)
50 40 10 90, 5 and 5 (meaning 90% of the overall vibration amplitude will appear
in the operating frequency with side bands of 5% amplitude at 2 times
and 3 times the operating frequency).
Notes: (1) A side band is frequency of a low-amplitude component of a complex vibration signa-
ture that appears with a high amplitude component at a different frequency; and (2) This inter-
pretation is applicable for numbers shown in this column for all cases below in Table 1

Bent rotor 50 20 30 90, 5 and 5. The proportionate vibration amplitude distribution in different
frequency domains is similar to that of excitation due to unbalance
Temporary rotor bow 50 20 30 90, 5. The proportionate vibration amplitude distribution in different fre-
quency domains is similar to that of excitation due to unbalance
Casing distortion 50 40 10 10, 80, 5, 5
Foundation distortion 50 40 10 20, 50, 20
Seal-face rubbing 40 40 20 40, 40, 10, 10
Parallel misalignment 40 10 50 50, 40, 10
Angular misalignment 20 20 60 30, 60, 10
Anti-friction bearing (ra- 50 40 10 —30 — —70—
dial design) [For these aspects of anti-friction bearing designs: Ball pass frequency
outer race of bearing (BPFO); ball pass frequency inner race of bearing
(BPFI); and fundamental train frequency of bearing (FTF); these are all
much higher than operating RPM or frequency.]
Note: Throughout this column, the appearance of long dashes indicate a frequency band or
range. For instance, in this example, the range in the amplitude-versus-frequency spectrum distri-
bution appears like this: 30% of the overall amplitude will appear in the band around the operat-
ing frequency, and 70% will appear in the higher frequency band). The explanation is applicable
for all dashes in chart in relation to marked frequencies in each case.

Anti-friction bearing 30 10 60 — 20 — — 80 —
(axial)
Piping stress (result- 40 20 40 60, 40
ing from, for instance, a
flange mismatch)
Journal-bearing eccen- 40 50 10 90, 10
tricity
Thrust-bearing rub 30 10 60 — 80 — band — 20 —
Note: In this example, the range in the amplitude-versus-frequency spectrum distribution appears
like this: 80% of the overall amplitude will appear in the band around the operating frequency,
and 20% will appear in the higher frequency band, around seven times operating frequency.

Journal-bearing rub 50 30 20 30 60, 10

Bearing lubrication prob- 50 40 10 — 80— — 20 —
lem (such as excited oil (low-frequency band)
whirl)
Loose rotor assembly 50 30 20 10 30 — 50 —
Loose bearing assembly 50 40 10 10 20 — 70 —
Loose casing support 30 60 10 50 — 50—
(odd frequencies)
Inaccurate gear-coupling 40 30 30 20 — 80 —
mesh (higher-frequency band of number of gear teeth times the gear rotating
RPM )
Inaccurate metal-disc 30 30 60 — 60 — — 40 —
coupling
Rotor-system resonance 60 40 20 100
Coupling resonance 30 20 50 100
Structural resonance in 50 40 10 20 80
the casing
Structural resonance in 50 40 10 20 80
the support
Structural resonance in 20 50 30 40 60
the foundation
Pressure pulsation 50 30 20 —100 —
(band of odd frequencies)
( fluctuating magnitude)
The amplitude distribution is nearly uniform from the lower to higher fre-
quency range
Cavitation 50 30 20 40 -vane pass frequency-
(In this case, 40% of the overall amplitude will appear close to the oper-
ating frequency, and the rest will appear in a range represented by the
number of impeller vane times the operating frequency)
Aerodynamic or hydraulic 50 30 20 •4
 0% of overall amplitude appears in the sub-harmonic frequency band
unbalance (from flow tur- (the range below the operating frequency)
bulence) •5
 0% of the overall amplitude appears at the first-order, vane-pass fre-
quency (the number of vanes times the operating frequency or RPM)
•1
 0% of the overall amplitude appears at the second-order, vane-pass
frequency (the number of vanes times two times the operating fre-
quency or RPM)
Vibration excited due to 50 40 10 90, 10
abnormal running clear-
ances between mating
surfaces (static and rotat-
ing parts) of operating
machine
Gear-tooth wear (spurs) 50 40 10 Appearance of natural frequencies with a first-order side band indicat-
ing the bad gear
Gear-tooth wear (helical) 40 30 30 Appearance of natural frequencies with a first-order side band indicat-
ing the bad gear
Gear eccentricity and a 50 40 10 Spectrum displays a high-amplitude, gear-modulated side band appear-
high backlash problem of ing around the gear-mesh frequency (GMF; GMF is calculated by the
the gear system number of gear teeth times the gear’s rotational frequency).
Gear misalignment 40 20 40 Second- to higher-order input frequencies and higher amplitude at sec-
ond- and third-order of gear-mesh frequency
Cracked or broken gear 50 40 10 High amplitude at one times RPM of the gear
tooth
Resonance 70 20 10 100% of the first-order frequency
Rotor rub 60 30 10 Dominant band from first-order to higher harmonics
Belt or pulley misalign- 30 20 50 Dominant vibration frequency will be first order of the belt RPM with the
ment highest amplitude in the axial direction
Eccentric pulley 60 20 30 The dominant vibration frequency will be of first order of the RPM with
the highest amplitude in the horizontal direction (that is, the direction of
rotation of the pulley)
Motor stator eccentric- 60 30 10 Second-order of line frequency is dominant
ity and lamination short
circuit
Power supply phase prob- 50 40 10 High amplitude at second-order (two times) the power supply line fre-
lem (due to, for instance, quency with 1/3 order (1/3 times of power supply frequency) side band
loose connection)
Eccentric rotor 50 40 10 Second-order line frequency and number of poles time slip frequency
side bands are the indicator. Slip frequency = Synchronous speed minus
rotor RPM (for instance, for 50-Hertz supply frequency, the RPM shall be
3,000 rpm but due to losses in motor winding and so on, the RPM of the
motor becomes 2,950–2,980, which corresponds to 49.2 Hz. The differ-
ence in frequency is the slip

Nature of the excitation source
Static unbalance (for instance,
due to non-co-linear axis of rota-• Phase difference between vibration signals in H-H directions and V-V directions (Note: H- H
tion and center line of rotor as-
sembly)
Dynamic unbalance (residual
dynamic forces result from unsym-
metrical mass distribution)
Mechanical looseness (in the rotor • Mechanical looseness can result from improper machine assembly or from defective installa-
or bearing assembly)
Mechanical looseness (in the
foundation, pedestal or support
structure)
Rotor rub
Misalignment
Bent rotor
Resonance
High sleeve-bearing wear or clear- • A band of harmonics of running speed frequency starting from first-order to higher will be pres-
ance
Belt drive (worn, loose or mis-
matched belt)
Eccentric or unbalanced pulley
Belt or pulley misalignment
Flow turbulence
Cavitation
Defective rolling element bearings • S ymptoms depend on the severity of the situation. In the early stage of bearing deterioration,
Cracked or broken gear tooth
Gear misalignment
Oil-whirl instability
Beat excitation
TABLE 2. Tips for advanced vibration Diagnostics and analysis
Response systems (spectrum wave form and phase)
• Dominant peak at first harmonics. High radial vibration amplitude
stands for horizontal-horizontal, which means a measurement of vibration at two similarly ori-
ented locations to enable phase-difference analysis; similarly, V-V and A-A refer to measure-
ments taken in two similarly oriented locations in the vertical and axial directions)
• (DE, NDE) will be nearly the same (Note: DE is the drive-end location of monitoring; NDE is the
non-drive-end location of monitoring)
• The phase difference between vibration signals picked up by two sensors mounted on same
bearing in H-V directions will be 90 deg ± 30 deg
• Vibration amplitude will increase as a square of the operating speed
• Couple unbalance (static) will have a signature that is 180 deg out of phase between the sig-
nals picked up by sensors mounted on H-H directions of two bearings. The static couple unbal-
ance also can excite high amplitude vibration in the axial direction for overhung rotors, the first-
order peak (amplitude at operating RPM of machine) at axial direction will also high
• The wave form will be symmetrically spaced between peaks over the same time interval
tion. Both types produce similar vibration characteristics
• The dominant peak order will be in the band starting with second-order or higher harmonics
• The wave form will be random with no periodic spacing between major peaks
• The loose components will cause significant phase difference between vibration signals picked
up by two sensors mounted on the same bearing in the horizontal and vertical directions (H-V)
• Distortion of the base will cause “soft foot” problems caused by structural looseness of machine
feet; soft foot refers to an area of contact between the machine foot and the foundation pad
that is not uniform)
• Phase analysis will reveal an approximately 180-deg phase shift in the vertical direction when
measurement is taken using two sensors between the base plate components of the machine
and loose bearing block foot
• Can excite vibration of significant amplitude at frequencies one-half, one, two and three times
the machine operating RPM
• Similar vibration response can also can be excited by a cracked frame structure or a machine
bearing block
•U  sually generates a series of frequencies starting from first-order to higher harmonics, which
may excite natural frequencies
• Sub-harmonic frequencies may be present
• The rubbing may be partial or through a complete revolution
• Produces a similar spectrum to mechanical looseness
• The time wave form will be nearly periodical with random multiple spiking peaks of various am-
plitude
• The dominant peak will be at the second order (two times RPM) with significant side bands at
frequencies of first- and third-order (one times RPM and three times RPM)
• The vibration amplitude in the axial direction will be higher for angular misalignment, and for
parallel misalignment the amplitude will be higher in the horizontal and vertical directions
• A horizontal, directly coupled machine will have 180-deg phase difference across the coupling
in the H-H measurement direction for parallel misalignment and in the A-A direction for angular
misalignment
• The wave form will be nearly periodic, having peaks with two or more humps
• The dominant peak will be at the first order
• Axial amplitude will be high
• A-A (DE-NDE) (the amplitude will be 180 deg out of phase)
• The axial phase difference for individual bearings (using dual-channel vibration analyzers)
will be between 12-to-3, 3-to-6, 3-to-6 o’clock sensor-mounting positions on the circular bearing
housing will be the same (close to 90 deg)
•R esonance occurs when the frequency of an excitation force coincides with any natural fre-
quency of the machine or its substructure
• The dominant peak will be at the first-order harmonics
• Horizontal amplitude will be very high
• The H-V phase difference at individual bearing will be either 0 or 180 deg
• A run away test will exhibit 180-deg phase change at the resonant speed of rotation
ent in the spectral distribution (amplitude versus frequency graph)
• The amplitude in the vertical direction may be more than that of the horizontal direction
• A minor unbalance or misalignment will cause high amplitudes when excessive bearing clear-
ances are present
• The resulting wave form will be complex with irregular spacing between peaks
• Often two times the RPM of the machine is dominant
• Amplitudes are normally unsteady, sometimes pulsing with either the driver or the driven RPM
• Wear or misalignment in timing belt drives will give high amplitudes at the timing belt frequency
• Belt frequencies are below the RPM of either the driver or the driven component
• Eccentric or unbalanced pulleys will produce a high peak at first-order harmonics of the pulley
RPM
• The amplitude will be highest in line with the belt rotation
• Pulley misalignment will produce high axial vibration at first-order harmonics of the pulley RPM
• Often the highest amplitude on the driver will be at the first-order harmonics of the driven
equipment RPM
• In general, random low-frequency vibration will result, with peaks at first-order harmonics and
the number of impeller vanes times the operating frequency
• The amplitude component in the horizontal direction will be higher than components in the ver-
tical and horizontal directions in cases where flow turbulence occurs within the equipment
• In cases where flow turbulence occurs within duct or pipelines, exciting natural frequencies
and causing resonance, a very high amplitude pulsating vibration at first-order harmonics in
the horizontal direction will be dominant
•C avitation will generate a random, high-frequency wide band superimposed with vane pass
frequency harmonics (May sound like gravel passing through the pump)
• The time wave form will be highly complex with random multiple spiking
• The vibration amplitude will be pulsating and high in all directions
the dominant frequency is non-synchronous and relatively high
• For radial anti-friction bearings, the amplitudes in the horizontal and vertical direction will be
higher than in the axial direction
• For thrust bearings, the axial component will be higher, followed by horizontal and vertical com-
ponents
• In later stages, the number of side bands increases at higher frequency range with an elevated
side band at first-order operating frequency or RPM
• In all situations, the amplitudes may or may not increase
• A cracked or broken tooth will generate a high amplitude at first-order harmonics of the gear
• It will excite the gear’s natural frequency, which will be side banded by the running speed fun-
damental. The speed of the driver or input gear is expressed in RPM
• This situation is best detected using the time-waveform analysis. Time interval between impacts
will be the reciprocal of the running speed
• Measurement of the amplitude in acceleration (G value) mode is a better indicator of severity
(Values less than 4G are considered normal)
•G  ear misalignment almost always excites second-order or higher harmonics with sidebands of
first-order running speed
• Small amplitude at first order of gear-mesh frequency occurs, but higher levels prevail at sec-
ond- and third-order of gear-mesh frequency
• Generally excites 40% to 50% of running frequency
• The amplitude in the horizontal and vertical direction will be high, and may severe depending
upon the duty of equipment and operating speed
• A beat is the result of two nearly equal frequencies going into and out of phase
• The wideband spectrum will show one peak pulsating up and down
• The difference between the peaks is the beat frequency, which itself will be present in the wide-
band spectrum
• Beat produces low-frequency vibration of rhythmically pulsating amplitudes. Beat may originate
from a gear mesh running eccentrically
• Beat vibration is best represented using time-wave form analysis