What is learning disability?

Learning Disability Refers to a heterogeneous group of disorders manifested by great

difficulties in the acquisition of and use of listening, speaking, writing, reading reasoning
or mathematical abilities.

Historical development of LD
The History of LD is started in Europe in 1800 then after studying LD became a culture in other parts
of the world mainly in US.

Among the many researchers who played important roles in studies of LD Adolph Kussmaul &
Pringle Morgan Were very influential.

Firstly, around 1877, Adolph Kussmaul was the first to identify reading inability and termed it ‘word
blindness’, which introduced awareness that reading may have its Own disability. Kussmaul raised
this concept after finding out that recognizing written words was the only problem of one of his
patients who had no other disabilities (Anderson & Meier-Hedde, 2001). Interestingly, about ten
years after the term "word blindness" appeared, the term ‘dyslexia’ was produced by Berlin (1887).
These two terms have similar concepts.

The other influential researcher in this field was Pringle Morgan in the UK, which is a leading country
in the area of LD research. His work involved deep-rooted research that studied LD more than a
century ago. This consideration of LD has lasted up until very recently and assists to reform,
construct and develop understanding of the various issues related to LD.

The earliest consideration of LD in the UK first emerged in 1896 when the British Medical Journal
published an article by Pringle Morgan entitled "A Case of Congenital Word Blindness" (Morgan,
1896). The article encouraged researchers and built a basis for research to study other cases of LD
(Anderson & Meier-Hedde, 2001).

More recent studies can be considered as one of the later efforts based on much research which
have built on Morgan’s article on word blindness.

However, the most critical Progress of LD research occurred in the US. There was important progress
in identification, teaching methods and theories related to LD. Samuel Orton was one of the greatest
LD scholars in US. He was interested in seeking methods that help children overcome reading
disabilities; Orton (1937) produced the first multisensory training, for which he is credited.
 Secondly, Orton IQ -discrepancy approach and to investigate or develop other ways to find a more
accurate method to deal with students who were suspected of having LD. One of the main models
developed to overcome this problem is the response to intervention (RTI) model which aims to treat
students in a careful, inclusive and precise manner (Kavale, Holdnack, & Mostert, 2005). This
observation played an important role in shaping this field, particularly in the area of identification
methods (Hallahan & Mercer, 2002).

Another prominent figure in this Area LD studies was Marion Monroe whose crucial research focused
on the assessment of LD. The difference between actual and expected achievement is a concept
which was introduced by Monroe (1932) as an approach to identify students with reading disabilities
(Hallahan &Merecen 2002)

Samuel Kirk, developed the Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities (ITPA) to identify specific
learning disabilities in children (Kirk, McCarthy, & Kirk, 1961). And Kirk was the first to specify this
term by a definition (Kirk, 1962, 1963). This term is still used in many countries.

Furthermore ,in the UK, the subject of LD started to appear in policies in 1970 when acute dyslexia
was covered in The Chronically Sick and Disabled Persons Act, Section 27 (Soler, 2009). This was
followed by several reports that paid attention.

In the US, LD was introduced and listed in the agenda of the Federal Government. In that, the
Federal Government mandated in 1969 to develop the field of learning disabilities to be a distinct
entity within special education (Hammill, 1993).Johns, 2009).

Understanding the historic & latest developments does not necessarily mean applying them in
practice. However, this awareness might be applied to identify certain mistakes and to change and
develop the initially adopted way of managing LD.

Identification of children with learning disabilities

The following two methods are the most widely used methods to determine who is eligible for services or
to determine if a child had a learning disability that qualified him her for services.

 IQ – achievement Discrepancy Approach

 RTI response to intervention approach

IQ – achievement Discrepancy Approach

 The discrepancy model is what some schools use to determine if kids are eligible for
special education services.
 The term “discrepancy” refers to a mismatch between a child’s intellectual ability and
his progress in school.

RTI response to intervention approach

RTI looks at all students’ reading, writing and math skills early in the school year. Then it provides
targeted support to those who are struggling.

Children who don’t respond to increasing support may then be considered for special education. The
benefits of RTI: Students get help early. And they don’t have to wait to prove eligibility in order to
get support. Keep in mind that even if your child is receiving RTI, you still have the right to request
an evaluation for special education services.

Prevalence, how prevalent is LD?

Learning disability is one of the many disabilities that is rapidly increasing throughout the world &
the prevalence rate is higher in males than females as males are biologically more venerable than
females. It is also the highest as compared with other types of disabilities.

What are the Causes of Learning Disabilities?

Though believed that there are many underlining causes for learning disability, Neurological
dysfunctions or central nervous system dysfunction (CNS) has more proves to be the major cause of
learning disability, the conclusion of this causation is substantiated by the rigorous studies
conducted making use of MRI,FMRI , fMRS & PET scan . There are also Fundamental background
factors that may contribute to the CNS dysfunction & these factors are categorized in to three (1)
Genetic factors (2) Teratogen etic Factor & (3) Medical Factors.

Psychological & Behavioral Characteristics of children with learning

disability.
Students With learning disabilities Exhibit various Types of Psychological & Behavioral
Characteristics these children have a greater chance of experiencing behavioral problems like,
Attention disorder, Hyperactivity, distractibility, nonstop talking, Impulsiveness, unable to listen to
others, impulsive, non-compliant, explosive and argumentative are more likely to become angry and
engage in conflicts. In addition to the above behavioral problems children with learning disability
may have psychological problems like poor self-esteem, depression, anxiety, social skills Deficits,
loneliness & a negative self-image. (Dane, 1990; Osman 2000; Palombo, 2001a; San Mig)

Educational considerations for CWLD

Strategies for Students with Learning Disabilities
The following lists provide suggestions of instructional strategies based on each specific learning disability.
No student would use all of these strategies. Selection of strategies would be based on the individual needs
of the student, the objectives of the course and recommended academic adjustments and services.

Talk to students. They are the best resource about their specific needs.

Remember: A learning disability does not mean that the person cannot learn; it means that they learn
differently. Many instructional strategies which are helpful to students with learning disabilities benefit all
students.

Strategies to Compensate for an Expressive Language Disability

Characteristics
A student with an expressive language disability may have difficulty with the following tasks requiring
written languages: expressing themselves clearly and precisely, using a variety of sentence structures, using
mature syntactical patterns, using an appropriate range of words, organizing thoughts, using punctuation
correctly, copying from the board, organizing written information note taking, handwriting, and spelling.

Strategies
 Allow student to use a word processor with a spelling checker.

 Grade written assignments for ideas only or provide two grades: one for content and one for
technical skills.

 Provide advance notice of written assignments. Encourage students to start

assignments early; waiting until the last minute can produce stress which may
aggravate the disability.

 Encourage student to use the Writing Lab and to get tutoring.

 Make sure student understands what is being asked in a written assignment. Explain words like
compare and contrast.

 Help student decide on a limited, workable topic for a paper.

 Provide student with a model of what is expected by sharing strong papers that were written by
other students.

 If student has a problem with sequencing, require him/her to show you an outline of
ideas/information in the order in which he/she intends to present them.

 If you are not testing grammar and punctuation (i.e.., if this is not an English class), encourage
student to have a friend proofread assignments and make corrections.

 Give all instructions both in writing and verbally.

  Allow student to provide oral responses rather than written ones.

 Encourage the student to make up and answer sample test questions. Go over the student's
answers.

 Allow student to tape record lectures.

 Provide student with a note taker.

Strategies to Compensate for a Reading Disability

Characteristics
A student with a reading disability may have difficulty with some of the following: decoding unfamiliar
words, understanding what is read, knowing the meaning of words read, maintaining an efficient rate of
reading, following written directions, identifying main ideas and major details.

Strategies
 Encourage student to pre-read a chapter before reading it.

 Have student turn headings into questions using words like what, why, and how. The student should
then read to find the correct answer to those questions. Student should highlight the answers to
questions formulated from headings.

 Student may benefit from using different colored highlighters: one for main ideas, one for key
details, and another for definitions.

 Encourage student to develop reasonable and logical points within the text at which the student will
stop and check comprehension. Using these checkpoints, the student may want to summarize what
has just been read (perhaps into a tape recorder so that the summary may be used as a review later).

 Encourage student to become an active rather than a passive reader. The student should learn to
talk to himself/herself. Students should ask questions such as:

o "Why am I reading this?"

o "What does this topic have to do with topics discussed earlier?"

o "What principle do these problems illustrate?"

o "How can I put this in my own words?"

 If material seems particularly difficult, have the student reread, read aloud, or rephrase information.

 Ask student to use the margins of the text to record key phrases, main ideas, or definitions.

 If student lacks background knowledge, ask him/her to look up the subject in an encyclopedia in
order to get an overview of it.
  If words seem to "move around" in the text, show student how to use an index card to guide
reading.

 Encourage student to put specialized vocabulary words on index cards for easier review.

 Provide guided notes for each chapter. The notes should contain a summary of the main points and
key terms listed in sequential order. (Or teach the student to use the chapter summary so that
he/she can do this for himself/herself.)

Strategies to compensate receptive Language Disabilities

Characteristics
Students with a receptive language disability may have difficulty processing information presented orally.
Despite normal hearing, the student may have problems with the following: differentiating between similar
sounds, following oral directions, interpreting and evaluating oral presentations, concentrating, handling
distractions, and taking notes.

Strategies
 Realize that the language of a student with a learning disability is likely to be concrete, literal, and
non-flexible whereas the language used by instructors and in textbooks is likely to be figurative,
metaphoric, analogous, and idiomatic. As people with learning disabilities get older, the gap
between their language and language used by others increases.

 Allow student to tape record lectures.

 Help student find a seat in your class that is near the blackboard and as far away as possible from
auditory disturbances (doorways, pencil sharpeners, etc.).

 Whenever possible provide student with visual cues by writing on the board, using the overhead, or
providing the student with a brief written outline of the material to be covered in that class session.

 Provide student with written copies of your lecture.

 Give instructions/directions orally and in writing.

 Encourage student to check his/her understanding of what was assigned in class before he/she
leaves the class.

 Explain how to visualize material that has been orally presented so that the student may revisualize
the material before answering questions.

 If student seems easily distracted, work with the student to develop a "secret code" through which
you will let the student know when he/she is experiencing a lapse in concentration. (For example,
say that you will walk near his/her desk whenever you notice that the student has stopped paying
attention.)
  The student may benefit from taking a test alone in a room where there are no distractions.

 Trying to overcome external distractions and auditory confusions may be extremely tiring for a
student. Student should be encouraged to take his/her most difficult course at a time when he/she is
most alert.

 When lecturing, reduce number of items presented simultaneously.

Strategies to Compensate Mathematic Disability

Characteristics

Students with a math disability may have problems with the following: working with fractions, decimals,
and percentages, mastering basic arithmetic facts, reasoning mathematically, visualizing mathematical
problems, recalling the sequence of an operational process, copying numbers correctly, working with
numbers in columns, and discriminating between operational symbols (especially = and x).

Strategies

 Permit use of pocket calculators for computations.

 Suggest that student use graph paper to align math problems. (Ordinary notebook paper may also be
turned sideways to produce columns.)

 Encourage student to use color coding in order to visualize a problem better. (For example, make the
negative signs, exponents, and numbers carried a different color. Make columns of numbers
different colors.)

 If student has difficulty learning by watching, suggest that he/she write down on an index card the
steps that must be followed in solving a problem. If student is responsible for knowing steps or a
formula for a test, he/she may then use these index cards as study tools.

 Provide sufficient opportunities to practice.

 When lecturing, use concrete examples similar to student's experiences. Learning may also be
improved if a concept is introduced first and numbers are added later, especially if the concept is
explained in a way that students can relate to personally.

 Use as many visual aids as possible. (Video tapes will allow students to have a complicated
procedure repeated often enough to understand it.)

 Draw visual breaks (slashes, hyphens, etc.) between each step.

 Use 2D and 3D objects that students can manipulate.

 Special services needed to address the needs of learners with LDs?

The following service delivery Modeless & strategies are important to address the needs of learners with LD or
students that learn differently & must be available in Inclusive schools.

Co-teaching strategy
Co-teachers are often general education teachers and special education teachers working together in the general
education classroom.

Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies (PALS)

is a peer-tutoring instructional program that supplements the primary reading curriculum.2Pairs of students work
together on reading activities intended to improve reading accuracy, fluency, and comprehension. Students in the
pairs—who alternately take on the roles of tutor and tutee—read aloud, listen to their partner read, and provide
feedback during various structured activities. Teachers train students to use the following learning strategies: passage
reading with partners, paragraph “shrinking” (or describing the main idea), and prediction relay (predicting what is
likely to happen next in the passage).

Resource room Strategies

Teachers use various methods to meet the needs of all students, including those who struggle.

Some methods include slowing down or speeding up the pace of the work for individual students within a classroom.

Other methods include using props such as charts and pictures to show students what they are expected to learn

Case study

The development & status of LD in Bench sheko zone.

Study duration December 9 - 10 2020 –
Visites made to: Mizan teferi No 1 primary school, l Mizan teferi preparatory secondary school,

Mizeggana primary & secondary school (Private)

A case of Mizan teferi No 1 primary school

Mizan Teferi Number 1 primary schoois locatedr in addis Ketema Kebbelle it is founded with the Goal of providing
Traditional primary schooling 1 – 8 grade level for the locality which does not take considerations of Inclusive
education in general .

However in 2005 E.C due to policy issues that are acted at a national level that influenced schools at all Levels this
school considered and modified its curriculum to the level of inclusion.

Then after, the school has made various interventions to help the full Participation of Exceptional children in the
general school system but this is not without limitations , financial resources are mentioned to be one of the
limitation that highly contribute to the limited progress of the program.

As compared to other educational institutions visited in this study Mizan teferi No 1 primary school is the only
school that has practically implemented inclusive education curriculums & inclusive education service delivery
models at its minimal level .

As the straregies and developments of inclusion in this areas in general & particularly in schools the Development
s are at their preliminary level identifications of exceptionalities ( specific Talents or Disabilities) are not
considered which in turn affect response to the unique needs of individual learners.

General Overview of the school’s current inclusive education Program status.

 There are learners with special needs ( specially with disabilities) that are recognized by the school & being
enrolled in regular classes but the classes are not designed & Equipped in a way that allow the full
participation of all students . For Example No special need teachers that that teacher in regular classes.

 There is a resource room with in the school where learners with Hearing , Visiual & Cognitive a total of
5 children segregated from other students and made a group and delivered special education by special
teachers in one classroom .

 There are 2 male &3 female special need teachers actively working in the school

 The school environment is not supportive or less restrictive.

 Budget Limitation, None participation of NGOs working to mitigate the burden on the school.

 The are students being enrolled in regular classes with different types of disabilities,

Grade Level Type of Sex Number Tota

Disability

1 &2 physical m 2 2
 1 epplipse F 1 1

5,6,8 Hearing imp. 4F& 4M 8 8

Conclusion
In general there is no specific identification & support or instructions designed to address the needs of students
with LD but learners with exceptionalities in this school received minimal group need based modified special need
education & none is done with regard to the needs of talented students .

The other two schools mentioned above & which were visited during the study have no inclusive education
instructions & programs being applied in their school program.