Coordination and subordination,and

the relationship between grammar and

discourse

Mark Donohue
Australian National University
mark.donohue@anu.edu.au
International Workshop on Clause Combining in and around Indonesia TUFS, 7-8 October 2012
 Overview
Coordination Foregrounding

Subordination Backgrounding
This is not as clear-cut as is often described.

Coordination Foregrounding

Subordination Backgrounding
 Overview

morphology:

morphology:
 Overview
Coordination: independent clauses
Subordination: dependent clauses
 Simple cases
Subordinate-as-foreground:
Entering the room, they sat down.
(non-overlapping times)

[ Dia] [ Ø [ yang datang ] ] 3SG REL

arrive ‘S/he came.’

~‘The (one) who came is her.’

 Simple cases
Coordinate-as-background:
I’ll try and finish on time. (one action)
Tetun
Nia ti’a balu te’in hodi haa,3SG
already some cook and eatbalu hodi baa
fa’en hola loit. some and go sell fetch
money‘After that some is cooked to eat, some
is to sell to fetch money.’
 Outline
Preliminaries
Coordination, subordination,foregrounding and
backgrounding
Simple cases
Coordination = foregrounding,subordination =
backgrounding
Complex cases
Subordination = foregrounding,coordination =
backgrounding
Ø-marked clause boundaries
Conclusions & implications
 Outline
Preliminaries
Coordination, subordination,foregrounding and
backgrounding
Simple cases
Coordination = foregrounding,subordination =
backgrounding
Complex cases
Subordination = foregrounding,coordination =
backgrounding
Ø-marked clause boundaries
Conclusions & implications
 Preliminaries
Coordination:
two clauses joined together in which both are
fully finite and fully independent; neither is
dependent on the other.

Subordination
two clauses, one of which is dependent on the
other (larger) clause for some part of its
interpretation.
Coordination:
two clauses joined together in which both are
fully finite and fully independent; neither is
dependent on the other. &
Subordination
two clauses, one of which is dependent on the
other (larger) clause for some part of its
interpretation

COM
P
Coordination:
two clauses joined together in which both are
fully finite and fully independent; neither is
dependent on the other. &
Subordination
two clauses, one of which is dependent on the
other (larger) clause for some part of its
interpretation
 Preliminaries
Foreground
That part of a narrative that advances the main
story line, and builds sequentially on the
foreground material that precedes it.

Background
Material in a narrative that adds description, but
does not contribute to the process of story telling
directly, and is not necessarily temporally
ordered.
 Preliminaries
Foreground
That part of a narrative that advances the main
story line, and builds sequentially on the
foreground material that precedes it.

Background
Material in a narrative that adds description, but
does not contribute to the process of story telling
directly, and is not necessarily temporally
ordered.
 Preliminaries
Foreground
That part of a narrative that advances the main
story line, and builds sequentially on the
foreground material that precedes it.

Background
Material in a narrative that adds description, but
does not contribute to the process of story telling
directly, and is not necessarily temporally
ordered.
 Preliminaries
There was once a man who lived alone in a hut in
the forest.
He spent his time growing food to eat, and
carving wood into tools to sell in the markets in
the nearby villages.
Then, one day, a tall woman dressed in a long
blue dress, followed by three cats and three dogs,
walked up to his hut.
She greeted him, and told him why she had
come....
 Preliminaries
There was once a man who lived alone in a hut in
the forest.
He spent his time growing food to eat, and
carving wood into tools to sell in the markets in
the nearby villages.
Then, one day, a tall woman dressed in a long
blue dress, followed by three cats and three dogs,
walked up to his hut.
She greeted him, and told him why she had
come....

Coordination Subordination
 Preliminaries
There was once a man who lived alone in a hut in
the forest.
He spent his time growing food to eat, and
carving wood into tools to sell in the markets in
the nearby villages.
Then, one day, a tall woman dressed in a long
blue dress, followed by three cats and three dogs,
walked up to his hut.
She greeted him, and told him why she had
come....

Foreground Background
 Preliminaries
There was once a man.
He spent his time growing food, and carving
wood into tools.
Then, one day, a tall woman walked up to his
hut.
She greeted him, and told him....

Foreground Background
 Preliminaries
___ who lived alone in a hut in the forest.
___ to eat, ___to sell in the markets in the
nearby villages.
___dressed in a long blue dress, followed by
three cats and three dogs, ___.
___why she had come....

Foreground Background
 Preliminaries
There was once a man …
___ who lived alone in a hut in the forest.

Foreground Background
 Preliminaries
There was once a man who lived alone in a
hut in the forest.
*! There was once a man and lived alone in a hut
in the forest.

Have to use the appropriate clause-combining

morphology here; relative clauses have
‘stronger’ boundaries than XCOMPs.
 Preliminaries
Coordinate morphology exists, and is used
with non-dependent clauses.
Coordination = foregrounded discourse

Subordinate morphology exists, and is used

with dependent clauses.
Subordination = backgrounded discourse
 Outline
Preliminaries
Coordination, subordination,foregrounding and
backgrounding
Simple cases
Coordination = foregrounding,subordination =
backgrounding
Complex cases
Subordination = foregrounding,coordination =
backgrounding
Ø-marked clause boundaries
Conclusions & implications
 Coordination
Overt conjunctions:
and, or but, and then, …
I came home, then fed the cat and watched
some TV.
‘Covert conjunctions’
Ø
I came home, ___ fed the cat; ___watched
some TV.
 Subordination
Overt subordinators:
Relative clauses: who, which, (etc.);Xadjuncts:
when, after, while, before (etc.);Xcomps (purpose,
clausal complements): that, (in order) to

[ While whistling ],I took [the letter [that you

wrote]][ to post ].
 Subordination
Covert subordinators:
Ø
[Ø Whistling ],I took [the letter [Ø you
wrote]][ to post ].
 Simple cases
Indonesian:
Dia masuk ke rumah, terus __
duduk.3SG enter ALL house and.then
sit‘He entered the house and then ___ sat
down.’
(Dia masuk ke rumah, terus dia duduk)
dan terus, kemudian, lalu, (maka), sesudah
itu, …
 Simple cases
Indonesian:
Dia masuk ke rumah, terus __
duduk.3SG enter ALL house and.then
sit‘He entered the house and then ___ sat
down.’
(Dia masuk ke rumah, terus dia duduk)
dan terus, kemudian, lalu, (maka), sesudah
itu, …
teru
s
 Simple cases
Indonesian:
Sesudah dia masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.
after 3SG enter ALL house 3SG sit‘After
he entered the house, he sat down.’
Sesudah masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.
after enter ALL house 3SG sit‘After
entering the house, he sat down.’
Sesudah dia masuk ke rumah, duduk.
after 3SG enter ALL house sit‘After
*!
entering the house, he sat down.’
 Simple cases
Indonesian:
Sesudah dia masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.
after 3SG enter ALL house 3SG sit‘After
he entered the house, he sat down.’
Sesudah masuk ke rumah, dia duduk.
after enter ALL house 3SG sit‘After
entering the house, he sat down.’

sesuda
h
 Simple cases
Coordination:
two clauses joined together in which both are
fully finite and fully independent; neither is
teru
dependent on the other.
s
Subordination
two clauses, one of which is dependent on the
other (larger) clause for some part of its
interpretation

sesuda
h
 Simple cases
Indonesian:
perempuan tinggi yang pakai gaun panjang
woman tall REL wear dress long‘a tall
woman wearing a long dress.’

(most restricted kind of clause combining in

Indonesian?)
 Simple cases
Different only in involving NP-internal
relations;
Clearly subordinate.

Perempuan yang pakai gaun datang.

Subordination

N
P
ya
ng
 Simple cases
Repeat in almost as many languages as you’d
like…

…while staying mindful of the fact that some

languages just don’t have much morphology
 Simple cases
Where coordinate morphology exists, a major
function is to advance the narrative.
Coordination = foregrounded discourse

Where subordinate morphology exists, a

major function is to elaborate on aspects of
the main narrative.
Subordination = backgrounded discourse
 Outline
Preliminaries
Coordination, subordination,foregrounding and
backgrounding
Simple cases
Coordination = foregrounding,subordination =
backgrounding
Complex cases
Subordination = foregrounding,coordination =
backgrounding
Ø-marked clause boundaries
Conclusions & implications
 Consider…
Unsurprising use of complementiser:
Kalau dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.if
3SG not come 1SG not accompany‘If s/he
doesn’t come, I’m not going.’

[S [COMP Kalau dia tidak datang], saya tidak ikut ].

 Consider…
Unsurprising use of complementiser:
Ø dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.
3SG not come 1SG not accompany‘(If) s/he
doesn’t come, I’m not going.’

[S [COMP ____dia tidak datang], saya tidak ikut ].

 Consider…
Aside: compare:
Ø dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.
3SG not come 1SG not accompany‘(If)
s/he doesn’t come, I’m not going.’
with:
Dia tidak datang, saya tidak ikut.3SG not
come 1SG not accompany‘S/he didn’t
come, (and) I’m not going.’
 Consider…
Surprising (?) use of complementiser:
Kalau dia, saya tidak ikut. if 3SG 1SG
not accompany‘If (it’s) her/him, I’m not going.’

[S [COMP Kalau dia], saya tidak ikut ].

 Consider…
Surprising (?) use of complementiser:
Kalau dia (berhadir), saya tidak ikut. if
3SG be.present 1SG not accompany‘If s/he is
there, I’m not going.’

[S [COMP Kalau dia berhadir], saya tidak ikut ].

 Consider…
Aside:
Question:
Siapa yang datang? who REL come‘Who
came?’
Answer:
Saya. * ada saya * saya ada1SG
be 1SG 1SG be ‘(It was)
me.’
 Consider…
Surprising (?) use of complementiser:
Kalau dia, saya tidak ikut. if 3SG 1SG
not accompany‘If (it’s) her/him, I’m not going.’

[S [COMP Kalau dia PRED], saya tidak ikut ].

 Function ≠ Structure
Structurally:
[S [SCOMP COMP Pro PREDØ ], Pro NEG PRED ].
Subordinate: an adjunct SCOMP

Functionally:
[TOP CASETOP Pro [S Pro NEG PRED ], ].
Superordinate: a topic function
 Levels…
Coordination:
&
Subordination:

Topic:
 Levels…
My friend, while talking, ate a sandwich and
then brushed his teeth as he hummed.
 Consider…
Surprising use of complementiser (?):
Kalau hujan, saya tidak ikut.if rain 1SG
not accompany‘If it rains, I’m not going.’

[S [COMP Kalau hujan ], [S saya tidak ikut ] ].

 Consider…
Surprising use of complementiser (?):
Kalau hujan, saya tidak ikut.if rain 1SG
not accompany‘If (it’s) rain, I’m not going.’

[S [COMP Kalau hujan ], [S saya tidak ikut ] ].

 Consider…
A complementiser (?):
Kalau nasi, saya lebih suka.(if) rice 1SG
more like‘I prefer rice.’

[S [COMP Kalau nasi], saya lebih suka ]. ?

[S [TOP Kalau nasi], saya lebih suka ]. ?
 Consider…
A relativiser:
Saya makan nasi yang di-masak ibu.1SG
eat rice REL ACT-cook mother
‘I’m eating the rice that mother cooked.’

[S saya makan [NP nasi [RC yang dimasak ibu ]]].

 Consider…
A relativiser:
Saya makan yang di-masak ibu.1SG
eat REL ACT-cook mother
‘I’m eating what mother cooked’

[S saya makan [NP Ø [RC yang dimasak ibu ]]].

 Consider…
A relativiser, but…
Apa yang di-masak ibu?What
REL ACT-cook mother‘What did mother
cook?’

[S [NP apa ] [NP Ø [RC yang dimasak ibu ] ] ].

[S [NP ] = [NP ] ].
~ “What mother cooked is what?” ~
Both kalau and yang have clear
subordinating uses;

Both kalau and yang function in main clauses

in ways that have foregrounding, main clause
uses, while retaining subordinate clause
structures.
Palu’e
 Palu’e
Complementising clitic, -jo:
Koko-jo ia phana, aku-pli phana.if-COMP
3SG go 1SG-also goes‘If she’s going, I’ll
go too.’

Aku cu’u-jo iaka’a phana.1SG

know-COMP 3SG NEG go‘I know that she’s
not going.’
 Palu’e
Complementising clitic, -jo:
Aku cu’u-jo ia ka’a phana.1SG
know-COMP 3SG NEG go‘I know that she’s
not going.’

[S Aku cu’u [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana] ] ].

 Palu’e
Aku nra ia.1SG feel 3SG‘I love
her/him.’

Aku nra [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana ] ].

1SG feel -COMP 3SG NEG go‘I
remember that she’s not going.’
 Palu’e
Aku nra ia.1SG feel 3SG‘I love
her/him.’

Aku nra [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana ] ].

1SG feel -COMP 3SG NEG go‘I
think/feel (that) she’s not going.’

* ‘I remember that she’s not going.’

?
 Palu’e
Aku phela ia.1SG see 3SG‘I see
her/him.’

Aku phela [COMP -jo [S ia ka’a phana ] ].1SG

see -COMP 3SG NEG go‘I saw
(that) she didn’t go.’

?
 Palu’e
Overt complementiser to subordinate;but
optional.

Complementiser grammaticalised to show

lexical meaning differences:
love/think/remember: nra ____ vs. nra-jo ____
If a morpheme is subcategorised for by a
verb, can it still be subordinate?
 Foregrounding subordination
Morphology and syntax that are used for
subordination
can also be used in discourse functions that
are more typical of non-subordinate clause
combinations

These new discourse functions do not affect

the subordinate nature of the morphosyntax.
 Outline
Preliminaries
Coordination, subordination,foregrounding and
backgrounding
Simple cases
Coordination = foregrounding,subordination =
backgrounding
Complex cases
Subordination = foregrounding,coordination =
backgrounding
Ø-marked clause boundaries
Conclusions & implications
 Coordination to background
Less common?(not discussed in, eg., Mithun
2008)
Run and find out!
Go and find out!
Try and find out! Coordinate
?
Go and have a good time! Purposive?
We’re going into town and have a good time!
 Coordination to background
Go and have a good time!
We’re going into town and have a good time!
We went into town and had a good time.
to have
We’ll go into town and have a good time
to
Something’s sure and sweep me of my feet
(David Byrne, Talking Heads, ‘Burning down the
house’ – 1983)
 Coordination to background
Indonesia irrealis clauses:
Saya rasa haus, mau minum air.1SG feel
thirsty want drink water‘I’m thirsty,
(& I) want to drink water.’

Saya jalan ke pasar mau beli beras.1SG

go ALL market want buy rice‘I’m going to
the market to buy rice.’
Tetun
 Clausal vs. phrasal
Clausal conjunction with hodi:
Feto Ikun ksotir di’ak n-odi
hodi matenek.
and
woman tail fortune good 3SG-and cleverAmi
ksotir lalek hodi beik1PL fortune lack
and stupid ‘Youngest sister was fortunate
and clever. We are unfortunate and stupid.’
 Clausal vs. phrasal
Clausal conjunction with hodi:
Ha’u k-mama ai-kakaluk k-odi1SG
1SG-chew wood-power 1SG-andtaka nia-kan
ain tohar ne’e.cover 3SG-POSS leg
broken this‘I chew medicine, and cover his
broken leg (with it).’

‘I chew medicine, and use it to

coverhis broken leg.’
 Clausal vs. phrasal
Clausal subordination with hodi:
Ita soru hodi dakar sira1PL
weave ‘and’ look.after 3PL‘We weave while
looking after them.’
Nia karian n-odi n-a-to’o3SG
work 3SG-‘and’ 3SG-CAUS-enoughnaha
ba uma laran.baggage go house
inside‘He works to supply things for in the
house.’
One
 (Topicalising to coordination)
One:
No n-aplere n-i moru.3PL 3PL-
run 3PL-go house‘They ran to the house.’

No n-u au moren.3PL 3PL-eat

sago house:LOC‘They ate sago in the house.’
 (Topicalising to coordination)
One:
Moru sa(,) no n-aplere n-i __.
house TOP 3PL 3PL-run 3PL-go‘The house,
they ran to (it).’

Au sa(,) no n-u __ moren.sago

TOP 3PL 3PL-eat house:LOC‘Sago, they
ate (it) in the house.’
 (Topicalising to coordination)
One:
Moren sa(,) no n-u au.house:LOC
TOP 3PL 3PL-eat sago ‘In the house,
they ate sago.’

*Moren sa(,) au sa no n-u au.

house:LOC TOP sago TOP 3PL 3PL-eat sago ‘In
the house, they ate sago.’
 (Topicalising to coordination)
One:
No n-i moru sa, 3PL 3PL-go
house ‘TOP’no n-u au.3PL 3PL-
eat sago‘They went to the house, and ate
sago.’
 (Topicalising to coordination)
One:
No n-i moru.3PL 3PL-go house
Sa, no n-u au.‘TOP’ 3PL 3PL-eat
sago‘They went to the house, and ate sago.’
 Coordination to background
Not as common as ‘subordination function
raising’,butstill attested.

Often structurally ambiguous.

 Outline
Preliminaries
Coordination, subordination,foregrounding and
backgrounding
Simple cases
Coordination = foregrounding,subordination =
backgrounding
Complex cases
Subordination = foregrounding,coordination =
backgrounding
Ø-marked clause boundaries
Conclusions & implications
 Consider…
Purposive complement clause:
Saya pergi untuk makan nasi.1SG go
COMP eat rice‘I’m going to eat rice.’

[S Saya pergi [COMP untuk makan nasi] ].

 Consider…
Purposive complement clause:
Saya pergi makan nasi.1SG go
eat rice‘I’m going to eat rice rice.’

[S Saya pergi [COMP Ø makan nasi] ].

 Complex cases
Quoted speech:
Saya tahu bahwa dia sudah masuk.1SG
know that 3SG already enter‘I know
that s/he’s already entered.’

Saya tahu dia sudah masuk.

 Complex cases
Perception complements (+):
Saya lihat orang yang lari.1SG see
person REL run‘I saw the person who had
run.’
Saya lihat orang lari.
[NP Pro ] [VP V [NP N [RC REL V ] ] ]
[NP Pro ] [VP V [NP N ] [XCOMP __ V ] ]
[NP Pro ] [VP V [SCOMP COMP [NP N ] [VP V ] ] ]
 Consider…
Overhead in Hasanuddin airport, Makassar:
Sudah boarding, masih check-in!already
boarding still check-in‘(They’re) already
boarding (the aircraft)(and he’s) still checking
in!’

‘(Even though they’re) already boarding,

(he’s) still checking in!’
 Consider…
Sudah boarding, masih check-in!already
boarding still check-in
‘(They’re) already boarding (the aircraft)(and
he’s) still checking in!’

[S [S Sudah boarding ], (&) [S masih check-

in ] ]!
 Consider…
Sudah boarding, masih check-in!already
boarding still check-in
‘(Even though they’re) already boarding,
(he’s) still checking in!’

[S [COMP Ø Sudah boarding ], masih check-in ]!

While opening the door, I spoke to Melissa.
While entering the room, I spotted Melissa.
While entering the room, I spotted Melissa.
Entering the room, I spotted Melissa.

Entering the room, I ordered a coffee and

waited.
Tukang Besi
 Tukang Besi
Ku-’ita-’e na mia.1SG-see-3 NOM
person‘I saw the person.’
No-tinti na mia.3R-run.SI NOM person
‘The person ran earlier.’
 Tukang Besi
Ku-’ita-’e na mia [ t<um>inti i aba ].
1SG-see-3 NOM person run.SI OBL earlier
‘I saw the person who had run earlier.’

Ku-’ita-’e no-tinti na mia.1SG-see-33R-

run.SI NOM person‘I saw the person who had
run earlier.’~ ‘I saw a person running.’
Skou
 Skou
Simple clauses:
Pe=ueme=ing_a pe=ti pá.
3SG.F=woman=the 3SG.F=go house‘The
woman went to the house.’

Pe=ueme=ing_a hóe pe=p-ang.

3SG.F=woman=the sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat‘The
woman ate sago.’
 Skou
Relative clauses:
pe=ueme pe=ti pá=ing_a
3SG.F=woman 3SG.F=go house=the‘the woman
who went to the house’

pe=ueme hóe pe=p-ang=ing_a

3SG.F=woman sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat=the‘the
woman who ate sago’
 Skou
=pa
Coordinate clauses: =an
d
Pe=ueme=ing_a pe=ti pá
3SG.F=woman=the 3SG.F=go househóe =ko
=an
pe=p-ang.sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat‘The woman
went to the house and ate sago.’ d
=te
=an
d
 Skou
Coordinate clauses:
Pe=ueme=ing_a pe=ti pá
3SG.F=woman=the 3SG.F=go househóe
pe=p-ang.sago 3SG.F=3SG.F-eat‘The woman
went to the house to eat sago.’
 Ø-marked clause boundaries
Summary slide
 Outline
Preliminaries
Coordination, subordination,foregrounding and
backgrounding
Simple cases
Coordination = foregrounding,subordination =
backgrounding
Complex cases
Subordination = foregrounding,coordination =
backgrounding
Ø-marked clause boundaries
Conclusions & implications
 Conclusions
Structure = Function
Easiest to analyse;
There have to be some of these.
Structure ≠ Function
Caught between grammaticalisation?
Long-term stable?
Structure is indeterminate?
Especially when there’s no overt morphology.
 The End
Thank you
 Important point:
Morphology dedicated to indicating clauses in
combination are prone to
refunctionalisation.
The subordinate clauses are still subordinate,
grammatically.This is not grammaticalisation
of subordinate clause morphology into
dependent clause uses.
I will try to do well in my exams.

I will try and do well in my exams.

Saya coba makan baik-baik.

I’m going down the shops to go and get some
chocolate.
* I’m going down the shops and go and get
some chocolate.
I’m going to try to finish the essay.
I’m going to try and finish the essay.
Run fast and win!
Run fast to win!
I’ll try to fix it.
I’ll try and fix it.

I’ll go to buy it at the shops.

I’ll go and buy it at the shops.

I’ll go to the shops to buy it.

I’ll go to the shops and buy it.
 Overview
Coordination and subordination are often
described as serving foregrounding and
backgrounding functions;
This is not as clear-cut as it’s often described.
Subordinated clauses can often serve a
foregrounded function; can coordinated
clauses also serve a backgrounding function?
When ellipsis applies to coordinators and
subordinators, what else can we expect?
 Simple cases
Something’s sure and sweep me of my feet
(David Byrne, Talking Heads, ‘Burning down the
house’ – 1983)
We’re going into town and have a good time.

We went into town and had a good time.

We’ll go into town and have a good time.
We go into town and have a good time.
Tukang Besi
Palu’e
Kami phote nio,1PL.EX pick coconutthuka, __
khla __,__ kha __ __ psa __,ascend
split eat chew.flesh__nala
vae-ne __ ninu __, take water-3GEN
drink__ psa i-ne, … chew.flesh flesh-
3GEN‘We picked some coconuts, climbed (up for them),
split them, ate and chewed, took some water to drink,
chewed the (coconut) flesh.’