Bibliographic note:

Lenhard, W. & Lenhard, A. (2013). Learning Difficulties. L. Meyer (Ed.),

Oxford Bibliographies in Education. New York: Oxford University Press.
The text appeared in the form of a dictionary enty.

Education
Entry ID: 9780199756810-0115
Citation Style: Scientific
Version Date: January, 11th 2013

LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

Wolfgang Lenhard
University of Würzburg

Alexandra Lenhard
University of Würzburg

Outline:
• Introduction
• General Overview and Terminology
• Textbooks
• Journals
• Cognitive Determinants of Academic Achievement
• Motivation, Emotion and Self-concept as determinants of academic problems
• Socio-Economic Background and Quality of Instruction
• Diagnosing Learning Difficulties
• Curricular aspects, prevention and therapy

INTRODUCTION
Learning difficulties is an umbrella term for academic problems of different origin. It comprises general
learning deficits and low academic performance, e. g. in the context of disabilities as well as specific
forms like reading, spelling and arithmetic disorders. As a consequence, many different denotations exist
that try to differentiate between general and specific forms or point out the stability of the learning
problem. The term learning disability usually highlights general and long-lasting learning difficulties, often
linked to the field of special education. The term learning disorder characterizes learning problems in a
specific field that contrast the general aptitude of the person. Apart from the classification in DSM-IV and
ICD-10, there is no universally accepted terminology and the connotations of the technical terms even
vary within the same language (f. e. between Great Britain and the U.S.). There are genetic and
neurobiological correlates as well as cognitive, motivational, affective and socio-economic determinants
of learning difficulties, some of which are easier modifiable (prior knowledge, motivation) than others
(memory span, socio-economic background).The diagnosis and intervention has to address the individual
problems of the affected person. The diagnostic distinction between general and specific learning
problems is however subject to substantial criticism. Educational policies vary considerably between
different educational systems: While some countries practice segregation of poor performing children and
teenagers, there is currently a strong trend towards inclusive education, especially since the UN
Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities.

GENERAL OVERVIEW AND TERMINOLOGY

Scientific study of learning difficulties dates back to the last decades of the 19th century, when forms of
developmental dyslexia were first described in works like Morgan 1896 or Hinschelwood 1895, which
coined the term ‘word blindness’. For decades, causal explanations dominated nomenclature and
research, resulting in now outdated concepts like minimal brain dysfunction (MBD). The term ‘learning
disability’ first appeared in the early 60’s of the last century and is closely linked to educational policies
(Fletcher 2012). Since then, definitions are mainly descriptive and refrain from giving causal models of
learning difficulties. It is commonly assumed that they emerge in the context of general low cognitive
abilities, f. e. indicated by a low IQ score, or manifest themselves as specific forms with unexpected low
performances in distinctive domains despite normal general intelligence. Following the International
Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-10) (World Health Organization
2010), specific forms usually are called learning disorders and include basic reading, spelling and
arithmetic problems (F81). In contrast to the international standards, in the U.S. learning disorders are
usually called learning disabilities, while below-average intellectual functioning is referred to as mental
retardation or developmental disability. Definitions based on IQ scores or on discrepancies between
general intelligence and academic performances in specific domains pose conceptional and practical
problems: Cognitive performance is usually continuously distributed. From this point of view, a decrease
in cognitive performance leads to an increase in adaption problems. In order to define distinct groups of
people with different forms of learning difficulties, the introduction of cut off values is necessary. However,
this results in more or less arbitrary categories, which, in addition, strongly depend on the validity and
reliability of the diagnostic instruments. Recently, the so called response-to-intervention approach has
been suggested to circumvent these problems: Form this perspective, learning difficulties are seen as
failure to progress in academic development or to reach educational goals (Fuchs et al. 2002). This
implies the necessity to address the specific needs of persons with learning difficulties and to accordingly
adapt instructional methods.

Hinshelwood, J. 1895. Word-Blindness and Visual Memory. Lancet 2: 1564-1570.

Case study of an adult with acquired dyslexia. Hinshelwood referred to prior work of different
researchers to coin the term word blindness. Hinshelwood continued to work in this field for
decades and his papers exerted a considerable influence on the early educational research.

Morgan, W.P. 1896. “*A case of congenital word

blindness[http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2510936/?page=1]*”. British Medical Journal
Nov. 7:1378. []
One of the first cases of developmental dyslexia, described by a British ophthalmologist and
inspired by the publication of Hinshelwood 1895. Hypothesizes, that the isolated impairment to
acquire reading and spelling may be due to a congenital disability.

Fletcher, Jack M. 2012. Classification and Identification of Learning Disabilities. In Learning about
Learning Disabilities, 4th edition. Edited by Bernice Wong and Deborah L. Butler, 1-26. London: Elsevier.
Defines inclusionary and exclusionary criteria for classifying learning disorders. Reflects
neurological, cognitive and instructional models and discusses limitations of current diagnosis.

Fuchs, L.S., Fuchs, D. and Speece, D. L. 2002. Treatment Validity as a Unifying Construct for Identifying
Learning Disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly 25: 33-45.
Introduces a double discrepancy definition from a response to intervention point of view: The
authors argue that learning disability may not only be seen as poor academic performance, but as
an inability to respond to instruction.

World Health Organization. 2010. “*International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health
Problems (ICD-10-GM)[ http://apps.who.int/classifications/icd10/browse/2010/en#/F81]*”.
International standard diagnostic and classification manual. Describes mental and behavioral
disorders (Chapter F) and among these defines “specific developmental disorders of scholastic
skills” (F81).

TEXTBOOKS
A deeper understanding of learning difficulties affords both general knowledge about regular development
and specific knowledge about the mechanisms behind learning problems with regard to their individual,
instructional and interactional causation. To this end, the following suggestions do not only include
textbooks on learning difficulties, but also textbooks on normal cognitive development (Goshwami 2008)
and on the general effects of instructional and interventional measures (Hattie 2009). Waber 2010, Wong
and Butler 2012, Swanson et al. 2003 and Bray and Kehle 2011 cover a broad range of topics: they give
comprehensive insights in the genesis of learning disabilities as well as specific learning disorders and
give practical suggestions or explain interventional strategies. Besides these issues, Farrell 2009
discusses legal, medical and social implications of special education. The final reference (Lauth et al.
2004) is a standard textbook in German language on interventions.

Goshwami, Usha. 2008. Cognitive Development: The Learning Brain. New York: Psychology Press.
Reflects the normal cognitive development during early infancy, language acquisition,
development of memory, metacognition, reasoning and the development of academic skills.
Contains background knowledge relevant for understanding the emergence of learning problems.

Hattie, John. 2009. Visible Learning. London: Routledge.

Synthesizes the results of over 800 meta analyses, which are based on more than 50,000
primary studies. Reports and evaluates the effects of almost every known determinant of learning
outcome, from individual and social influences to instructional approaches and interventional
methods.

Waber, Deborah, 2010. Rethinking Learning Disabilities: Understanding Children who struggle at school.
New York: Guilford Press.
Interprets the genesis of learning difficulties from a developmental point of view and provides
graduate-level students with a theoretical framework for the interaction between individual
determinants and the environment. Illustrates the theoretical insights with real-world case studies
and shows perspectives for remediation.

Wong, Bernice and Butler, Deborah, eds. Learning about Learning Disabilities. 4th ed. London: Elsevier,
2012.
Very influential edited book with contributions on cognitive and affective aspects of low
achievement and results from interventional research. Covers not only general learning
disabilities, but gives highlights on reading, spelling, comprehension and math as well. Aimed at
advanced graduate and undergraduate students.

Swanson, Lee, Harris, Karren and Graham, Steve. 2003. Handbook of learning disabilities. New York:
Guilford Press.
Covers all aspects and forms of learning difficulties. Summarizes results from basic research,
describes causes and behavioral manifestation. Gives perspectives on intervention and the
formation of instructional models.

Bray, Melissa and Kehle, Thomas. 2011. The Oxford handbook of school psychology. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Standard work about school psychology with contributions on both research methods and applied
psychology, not only on academic problems, but on behavioral aspects and psycho-social
wellbeing as well.

Farrell, Michael. 2009. Foundations of Special Education: An Introduction. New York: Wiley.
Comprehensive publication on every aspect, linked to special education. Besides learning
difficulties and disabilities, legal, social and medical issues are addressed as well. Suitable for
undergraduate and graduate students, as well as professionals working in this field.

Lauth, Gerhard, Grünke, Mathias and Brunstein, Joachim, eds. Interventionen bei Lernstörungen:
Förderung, Training und Therapie in der Praxis (Interventions for Children with Learning Difficulties:
Promotion, Training and Therapy in Practice). Göttingen: Hogrefe, 2004.
Edited book in German language that explains the most frequent learning disorders and offers a
practical guide for training and therapy. Describes most relevant intervention programs and their
application.
JOURNALS
Due to the heterogeneous nature of the concept, there are many relevant aspects referring to different
ability levels. Therefore, the following journals range from learning disabilities to general educational
research and practice. The first four journals focus on general as well as specific learning problems and
characterize struggling students, analyze determinants of poor academic performance or evaluate the
effectiveness of interventions. **Learning Disability Quarterly (LDQ)** and **Learning disabilities
research & practice (LDRP)** report interventional research and focus on general (LDQ) and specific
(LDRP) learning problems. The **Journal of Learning Disabilities (LDX)** moreover provides theoretical
frameworks and literature overviews and ** Remedial and Special Education (RSE)** addresses broader
topics like professional development, as well. The other journals discuss learning and learning problems
from the point of educational psychology. **Psychology in the Schools** is an applied journal that covers
all aspects of education in schools whereas **Reading and Writing** specifically deals with literacy skills.
The last two belong to the general field of educational sciences such as educational psychology. They are
among the highest ranking professional journals in this field. The **Journal of Educational Psychology**
publishes articles about basic research on determinants, preconditions and prediction of academic
success. **Review of Educational Research** summarizes the current research by giving an overview on
current topics, predominantly in the form of meta analyses.
Learning Disability Quarterly
Published by the Council for Learning Disabilities, appears four times a year. Essentially focuses
on applied research and mainly includes articles of interventional programs that have the
potential to improve educational practices and services for persons with learning disabilities of all
ages. Available*online[http://ldq.sagepub.com/]*.
Journal of Learning Disabilities
Covers specific learning problems like math, reading and spelling deficits, as well as general
learning difficulties. The articles address theoretical, as well as empirical findings, position papers
and literature overviews. Available*online[http://ldx.sagepub.com/]*.

Learning disabilities research & practice []

Monthly appearing journal of the Council for Exceptional Children (CEC). Strong focus on
academic skill development. Mainly reports interventional studies on reading fluency, reading
comprehension and mathematical abilities. It is split into a research and a practice section and
aims at professionals and practioners in special education, school psychology and counseling.
Available*online[http://eu.wiley.com/WileyCDA/WileyTitle/productCd-LDRP.html]*.

*Remedial and Special Education

Bimonthly appearing journal with interdisciplinary articles on theory and practice of special
education. Publishes literature syntheses, evaluation studies, and recommendations for practice.
Available*online[http://rse.sagepub.com/]*.

Psychology in the Schools.

Addresses application of results from educational research in the schools. Deals with all aspects
of academic performance and its assessment. Reviews quality of standardized and informal tests.
Available*online[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/10.1002/%28ISSN%291520-6807]*.

Reading and Writing.

Specific journal for research on the acquisition, development and problems of reading, spelling
and literacy. Publishes research on determinants of skills and their development in different
language systems and interventional studies.
Available*online[http://www.springer.com/education+%26+language/linguistics/journal/11145]*.

Journal of Educational Psychology

The quarterly publication of the American Psychological Association publishes primary research
results in a wide range of ability levels. These include the developmental trajectories of academic
performance, self-concept, motivation and articles especially related to poor performing students.
 Some studies focus on interventional research as well.
Available*online[http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/edu/index.aspx]*.

Review of Educational Research

It is hard to keep track of current developments or to get a general idea on a specific topic.
Review of Educational Research is a journal of the American Educational Research Association
and publishes high quality syntheses of educational research, such as integrative literature
reviews and meta analyses. Available*online[http://rer.sagepub.com/]*.

COGNITIVE DETERMINANTS OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT

Cognitive abilities are closely linked to successful learning and hence also to academic achievement. The
general intelligence g, which is regarded as the essence of all cognitive abilities, is therefore the best
singular predictor of academic achievement (Kline, 1991; Deary, Strand, Smith, & Fernandes, 2007).
When learning difficulties of an individual occur on a wide range of academic subjects, they are often
accompanied by an IQ score below average. As general intelligence does not only reflect the ability of
reasoning but also to the ability of accumulating knowledge, it is also important in domains that
predominantly draw on prior knowledge and expertise. There are, however, cases where general
intelligence fails to predict academic success. In some of these cases, distinctive cognitive profiles can be
found. As Swanson and Stomel (2012), as well as Swanson and Alloway (2012) point out, malfunctioning
of the working memory, which is seen as the ability to store and transform information, focus and direct
attention or inhibit distracting perception or behavioral impulses, may be a cause of some learning
disorders. For example, children with specific reading and/or writing impairments on average have
cognitive profiles with significantly lowered phonological memory span. Arithmetic problems, by contrast,
seem to be more often accompanied by distinct impairments of the visual working memory (Maehler &
Schuchhardt, 2011). Another cognitive subsystem that is closely related to learning difficulties is the
attentional subsystem (Barkley, 2997). Children with attentional disorders are often poor learners
because they engage in inefficient learning strategies, fail to structure the activities adequately or lack the
ability to monitor their learning progress. Finally, metamemory and metacognition, i. e. the knowledge
about one’s own learning processes and the ability to plan, organize and control it (see Schneider &
Pressley, 1997), may also play a role in the origin and development of learning difficulties.

Kline, Paul. 1991. Intelligence: Psychometric View. London: Routledge.

Highlights the psychometric perspectives of intelligence. Contains convincing data about general
intelligence as long term predictor of successful learning and academic achievement in different
academic subjects.

Deary, Ian J., Strand, Steve, Smith, Pauline and Fernandes, Cres. 2007. Intelligence and educational
achievement. Intelligence 35: 13-21.
Outstanding 5-year prospective longitudinal study of over 70,000 English children. Reports
associations between general intelligence measured at age 11 years and academic achievement
in 25 academic subjects at age 16.

Swanson, Lee and Stomel, Danielle. 2012. “Learning Disabilities and Memory.” In Learning about
Learning Disabilities, 4th ed. Edited by Berenice Wong and Deborah Butler, 27-58. London, UK: Academic
Press.
Children and adults with learning difficulties despite normal intelligence usually show reduced
memory capacities. The chapter summarizes research in this field and highlights compensatory
interventions.

Swanson, H. Lee and Alloway, Tracy. 2012. Working memory, learning, and academic achievement. In
APA educational psychology handbook, Vol 1: Theories, constructs, and critical issues. Edited by Karren
Harris, Steve Graham, Tim Urdan, Christine McCormick, Gale Sinatraand John Sweller, 327-366.
Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.
Reviews the development, structure and functioning of children’s memory skills.
Barkley, Russel. 1997. Behavioral Inhibition, Sustained Attention, and Executive Functions: Constructing
a Unifying Theory of ADHS. Psychological Bulletin 121: 65–94.
One of the most prominent models for explaining the cognitive and behavioral deficits of children
with ADHD. Focuses on performances of the central executive – a part of working memory
dealing with selective attention and transformation of information.

Maehler, Claudia and Schuchardt, Kirsten. 2011. Working memory in children with learning disabilities:
Rethinking the criterion of discrepancy. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education 58:
5-17.
Reports working memory profiles of children with specific learning disorders, general weak
academic performance and controls.

Schneider, Wolfgang and Pressley, Michael. 1997. Memory Development Between Two and Twenty.
Mahwah: Erlbaum.
Standard work, dealing with memory development in general and focuses on metamemory in
chapter 6 and the successive sections (pp. 192-230 ff.). Gives schematic overviews on all
relevant aspects in this field and explains the prerequisites for successfully engaging in strategic
behavior.

MOTIVATION, EMOTION AND SELF-CONCEPT AS DETERMINANTS OF ACADEMIC PROBLEMS

Learning difficulties often do not only have negative effects on motivation, volition, emotions and self-
concept. Reduced learning motivation, anxiety and negative self-concepts may in turn decrease learning
outcomes as well (Ning & Downing, 2010; Nelson & Harwood, 2010). The affected person fails to achieve
academic performances that would be expected by his or her cognitive abilities – a phenomenon called
underachievement (Preckel, Holling & Vock, 2006). The relationship between the cognitive, motivational
and affective side of learning is reciprocal and may lead to a downward spiral of academic failure,
motivational problems, reduced self-concept, anxiety and frustration (Timmermans, van Lier, & Koot,
2009). After controlling for cognitive variables, motivational aspects explain learning failure to a large
extend. Ruffolo (2008) and Smith (2007) address more practical aspects of underachievement, how it is
diagnosed and how to improve performances of the students. Spinath, Spinath & Plomin (2008) show that
negative self-concepts significantly deteriorate academic performance.

Ning, Hoi and Downing, Kevin. 2010. The reciprocal relationship between motivation and self-regulation:
A longitudinal study on academic performance. Learning and Individual Differences 20: 682–686.
The relationship between motivation, self-regulation and performance is studied longitudinally in a
sample of undergraduate students. Subsequent motivation was predicted by self-regulation and
motivation was the strongest predictor for performance besides prior academic achievement.

Preckel, Franzis., Holling, Heinz and Vock, Miriam. 2006. Academic underachievement: Relationship with
cognitive motivation, achievement motivation, and conscientiousness. Psychology in the Schools 43:
401–411.
Explores personality traits in a sample of underachieving students. While being slightly more
intelligent than persons of the same age, underachievers had a remarked lower need for
cognition, achievement motivation, facilitating anxiety (performance enhancing aspects of
anxiety) and conscientiousness. On the other hand, fear of failure was elevated.

Nelson, Jason and Harwood, Hannah. 2010. Learning Disabilities and Anxiety: A Meta-Analysis. Journal
of Learning Disabilities 44: 3–17.
Student with learning disabilities exhibit a higher overall level of anxiety compared to their non-LD
peers. The effect ranges between medium and high.

Timmermans, Maartja., van Lier, Pol and Koot, Hans. 2009. Pathways of Behavior Problems From
Childhood to Late Adolescence Leading to Delinquency and Academic Underachievement. Journal of
Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology 38: 630–638.
 Early child behavior problems at the age of 5 years predict later externalizing behavior and
academic underachievement at the age of 18. Especially oppositional behavior plays an
important role in the genesis of learning problems.

Ruffolo, Marry. 2008. Enhancing Skills of Students Vulnerable to Underachievement and Academic
Failure. In The School Practitioner’s Concise Companion to Preventing Dropout and Attendance
Problems. Edited by Cynthia Franklin, Mary Beth Harris, and Paula Allen-Meares. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Draws on elements of cognitive behavioral therapy like contingency contracts or student self-
reinforcement in order to improve learning related emotions, beliefs and problem solving skills.

Smith, Emma. 2007. Analyzing underachievement in schools. London: Continuum.

Discusses the term underachievement and explores ways how to define and measure this
concept.

Spinath, Frank M., Spinath, Birgit, and Plomin, Robert. 2008. The nature and nurture of intelligence and
motivation in the origins of sex differences in elementary school achievement. European Journal of
Personality 22: 211-229.
Large twin-study (N =4464 9-year-old twins) showing that although cognitive ability is the
strongest predictor of academic achievement, there is also a significant effect of perceived ability.
Moreover, self-concepts differ between both sexes, with girls having better self-concepts of their
verbal abilities and boys showing higher self-perceived mathematical abilities.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC BACKGROUND AND QUALITY OF INSTRUCTION

It sounds trivial to point out that learning performance and on the downside learning difficulties are related
to the socio-economic background and the quality of schooling. This fact was neglected for a long time,
however. The so called “Coleman Report” (Coleman et al. 1966) was one of the first to point out the
massive impact of the socio economic status on learning gains. It initiated a scientific dispute about
equality in education and determinants of learning and sparked research. Today, environmental
influences on learning, aptitude treatment interactions and therefore the interplay between instruction and
learning difficulties such as the quality of instruction are well observed (e. g. Helmke and Weinert 1997;
Fraser et al. 1987; Hattie 2009). Socio-economic determinates of academic performance and educational
opportunities are nowadays subject to regular large scale assessments, f. e. of the Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD 2010). Social risk factors and inappropriate instruction
tend to be very stable, exert their influence slowly over a long period of time and cumulate (Gutman,
Sameroff & Cole, 2003). These long lasting disadvantages lead to reduced developmental opportunities
and limit further learning progress (Sampson & Laub, 1993).
Coleman, James, Campbell, Ernest, Hobson Carol, McPartland, James, Mood Alexander, Weinfeld,
Frederic and York, Robert. 1966. Equality of Educational Opportunity. Washington, DC: US Department
of Health, Education & Welfare. Office of Education (OE-38001 and supp.).
Widely cited study on educational opportunities, pointing to the dramatic impact of social
background on learning and instruction. It was hotly debated, because it relativized the role of
school funding and school organization which led to a considerable increase of research in this
field.

Helmke, Andreas and Weinert, Franz. 1997. Bedingungsfaktoren schulischer Leistungen [Conditions of
scholastic performance]. In Franz Weinert (Ed.), Psychologie des Unterrichts und der Schule.
Enzyklopädie der Psychologie [Psychology of Instruction and the Schools. Encyclopedia of Psychology].
Themenbereich D, Serie I, Bd. 3. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.
Reflects models of academic performance, individual determinants and context factors.

Fraser, Barry, Walberg, Herbert, Welch, Wayne and Hattie, John. 1987. Syntheses of educational
productivity research. International Journal of Educational Research, 11: 145-252.
Groups nine factors of instructional efficacy to the three clusters student competencies,
instructional variables (quality and quantity of instruction) and psychosocial learning environment
 (mass media consumption, supervision …). The model is based on the data from 134 meta
analyses and the authors postulate that it is exhaustive.

Hattie, John. 2009. Visible Learning. London: Routledge.

As pointed out in the section *Textbooks*, currently the most comprehensive synthesis of
research about determinants of learning. Includes almost every determinant of learning beginning
with individual characteristics of the students, home, school, teacher and finally curricula.

OECD. 2010. PISA 2009 Results: Overcoming Social Background – Equity in Learning Opportunities and
Outcomes (Volume II).
Large scale assessment, involving most of the OECD countries as well as associated states. In
depth analysis of educational opportunities in mathematical, scientific and reading literacy and the
influences of socio economic background. Repeated every three years.
Available*online[http://www.oecd.org/pisa/pisaproducts/]*.

Gutman, Leslie Morrison; Sameroff, Arnold J. and Cole, Robert. 2003. Academic growth curve trajectories
from 1st grade to 12th grade: Effects of multiple social risk factors and preschool child factors.
Developmental Psychology, 39(4): 777-790.
Analyzes the developmental trajectories on the basis of environmental risk factors and individual
characteristics (e. g. IQ). Beneficial individual factors mainly had positive effects in children with
low environmental risks. The development of high-risk children was mostly determined by the
environmental risks.
Sampson, Robert and Laub, John. 1993. Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Continous lack of support and supervision through parents may have long term negative side
effects on learning and employment chances, increasing the risks of delinquent behavior.

DIAGNOSING LEARNING DIFFICULTIES

The assessment of learning performance and learning difficulties targets several different goals (compare
Flanagan & Alfonso, 2011; Pennington, 2009): First, it is necessary to determine, if the performance of an
individual differs considerably from the expectations, f. e. in comparison to a social or individual reference
standard. Secondly, a thorough exploration of cognitive profiles is necessary to identify potential causes
for academic failure and to determine possible starting points for remediation. And finally, moderator
variables like motivation and self-concept may further provide information on the reason of learning
difficulties. The general cognitive abilities usually are diagnosed with standardized intelligence tests
(Prifitera, Saklofske & Weiss, 2005). Especially in the field of specific learning problems it is common to
compare performance in reading, spelling or math with general intelligence – an approach called
discrepancy definition. Despite justified criticism on the statistical basis of the approach and its
explanatory power (see Stanovich, 2005), the discrepancy definition is still widely used, especially for
administrative purposes. Unfortunately, assessments usually take place when children already failed at
school. A much more favorable way would be to accompany the learning processes from the very
beginning, in order to identify risks early and undertake preventive measures before learning difficulties
become chronic. This continuous form of diagnostics, embedded into regular instruction and combined
with pre-emptive actions or interventions, is called Response to Intervention (RTI). Brown-Chidsey and
Steege (2010) and Burns and Gibbons (2012) explain the principles of RTI and how it can be
implemented in regular education.

Prifitera, Aurelio, Saklofske, Donald and Weiss, Lawrence. 2005. WISC-IV clinical use and interpretation
scientist-practitioner perspectives. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier Academic Press.
Editied book on the most common intelligence test for children from age 6 to 16. Describes
underlying intelligence theories and gives in depth analyses on the cognitive profiles in the
context of specific learning disabilities, giftedness, language impairment, ADHD, mental
retardation and sensorial impairments.
Flanagan, Dawn and Alfonso, Vincent. 2011. Essentials of specific learning disability identification.
Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
Concise description of classification systems and diagnostic approaches to learning difficulties.

Pennington, Bruce Franklin. 2009. Diagnosing learning disorders : a neuropsychological framework. New
York: Guilford Press.
Interprets learning disorders from a neuropsychological point of view. Describes the etiology and
epidemiology of language impairments, but presents information on clinical symptoms,
developmental history, behavioral observations and test results as well.

Stanovich, Keith. 2005. The Future of a Mistake: Will Discrepancy Measurement Continue to Make the
Learning Disabilities Field a Pseudoscience? Learning Disability Quarterly, 28: 103-106.
Clear and brief: Central points of criticism on the distinction in children with a specific reading and
spelling disorder as compared to garden-variety poor readers via the discrepancy of academic
performance and intelligence testing results.

Brown-Chidsey, Rachel and Steege, Mark. 2010. Response to intervention: principles and strategies for
effective practice. New York: Guilford Press.
Comprehensive book on theory and practice of response to intervention and how to implement
and integrate diagnostic and remediation strategy in the school. Practical guide, including step-
by-step instructions.

Burns, Matthew and Gibbons, Kimberly. 2012. Implementing response-to-intervention in elementary and
secondary schools : procedures to assure scientific-based practices. New York: Routledge.
In depth description on diagnostic strategies like curriculum based measurement and how to
collect, report and interpret data. Explains data-based decision making with reference to the three
tiers of RTI.

CURRICULAR ASPECTS, PREVENTION AND THERAPY

Because of the multifold reasons behind learning difficulties, there is no single and universal approach to
address these problems. It is a generally accepted view to preferably compensate risk factors before
difficulties manifest. Therefore, prevention is also a main pillar of current Response-To-Intervention
approaches (see *Diagnosing Learning Difficulties*). Torgesen 2004 underlines the merits of early
intervention. Poor performing students in general need more guidance than gifted ones. As a
consequence it is advisable to choose direct forms of instruction and to give frequent support and
feedback (Grünke, 2006). In order to improve learning performance, interventions focus on building prior
knowledge, enhancing self-regulation and metacognition, fostering motivation and self-efficacy (Swanson
& Stomel, 2012; Reis, Harris, Graham & Rock, 2012). Moreover specific approaches aim at particular
causes for difficulties in reading (Berkeley, Scruggs & Mastropieri, 2009; Linan-Thompson & Hagaman,
2012), spelling and arithmetics (Baker, Gersten, & Lee, 2002) or general cognitive abilities (Klauer &
Phye, 2008).

Joseph Torgesen. 2004. “*Avoiding the Devastating Downward Spiral: The Evidence That Early
Intervention Prevents Reading Failure
[http://www.aft.org/newspubs/periodicals/ae/fall2004/torgesen.cfm]*”. American Educator.
Characterizes scholastic failure as a downward spiral of missed opportunities and motivational
problems. Pleads for early diagnosis and intervention. Reports data on the effectiveness of
interventions in dependence of the age of the students and draws conclusions for remediation.

Grünke, Matthias. 2006. Zur Effektivität von Fördermethoden bei Kindern und Jugendlichen mit
Lernstörungen [Efficacy of Interventions for Students with learning Disabilities]. Kindheit und Entwicklung
15:4, 239-254. [doi:10.1026/0942-5403.15.4.239]
Reviews meta analyses on interventions with students with impaired learning. Direct instruction,
self-instruction, strategy instruction, peer tutoring and computer-assisted instruction had the
 greatest impact, whereas child-centered and constructivist approaches or motor or perceptual
training did not yield significant results.

Swanson, Lee and Stomel, Danielle. 2012. “Learning Disabilities and Memory.” In Learning about
Learning Disabilities, 4th ed. Edited by Berenice Wong and Deborah Butler, 27-58. London, UK: Academic
Press.
As stated in section *Cognitive Determinants of Academic Achievement*, this chapter evaluates
interventions on working memory and mainly draws on strategy instruction. The authors argue
that direct training of working memory on the other hand often does not have significant effects.

Reis, Robert, Harris, Karen, Graham, Steve and Rock, Marcia. 2012. “Self-Regulation among Students
with LD and ADHD.” In Learning about Learning Disabilities, 4th ed. Edited by Berenice Wong and
Deborah Butler, 141-174. London, UK: Academic Press.
Poor performing students often have pronounced difficulties to organize their learning process
and to monitor their results. The chapter gives an overview on self-regulation and its application
to students with learning difficulties.

Berkeley, Sheri, Scruggs, Thomas and Mastropieri, Margo. 2009. „Reading Comprehension Instruction
for Students With Learning Disabilities, 1995-2006: A Meta-Analysis“. Remedial and Special Education,
31: 423–436. [doi: 10.1177/0741932509355988]
Assesses the effects of reading instruction on comprehension. Fundamental reading skills and
fluency had the greatest impact, followed by questioning and strategy instruction, as well as text
enhancements. These approaches had medium to strong effects.

Linan-Thompson, Sylvia and Hagaman, Jessica. 2012. “Reading Interventions for Students in Early
Primary Grades.” In Learning about Learning Disabilities, 4th ed. Edited by Berenice Wong and Deborah
Butler, 175-190. London, UK: Academic Press.
Concisely reflects literacy development and shows interventional approaches with reference to
the report of the National Reading Panel (2000).

Baker, Scott, Gersten, Russell and Lee, Dae-Sik. 2002. A Synthesis of Empirical Research on Teaching
Mathematics to Low-Achieving Students. The Elementary School Journal, 103(1): 51-73.
Literature review on the effectiveness of math interventions. Concludes that the following aspects
are central for learning improvement: a. giving clear data and feedback on performance to
teachers, students and parents, b. using peer tutoring and c. applying principles of explicit
instruction in teaching math concepts and procedures.

Klauer, Karl Josef & Phye, Gary. 2008. Inductive reasoning: A training approach. Review of Educational
Research, 78; 85-123.
Meta-analysis on the effect of the training of inductive reasoning on intelligence on scholastic
development. Stable medium to large effect sizes can be found in both, standardized tests as well
as grades.