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Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000
Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000 www.elsevier.com/locate/procedia
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Procedia Structural Integrity 44 (2023) 1212–1219

XIX ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy

XIX ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy
Capacitive accelerometers at low frequency for infrastructure
Capacitive accelerometers at low frequency for infrastructure
monitoring
monitoring
Mauro Mazzeia,* and Andrea Maria Di Lellisa
a
Mauro Mazzeia,* and Andrea Maria Di Lellisa
National Research Council, Istituto di Analisi dei Sistemi ed Informatica, LabGeoInf, Via dei Taurini, 19, I-00185, Rome, Italy
a
National Research Council, Istituto di Analisi dei Sistemi ed Informatica, LabGeoInf, Via dei Taurini, 19, I-00185, Rome, Italy

Abstract
Abstract
In this paper, we would like to present a research activity with the purpose of a design carried out to develop a monitoring system
capable of integrating
In this paper, we woulda like
wired or wireless
to present network
a research of dynamic
activity with theaccelerometers. This activity
purpose of a design involves
carried out the design
to develop of a new
a monitoring low-
system
cost sensor
capable capable of ameasuring
of integrating three-axisnetwork
wired or wireless dynamic ofacceleration from a sub HzThis
dynamic accelerometers. to aactivity
hundredinvolves
Hz regime (0.01 toof100
the design Hz)low-
a new and
linking themcapable
cost sensor multipleofsensors
measuringin a three-axis
network indynamic
order toacceleration
get to monitor large
from infrastructures
a sub such Hz
Hz to a hundred as bridges, viaducts,
regime (0.01 andHz)
to 100 tunnels
and
capable of measuring
linking them multiple significant
sensors in aphysical
networkquantities of get
in order to the to
structural
monitorresponse to the actionssuch
large infrastructures and as
environmental conditions
bridges, viaducts, of the
and tunnels
infrastructure being monitored.
capable of measuring significant physical quantities of the structural response to the actions and environmental conditions o f the
© 2022 The Authors.
infrastructure Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
being monitored.
© 2023
This Theopen
is an Authors. Published
access article by Elsevier
under B.V.BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
the CC
© 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review
This under responsibility of the scientific committee of the
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee oflicense
is an open access article under CC BY-NC-ND https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0
XIX ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy)
the XIX(ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy.
Peer-review
Keywords: underIoT,
Sensor, responsibility of the scientific
dynamic monitoring, committee
modal analysis, of the XIX ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy
smartdata
Keywords: Sensor, IoT, dynamic monitoring, modal analysis, smartdata

1. Introduction
1. Introduction
Now, the new digital platforms for infrastructure monitoring will be an integral part of inspection activities
Now, the
regulated new digital
by safety platforms
regulations, for infrastructure
this type monitoring will
of structural monitoring willenable
be an continuous,
integral partreal-time
of inspection activities
management of
regulated by safety regulations, this type of structural monitoring will enable continuous, real-time management
infrastructure such as bridges, viaducts, tunnels, buildings, etc. Through devices connected to the system, technicians of
infrastructure
performing such as bridges,
inspections viaducts,
will have at theirtunnels, buildings,
disposal specific etc. Throughrelated
information devicestoconnected to the system,
the infrastructure technicians
they are working
performing inspections will have at their disposal specific information related to the infrastructure they are working

* Corresponding author. Tel.: +390649937124; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .

* Corresponding mauro.mazzei@iasi.cnr.it
E-mail address:author. Tel.: +390649937124; fax: +0-000-000-0000 .
E-mail address: mauro.mazzei@iasi.cnr.it
2452-3216 © 2022 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.
This is an open
2452-3216 access
© 2022 The article
Authors. under the CCby
Published BY-NC-ND
ELSEVIERlicense
B.V. (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review underaccess
This is an open responsibility of the scientific
article under committee license
the CC BY-NC-ND of the XIX ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the XIX ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy

2452-3216 © 2023 The Authors. Published by ELSEVIER B.V.

This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0)
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the XIX ANIDIS Conference, Seismic Engineering in Italy.
10.1016/j.prostr.2023.01.156
 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 44 (2023) 1212–1219 1213
2 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000

on. This activity, along with project documentation, will be a valuable technological support to help operators
determine if and when maintenance is needed.
For example, inspection activities will not be able to be completed unless all actions on the checklist set in the
software are performed. Automated workflow processes can be set up to monitor whether the required tasks have
been successfully completed. In addition, the inspection process can only be finalized by the operator following
approvals from all required levels of responsibility. This work-flow will enable operators to manage the
infrastructure and associated information in a shared and transparent manner.
In addition to the purely inspection aspects, each work will be able to be equipped with an electronic register, i.e.,
a book record that collects and allows easy access to all critical information contained in appropriate databases of
construction data, scheduled maintenance, and maintenance operations undergone accompanied by the relevant
administrative acts e.g., assignment of tenders. This management level of data collection integrated with real time
revelations of the state of the work will allow its optimal management and every single intervention will be able to
be traced back to a precise chain of activities and responsibilities with relative control of the quality of the materials
used and conformity of the work performed. This advanced management will make it possible, for example, to make
available 3D models of the monitored infrastructure, as well as images taken by drones or technicians and processed
by artificial intelligence, to classify which sections might require maintenance and suggest the activities to be carried
out with further checks and verifications by the operator.
The monitoring platform will dialogue in real time with sensors installed on the infrastructure, the number of
which will gradually grow. IoT technology will precisely enable the creation of the centralized digital databases
containing constantly updated information on all the works put under protection.

2. The focus of dynamic monitoring

Based on the design structure of the infrastructure to be monitored, the operating environment, workload,
operational risk analysis and its economics, the key points of the monitoring system for infrastructure are as follows:
• Structural deformation and vibration monitoring is a classic method for evaluating the overall performance of
bridges. It has the advantages of good reliability and strong comparability. Therefore, it is necessary to
monitor structural vibration during the operation period. Need to install three-axis accelerometers.
• Under the long-term heavy traffic load, the bridge deck is subject to cumulative fatigue damage and can also
cause the cumulative damage of various structural elements. Deformation of the bridge section must be
monitored. Need to evaluate the behavior of the sensory data with the appropriately modeled FEM model of
the infrastructure, for this stage it is very important to establish a priori an exact adjustment of the sensor
placement design on the infrastructure being monitored.
• Atmospheric temperature has obvious effects on the structure. A temperature meter should be installed to
monitor atmospheric temperature near the sensors to understand the influence of atmospheric temperature on
the structure.
The functional architecture of the system takes the bridge structure as the platform, applies modern sensing
technology, communication with the network, optimizes the combination of structural monitoring, environmental
monitoring, equipment monitoring, information network analysis and processing, and bridge maintenance
management as a complete monitoring system. It monitors real-time changes in the bridge structure in response to
various environmental, load and other factors and uses characteristic value analysis in comparison with the building
structure to determine the health status of the structure.
In order to meet the requirements of the bridge health monitoring system, the overall structure and functions of
the monitoring system must be coordinated. The health monitoring system uses non-destructive sensor sensing
technology on site collects internal and external structural deformation, vibration and temperature environmental
data and transmit them to the data server via wireless networks through communication technology for data
processing, analysis and visualization and data storage and query and release data and monitoring results on the
Internet. Thus, we believe that one of the main aspects for proper dynamic infrastructure monitoring is strongly
related to the type of sensors used and their placement in the monitoring design of the work. This is one of the most
1214 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 44 (2023) 1212–1219
Mauro Mazzei et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000 3

important factors that enticed us to design a device suitable for the signal detection under study and as low-cost as
possible for these specific needs.

3. Accelerometer specifications

Vibration sensors are widely used in products, whether a mobile car, aircraft, circuit board, suspension bridge or
building, for vibration measurements and to study the dynamic behavior of a structure, including defined modal
analysis. The accelerometer is a vibration sensor used to evaluate the response to external stresses, verify modal
models used in simulation programs, or to predict the response to different operating conditions.
In the industrial and civil sectors, monitoring using vibration sensors is now the most widely used technique for
monitoring the health of machines and large industrial and civil structures. Examination of vibration trends over time
makes it possible to predict the onset of deterioration and to intervene in time before failure. This type of continuous
or periodic monitoring of the service condition of a plant is also known as “Predictive Maintenance”.
The principle of the accelerometer is essentially based on sensing the inertia of a mass subjected to acceleration.
The mass is suspended by an elastic element, while some type of sensor detects its displacement relative to the
fixed structure of the device. In the presence of acceleration, the mass having its own inertia moves from its rest
position in proportion to the detected acceleration. The sensor transforms this displacement into an electrical signal
that can be acquired by modern measurement systems. Based on this, different types of sensors have been
developed.

3.1. MEMS capacitive accelerometers

MEMS-based capacitive accelerometers are the cheapest, most common and smallest sensors of their kind. The
principle of operation exploits the positioning of a weight installed on springs. One end of the springs is attached to
the plates of the comb capacitor, the other end to the weight. The force acting on the sensor causes the weight to
move over the springs, so the distance between the capacitive element and the mass varies, and there is a change in
capacitance.

3.2. Strain gauge accelerometer

The strain gauge bridge accelerometer uses the same sensing principle as load cells, namely, the change in
resistance of a strain gauge due to the change in its length. In these devices, a mass is suspended on thin plates, on
which are fixed strain gauges connected to the Wheatstone bridge.

3.3. Piezoelectric accelerometer

This device is one of the most commonly used sensors for measuring vibration levels. For this reason,
piezoelectric accelerometers are commonly used in industrial applications for diagnostics or control. Its operation is
similar to the working principle of piezoresistive accelerometers. Under the influence of acceleration, their
resistance does not vary and they generate an electrical voltage of a predetermined value.

3.4. LVDT accelerometer

The LVDT accelerometer uses an LVDT (Linear Variable Differential Transformer) sensor built into the
accelerometer structure as the principle for detecting mass displacement. In these devices, the mass itself forms the
ferromagnetic core of the LVDT sensor, and it slides within a channel, around which coils designed to detect the
position of the mass are wound. A dedicated circuit detects the position of the core relative to the coils and generates
an electrical signal proportional to the displacement from the rest position.
 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 44 (2023) 1212–1219 1215
4 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000

3.5. Optical MEMS accelerometer

A new coarse-to-fine optical MEMS accelerometer based on the Fabry-Pérot (FP) interferometer has also been
proposed. The structure consists of a test mass suspended by machined nano springs. The deflection of the test mass
due to the applied acceleration is detected using FP cavities that constitute the optical system of the device.

3.6. Capacitive accelerometer

Capacitive accelerometers are based on a change in electrical capacitance in response to acceleration.

Accelerometers use the properties of an opposing capacitor plate for which the distance between the plates varies in
proportion to applied acceleration, thus altering the capacitance. This variable is used in a circuit to eventually
provide a voltage signal proportional to acceleration. Capacitive accelerometers are capable of measuring both
constant and slow transient and periodic acceleration. AC capacitive acceleration sensors basically contain at least
two components; the primary is a 'stationary' plate and the secondary plate is attached to the inertial mass, which is
free to move within the case.


Fig. 1. Capacitive accelerometer sensing concept.

4. Design requirements

Our project involves the design and development d a monitoring system capable of integrating a wired or wireless
network of sensors, mounted on the structure under consideration, to measure significant physical quantities of
structural response, actions, and environmental conditions. After well addressing the single-direction sensing
module, we propose a three-axis structured model that becomes the node to be integrated into a networked sensor
array. In particular, the primary task is to continuously measure infrastructure load sources: environmental (wind,
seismic action) and man-made (traffic).

4.1. Selected configuration

Bridges can be designed to support large amounts of weight, but the vibrations associated with them must be
controlled. Although bridges appear to be solid structures fixed in place, they are exposed to the effects of vibration.
If the force is applied to the bridge is at a frequency that matches the natural frequency of the bridge, the vibration
within the bridge will be amplified in a phenomenon called mechanical resonance. In situations where the
mechanical resonance is strong enough, the resulting vibrations can cause a bridge to collapse due to movement.
Typically, the longer the span, the lower the resonance frequency of the bridge. Lower frequencies are also
associated with vibrations of large displacement amplitude. Some famous cases demonstrate the importance of
understanding the resonant frequency of the bridge, knowing what might excite the frequency and how it can be
handled. The worst of these is the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, at the time the third largest suspension bridge in the
world, which collapsed when the wind-induced vortex drop coincided with the bridge's natural frequency. Without
sufficient damping, the resonances grew until when the bridge collapsed. The Millennium Bridge over the River
Thames in London provides another example. The thousands of people who crossed the bridge on the opening day
caused the bridge to vibrate, as a result of which pedestrians were then inadvertently fell in step with these
vibrations, amplifying them and causing oscillations resulting in the bridge swaying from side to side.
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Mauro Mazzei et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000 5

While the natural frequencies of bridges are among the fundamental properties of bridges, the natural frequencies
of most bridges remain unknown. Identifying natural frequency by measuring acceleration with sensors installed on
bridges is not practical when studying large numbers of bridges. Indirect methods of detecting frequencies from the
acceleration responses of a vehicle passing over bridges, on the other hand, still present difficulties. Vehicle
responses contain various components, making it difficult to distinguish the bridge frequency from other frequency
components. As suggested by T. Nagayama et Al., the common vibration component among multiple vehicle
responses can be extracted through signal processing involving cross-spectrum estimation. Numerical analyses using
a vehicle-bridge interaction model (VBI) are conducted. bridge (VBI) to examine the performance of the algorithm
under various conditions. The first natural frequency of the bridge was identified under various combinations of
speed of driving, demonstrating the performance of the proposed approach. In that specific case, they derived a
typical resonance frequency of 2.17 Hz.
Typically, to adequately address this type of topic, it is necessary to exploit high resolution in the sub-Hertz
regime. This cuts out most miniaturized MEM devices that due to their nature of construction and the limited size of
the suspended accelerating mass prof, can only address frequencies well above the Hz regime.
In the framework of the best capacitive accelerometer ever designed we have at the top the ISA (Italian Spring
Accelerometer) experiment recently carried out on the ESA Bepi Colombo Mission, Iafolla et al. (2011), that
perfectly addresses this sub-Hertz regime ISA in particular is a three-axis accelerometer dedicated to measuring the
nongravitational acceleration of Mercury Planetary Orbiter (MPO), knowledge of which is important to take full
−9 2 −5
advantage of the quality of tracking data. ISAs have an inherent noise level of 10 m/s / √Hz in the 3 · 10 Hz to
−1
10 Hz.
Even if we want to draw inspiration from this excellent Italian example, we should not forget the millions of
euros it cost. Even using cheaper and unsophisticated components would still leave a hundred kEuro class of
instruments in its reduced version, not allowing the establishment of a large sensor network at limited cost.
However, very significant savings can be directed to both the mechanical design of the suspended test masses and
the electronics. In this sense, ISA is a tool that stems from a discrete component design approach thought up several
decades ago. Technology has since taken a huge step forward by offering in one small integrated circuit most of the
functionality would be implemented by multiple stacked boards. See below our design approach.

4.2. Concept of measurement

The general idea is to implement a capacitive differential configuration like the one shown in Figure 2.

Fig. 2. Differential capacitive configuration.

The two varying CAPs shown in the above figure correspond to the modulated capacitance as exploited when the
proof mass by the effect of its acceleration moves toward or get farer from two different polarized plate whch go to
feed namely the CIN1(+) and CIN1(-) inputs. Providing the proper excitation to the CAPs their accurate value may
be derived Vs time and its value may be directly correlated to the displacement the proof mass is undergone be the
effect of the acceleration. As shown the part may benefit of an active shield polarization which minimize the effect
of the cabling. As shown by Benmessaoud et al. (2013), the differential ΔC = C1-C2 is the differential capacitance
measured value and it may be used as:
ΔC = 2 C0 (x/d0) or x = d0 ΔC/ 2 C0
 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 44 (2023) 1212–1219 1217
6 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000

where C0 is a constant, x the unknown displacement, d0 is the rest position distance of the proof moving mass
and the fixed facing plates. In term of the actual acceleration to be measured this translates to:
a = x KTotal/ Ms

where KTotal elastic constant of the proof mass suspending spring, Ms is the proof suspended mass and x the
computed displacement. Let's see how these general parameter translate to an effective design. Exactly starting
from proof mass weight, 200 g approximately matching the one of the excellent ISA accelerometer, let's see how we
may design an acceleration detection module with the proper sensitivity, not too much affected, by the
simplifications we must necessarily introduce for cost savings. Let's assume a proof mass made by two Aluminum
blocks halves each quoting:

Table 1.
Parameter Value
Al density [g/cm^3] 2,71
dim X [cm] 8
dim Y [cm] 8
dim z [cm] 0,6
Half side weight [g] 104,064

Within each we remove from the face centre in a symmetrical manner a mass 8 x 3 x 0,1 mm to house a steel
strip, then each half will weight:
104,64g -6,48g= 97,584 g.

Fig. 3. Extruded mass element.

Let's suppose now to keep a clearance all around the block of 1 cm then to grip the protrude steel strip in a frame
such as the suspended mass will be free to oscillate only in the direction perpendicular to the centre of such a frame.
Let's choice a steel strip of Y module of about 200 GP. We may then assume that on each side the following
scheme apply:

Fig. 4. Steel lame flexion model.

1218 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 44 (2023) 1212–1219
Mauro Mazzei et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000 7

Where P is the induced force, l = 0,01 m, distance from the frame of the suspended mass, E=200GPa the Young
module, I=[0,03*(0,0004)3]/12 the moment of inertia. For P = 0,200 Kg it provides
-6 11 -12
δd = (0,2x10 ) x 12 / (3 x 2 x 10 x 1.9 x 10 ) = 2.1 um

So far an acceleration of 1g would provide on the proof mass a d displacement larger than 20 um.
If even one quarter of the area 8 cm x 8 cm proof area is parallelly faced to an equivalent plate to implement one
of the Cx capacitors at a rest distance of 500 um we would observe on that a variation from 28,35 pF to 29,56 pf or
27,21 pf according the considered face or a total ΔC = 2.35 pF
With this design parameter we would be ina maximum 1 g case to less that the 5% displacement and well
matching the overall range of the of the CAP sampling part. This has a resolution better than 25 aF and an on chip
temperature measurement of better than 0.1°C.

5. Data analysis

Identification of anomalies beyond the signal-to-noise limits of the instrument is achieved by normalization of
distributed strains measured during different positions of a passing vehicle relative to the theoretical line of influence
of the bridge.

Fig. 5. Line of influence of the load point moment

Figure 5 shows a vehicle with three axles in five different load positions. Considering the relationship between
bending stress and moment. Conversely, the strain profile can be determined from the distributed strain measured
during load tests of the bridge. An example of this graph for a five-span bridge is shown in Figure 6. The theoretical
strain profile is curvilinear because it represents the strain history of a specific point under a continuously moving
load. The strain profile shown in Figure 6 is linear because it is constructed by measuring the strain for five distinct
carriage positions.

Fig. 6. Deformation profile measured for Pi point due to vehicle loading.

The analysis of data through these devices can be of great interest in the study and optimization of infrastructure
monitoring, then the problem of reconstructing the motion of a body in space and analyzing it precisely to monitor
causes and effects becomes essential, starting from the knowledge of previous recurrences, the phenomenology of
movements can be framed deterministically, or it can be characterized by having only some properties that follow
statistical laws, we speak in that case of stochastic motion or random vibrations.
Stochastic measurement errors are not modelable and generally do not have a fixed distribution but are dependent
on the momentary physical context in which the sensor is located; this actually makes it very difficult to make
 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Procedia Structural Integrity 44 (2023) 1212–1219 1219
8 Mauro Mazzei et al. / Structural Integrity Procedia 00 (2022) 000–000

corrections to the acceleration signal that are compatible with reality, and in general these corrections can hardly
solve the problem of drifts of integrals. If one knows, even partially, the type of motion one wants to study, the
construction of a model for the motion usually brings numerous advantages. In general, a model is intended to
provide information about the reactions the body should have in known contexts and in particular to the most
appropriate infrastructure maintenance choices on the examined infrastructure, in this way the 'contribution of
sensible corrections both to the result of the signal integrations and directly to the measured signal is desirable, if it
proves necessary.
Specifically, the state of the art of appropriately designed capacitive accelerometers would be employed, with
data transmission range of several km even in the absence of telephone coverage so as to have continuity of data to
capture adverse events.

6. Conclusion

This designed solution will be able to give a strong impetus to dynamic infrastructure monitoring using specific
devices tailored to the needs to be studied and at low cost. A patent registration of the mechanical part of the device
is being planned.

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