SABBATIANISM AND THE JEWISH-CHRISTIAN POLEMIC

ELISHEVA CARLEBACH

Sabbatianism was a significant new ingredient in the Jewish

Christian polemic in the century after 1666. This recent failed mes
sianic movement was extremely detrimental to the Jewish side of the
polemic. This development in the polemical discourse was not limited
to the repartee of theologians. It had concrete, consequences in the
form of apostasies to Christianity by Jews whose hopes for the final
denouement in history were extinguished by this episode, or by these
arguments.

This paper will attempt to demonstrate the pervasiveness of the

Sabbatian example in anti-Jewish writing of the post- Sabbatian peri
od, and weigh some of the evidence of individual conversions to Chri
stianity resulting from post Sabbatian despair. Here, we must make
some careful distinctions. The polemical debate between Jews and
Christians over the messiah was sixteen centuries old—and it would
have continued even without Sabbatai. Only polemics that specifically
mention the Sabbatian failure can be attributed to its influence. The
same is true of conversions to Christianity. Baptism had always been
an option for individual Jews in Christian society. The most constant
motivation was the sincere conviction that Christian triumphalist
arguments were right. In order to attribute a conversion to the
effects of Sabbatianism, there must be definite evidence linking the
apostasy to the failure of the messianic movement.

It is important to distinguish between two types of conversion

in the wake of the Sabbatian movement: celebrated mass apostasies,
and individual conversions. Mass conversions such as that of the
Donmeh to Islam and the Frankists to Catholicism were motivated by
the concept we can call imitatio messaie, following in the footsteps
of the redeemer. Their conversion must be seen as supreme defiant
acts of hope, a means of penetrating the 'evil dominions' and sub
verting them from within. Individual conversions on the other hand,
must be read as expressions of Jewish hopelessness. They constitute
a total surrender to the Christian argument that for Jews, in his
tory, there is nothing left but despair.
 ELISHEVA CARLEBACH

A recent study by Yehuda Leibes illuminates the inner working of

a circle of secret Sabbatians who drew so close to Christianity that
most of them ultimately converted, and missionized among the Jews,
This group appears to lie on the midpoint of the continuum between
isolated individual actions and mass conversions. It demonstrates the
complexity of trying to pinpoint the motivations of conver

The literary material in which the Sabbatian example is used to

demonstrate Jewish blindness is abundant and varied. Works in the
German language constitute the richest source, followed by English,
Italian, Latin, French, Dutch as well as Hebrew. It appears in
polemics aimed directly at Jews as well as conversion manuals written
to aid missionaries in the field, histories of Jews or of Jewish
sects, and compendia of Jewish ceremonies and customs. Often, degrad
ing references to Jewish gullibility, using the Sabbatian example can
be found outside the realm of theological discourse, in other liter
ary genres altogether, or as a sidebar in works directed at non-Jew
ish audiences.

I want to begin with one of the least typical examples. The

German author Hans Grimmelshausen, famous for his Adventures of Simp
licimus, wrote another story, The Enchanted Bird's Nest. One long
section, titled by the translator "The False Messiah," can stand on
its own. The hero, a gentile, poses as Elijah the prophet to a rich
Portuguese Jew. He convinced the Jew to let him sleep with his beau
tiful daughter by promising him that the child to be born of that
union would be the messiah. The Jew agreed, and the child was awaited
eagerly by Jewry the world over. When the child was born and turned
out to be a girl, the rabbis immediately interpreted this as God's
way of protecting his newborn Messiah from the wrath of the Gentiles.
Grimmelshausen openly alluded to the Sabbatian parallels, and repeat
edly emphasized the depth of Jewish credulousness: "If the Jews can
imagine that ... is the messiah, it is no longer surprising that they
let themselves be duped by so many swindlers in the past."^
Other points that emerge are closer to our theme. The informant
[who gave the gentile hero enough information to pass himself off a
a Jew,] was a Jew who had recently converted to Christianity. H
Christian faith had wavered when he heard of the imminent arrival of
the Jewish messiah. Once it was revealed as a hoax, his Christian

1 Yehudah Leibes, "On a Secret Jewish-Christian Sect that

originated in Sabbatianism," (Heb.) Tarbiz, 57, #3, 1988, pp. 349‫־‬
384.

2 Hans Jacob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen, "The F

Messiah," Courage the Adventuress and the False Messiah, transl.
Hans Speier. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1964), p.279.
 SABBATIANISM AND THE JEWISH-CHRISTIAN POLEMIC

faith was reaffirmed. Many of the Jewish characters embraced Chris

tianity in the end. "Since your messiah has come to naught, I urge
you to embrace the Christian religion." ^ Grimmelshausen ar
now that the sole hope of Jewish vindication in the face of Chris
tianity had finally been refuted, only conversion was left for the
Jews.

While Grimmelshausen's tale is not conversionist literature, it

accurately conveys the tone of Christian triumphalism and Jewish
despair that typifies much of the Christian-Jewish polemical dis
course of the post-Sabbatian century.

Johann Jacob Schudt's Judische Merckwurdiqkeiten is perhaps the

greatest eighteenth century compendium by a non Jew of Jewish law and
lore. Substantial portions are devoted to the Sabbatian movement
and its aftermath. If there were any doubt as to Schudt's intentions
toward this material, his introduction to the fourth volume, a poem
by Johann Riederer, makes it perfectly clear:
"Du blinder Hauffe du! Ihr armen Kinder Levi!
greifft mit den Händen doch dass schon Maschiach kam
Das euer falscher Christ/ der Sabbatai Sevi
Wie Andre hiebevor/ ein garstig Ende nahm
denckt dass man eure List/ und heillos Wesen kennet
ob ihr uns hunäertmahl gleich Edomiter nennet ..."4
Schudt described the reaction of the Jews world over to Sab
batai's arrival: their suspension of normal business, their arrogance
to Christians, and their disappointment at the outcome. He cited
many instances of conversion to Christianity in its wake.

In his Histoire des Juifs, Jacques Basnage devoted a substantial

section to strategies for conversion of Jews. He introduced the
Sabbatian movement with an apology: "If this article seems a bit
long, it is important to remember the impudence of imposters and the
credulity of the people." "Meme cette credulite Juive ne fut pas
arrete par le mort de Zabbatai." Long after the apostasy, there were
still many Jewish followers. Basnage mentioned Daniel Bonafoux,
Abraham Cardoso, and Mordechai of Eisenstadt. It is their respect
for the Talmud, and their exclusive preoccupation with it that Bas
nage blames for their refusal to see the light. They should be

3 Ibid., p. 286.
4 Johann Freiderich Riederer, Intro, to Vol. IV of Johann Jacob
Schudt, Judische Merckwurdiqkeiten, Frankfurt and Leipzig, 1715.
 ELISHEVA CARLEBACH

tolerated in Protestant society in order to aquaint them with the

best face of Christianity, to facilitate their conversion.5

Carlo Imbonati's anti Jewish polemic Magen ve-Hereb u-Milhamah,

first established that one of the primary sources of Jewish blasphemy
was the difference with Christians over the Messiah. He devoted a
respectable discussion to Sabbatai and Mordechai of Eisenstadt. He
conluded with a mocking taunt addressed directly to the Jews:
"Do you still not know, 0 unhappy Jews, that you have been de
ceived by so many false messiahs, while you revile Jesus Christ,
true son of God. 0 miseros, o caecos, o stupidos!"8
Johannes von Lent1s Schediasma Historico Philoloqicum de Judaeo
rum pseudo-Messias was the only work to concentrate solely on Jewish
false messiahs. He listed nineteen from Bar Kochba to Mordechai of
Eisenstadt, with a special section devoted to Sabbatai. The con
elusions to be drawn from the fact that Jews have been duped by false
messiahs since the time of Jesus are obvious, and Lent served as a
source for his many successors.7

Richard Kidder's A Demonstration of the Messias, devotes one

volume of the three to "An Historical Account of the False Christs
that have appeared since our saviour's times," and to a more par
ticular account of Sabbatai Zebi and of R. Mordechai. The punishment
of the Jews for rejecting Jesus is that they have ever been prone
ever since to "embrace and entertain false prophets and Imposters."
Kidder reported that an acquaintance of his, who sojourned in Aleppo
during the Sabbatian movement, questioned a Jewish friend about Sab
batai Zevi. "The Jew replied that he believed him to be the messias,
and that he was so far of that belief that if he should prove to be
an Imposter, he would then turn Christian."8

5 Jacques Basnage, Histoire des Juifs depuis Jesus-Christ

jusqu'a present. La Haye, 1716. Intro, to Vol. IX.

6 Carlo Imbonati, Magen ve-Hereb u-Milhamah. [forms vol

Bartolocci, Bibliotheca Magna Rabbinica.‫ ן‬Rome, 1693, p. 116.
Bartolloci's own description, pp. 50, ff.

7 Johannes a Lent, Schediasma Historico Philoloqicum de

Judaeorum Pseudo-Messias. Herborna, 1697.

8 Kidder, Richard. A Demonstration of the Messias. 3 vols.

London, 1680-1700, esp. vol. 3, pp. 389,409.
 SABBATIANISM AND THE JEWISH-CHRISTIAN POLEMIC

The anonymous English tract Devil of Delphos, was addressed to

Christian sectarians. But it contains a long excursus on the history
on the history of false Jewish messiahs, culminating with Sabbatai
Zebi. The author compared the Sabbatians to Christian Enthusiasts,
and argued that the latter were no better than the former. Still,
this work contributed to the dissemination of the notion of Jewish
credulousness in England.9

Some of the works to use the Sabbatian example to deride the

Jews were written by apostates. Friedrich Albert Christiani, former
ly Barukh ben Moses of Prosnitz, wrote Der Juden Glaube und Aberq
laube, to inform missionaries about Jewish beliefs. Christiani
argued that Christians can never say that they have exhausted all
avenues for conversion of Jews—one key convert could bring all the
others into the fold. He complained that too many theologians write
arguments, saying, 'Let it be disputed or preached in this manner',
but they leave the dirty work to others. In his autobiographical
account, Christiani credited the false messiah of 1666 with showing
him the error of the Jews and the truth of Christianity.9•1‫־‬

Giulio Morosini converted before 1666, but like the character

in Grimmelshausen, his Christian faith was strengthened by the false
messiah. In 1683, he published Via de11a Fede [Derekh Emmunah] as a
guide for those who preach to the Jews, and a considerable amount of
space is devoted to Sabbatai. Ludovico Maracci, in L'ebreo preso per
le buone wrote that of all the Jewish false messiahs, none attracted
as much attention and as much vituperation as Sabbatai. Lotharius
Franzfried, [Joseph Marcus before his conversion], signified the
importance of the false messiahs already in the title of his anti
Jewish polemic of 1715.11
Carl Anton's Kurze Nachricht von dem Falsche Messias Sabbathai
Zebbi, and his special supplement on the Emden Eybeshcutz controversy
are other works written by an apostate whose conversion can be linked
to Sabbatianism. His defense of R. Jonathan Eybeshutz rested on the
argument that Sabbatai was such a ridiculous figure, it would be

9 The Devil of Delphos, London, 1708.

Frederich Albert Christiani, Juden Glaube und Aberglaube.

Leipzig, 1713. pp. 65, ff.

Giulio Morosini, Via della Fede mostrata a qli Ebrei. Rome,

1683. Ludovico Marracci, L'ebreo preso per le buone. Lotharius
Franzfried, "... und Ihre Falsche Messiasse Mainz, 1715.
 ELISHEVA CARLEBACH

preposterous to believe that a man as wise as R. Jonathan was his

adherent. Jews who still awaited the messiah were blind not to see
that Christianity had shown the true messiah long befo

Another theme that emerges in these anti-Jewish polemics is the

theme we can call "The Difficult-to-convert-Jewish heart," Das Schwer
zu Bekehrend Juden-Hertz, which is the title of a book by Sigismund
Hosmann. The greatanti-Jewish polemicist Wagenseil wrote in his
last work that despite Jewish stubborness, he believed that the con
version of the Jews was imminent. Christian Reineccius refuted
Wagenseil's optimism by arguing that the Jewish heart was in no way
ready to accept the truth.

These works reflect only a small percentage of what must have

been drummed into Jewish consciousness in sermon's, debates and pri
vate discussions. How effective was this argument in producing
individual Jewish conversions to Christianity? French, Dutch and
German sources report very large numbers of converts.1
statistical evidence does not exist, all we have is anecdotal. There
is abundant and detailed literary evidence concerning dozens of Jews
who converted in the post-Sabbatian century. From Ragstatt de Weile
who converted in 1669 and reflected with scorn on the many Jews who
still believed in Sabbatai, to Jacob Melamed of Cornitz who converted
"since Sabbatai Zebi, for whom we had waited a whole year with fasts
and mortifications, was all lies." Wolf Levi and Simha Hasid,
nephews of R. Judah Hasid, converted in Nordlingen in 1707; Nehemiah
Kohen of Ferrara converted in Italy at the height of the Luzzatto
controversy in 1735. The missionary institutes of Edzard and Callen
berg made special use of the Sabbatian debacle in their efforts,

12 Carl Anton, Kurze Nachricht von dem falschen Me

Sabbatai Zebbi, und den neulich seinetwegen in Hamburg und Altena
entstandenen Bewegungen zu besserer Beurteilung derer bisher in
den Zeitungen und andern Schriften davon bekandt gewordenen
Erzählungen Wolfenbuttel, 1752; Idem., Nachlese zu seiner
letztern Nachricht von Sabbatai Zebbi worin zugleich das Ende
dieser Streitigkeit erzahlet wird. Braunschweig, 1753.

Sigismund Hosmann, Das Schwer zu bekehrende Juden Hertz,

nebst einigen Mitteln zu der Juden Bekehrung. Helmstadt, 1701.
[e.p. Zelle, 1699. one entire chapter devoted to Sabbatai]

14 Gershom Scholem, Sabbatai Zebi, Princeton, pp.756, 7

Schudt, Vol. IV, book 6, pp. 242 and passim. H. Bovenkerk,
"Nederlandse schrivers tijdens de Republiek over de Joden," Brugmanns
and Frank, eds. Geschiedenis der Joden in Nederland. Amsterdam, pp.
714-71.
 SABBATIANISM AND THE JEWISH-CHRISTIAN POLEMIC

which were very successful, but even they cannot supply global
statistics.

A note concerning this issue in recent historiography: Isaiah

Sonne gave great credence to reports of massive numbers of Jews bap
tized after the Sabbatian debacle, and he assigned it a central role
in Jewish Christian relations in Italy. Scholem dismissed reports of
massive numbers of conversions as an "obvious journalistic canard".
He devoted much scholarly attention to mass apostasies, as the Jewish
characteristics of the apostates persevered for a very long time. In
Scholem"s historiography Sabbatianism is the dialectical source of
many positive developments in modern Jewish history. The sinister
potential of Sabbatianism to subvert the Jewish faith has been fully
explored by Scholem, but only with regard to mass apostasies. The
persistent wearisome effect of a new weapon of Christian mockery, and
the individual defections that resulted, remain unremarked.15 While
there is no evidence for thousands of baptisms at a time, the Sab
batian movement was a significant factor in the Jewish-Christian
polemic of the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.

The Jewish response to this new development should also be

noted. Anti-Sabbatian polemicists made a considerable effort to point
out that Sabbatianism opened a new window on Jewish polemical vul
nerability. The confluence of anti-Sabbatian and anti-Christian pole
mics has long been noted. It was this power of Sabbatianism, as a
sword in the hands of the Gentiles, that informs much of the anti
Sabbatian polemics including those of Jacob Sasportas, Isaac Cardoso,
Tobiah HaKohen, David Nieto, Judah Briel and Moses Hagiz. Hagiz
summarized this aspect in his writing against the Sabbatian Michael
Cardoso: "His beliefs will arouse arguments against us, and befoul
our name among the inhabitants of the land, and further arouse
in the hearts of those among us who are already distant [Jews who
were edging closer to apostasy.]16

1‫ ־י‬Isaiah Sonne, "New Material on Sabbatai Zevi from a Notebook

of R. Abraham Rovigo," Sefunot, 3-4, 1960, p.54.

Moses Hagiz, Eleh HaMizvot, Wandsbeck, 1727, #613.