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The majority of eukaryotes need oxygen for their growth. 1997; Nissen et al., 2000; Rosenfeld & Beauvoit, 2003).
However, several yeast lineages can proliferate under Saccharomyces cerevisiae as well as several other Sacchar-
hypoxic and anaerobic conditions (Merico et al., 2007). omyces/Kluyveromyces yeasts can grow under anaerobic
The ability to grow under anaerobic conditions depends on conditions. A recent comparative study (Merico et al.,
several factors, environmental, genetic and metabolic. A 2007) showed that especially yeasts belonging to the lineage
good capacity to ferment sugars to ethanol does not that underwent whole-genome duplication (WGD), an
necessarily imply that a yeast also has the ability to grow event that occurred around 150 million years ago (Wolfe &
under anaerobic conditions. Actually, most facultative fer- Shields, 1997; Kellis et al., 2004), followed by the rewiring of
mentative yeasts do not grow in the absence of oxygen, not transcriptional networks and by the evolution of new
even on complex media (Visser et al., 1990). The ability to proteins (Ihmels et al., 2005; Piškur et al., 2006), are capable
grow at a low oxygen concentration rather represents a of an efficient fermentative and anaerobic life style. Kluyver-
metabolic skill based on specific enzymatic and transport omyces lactis belongs to the Saccharomyces/Kluyveromyces
activities as well as specific regulatory circuits. In short, complex, but it diverged from S. cerevisiae before the WGD
anaerobiosis imposes a number of challenges to the cell, (Wolfe & Shields, 1997). Most K. lactis strains can grow on
ranging from the ability to synthesize essential cellular glucose in the presence of respiratory inhibitors (antimycin
compounds for which molecular oxygen is required, such A, oligomycin, etc.), but fail to grow efficiently under strict
as sterols and unsaturated fatty acids, to the ability to anaerobic conditions on synthetic media, even in the
c 2009 Federation of European Microbiological Societies FEMS Yeast Res 9 (2009) 749–756
Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved
Fermentation pattern in Kluyveromyces lactis 751
for 2 min at 15 700 g to discard cellular pellets. The concen- ACCCTTAAC) and 15 pmol of the KlACT1 internal control
trations of glucose, ethanol and glycerol in the supernatants primers (ACT1-for: CCTTCTACGTCTCTATCCAAGC, ACT1-
were determined using R-Biopharm Italia enzymatic kits rev: GTGATAACTTGGCCATCTGG). Synthesis of cDNA was
(code 716251, 176290 and 148270, respectively). All samples performed at 45 1C for 30 min before inactivation of RT at
were analyzed in triplicate, and the SD varied between 1% 95 1C for 5 min. Amplification of cDNA by PCR was performed
and 2%. for 1 min at 95 1C, 45 s at 52 1C and 1 min at 72 1C for 30 cycles.
Detection of contaminating DNA in all total RNA sam-
Preparation of cell extracts and enzyme assays ples was performed in RT-PCR reaction mixtures in which
the RT was inactivated before the cDNA synthesis step.
Cell extracts were prepared essentially as described by
Amplification efficiencies were evaluated by gel electro-
Postma et al. (1989), with the exception that cells were
phoresis and densitometric analysis using the KODAK 1DIMAGE
disrupted by agitation with glass beads on a vortex (alter-
ANALYSIS software (Kodak). The results, expressed in arbitrary
nating 1 min in ice and 1 min on vortex for five times)
Table 1. Comparison of the growth parameters of Kluyveromyces lactis cultivated under aerobic conditions without respiration inhibitors and under
conditions of reduced respiratory activity in presence of antimycin A and in presence of antimycin A plus acetoin
1 1
Yield (g g glucose) q (mmol g dry weight h 1)
Specific rate
Growth conditions of growth (h 1) Biomass Ethanol Glycerol Glucose Ethanol Glycerol
Without respiration inhibitors 0.50 0.40 0 0 11.95 0 0
With antimycin A 0.15 0.04 0.35 0.10 23.00 31.74 4.52
With antimycin A and acetoin 0.26 0.06 0.34 0.02 23.40 31.09 0.75
Table 2. Growth parameters of Kluyveromyces lactis cultivated under conditions of oxygen limitation at low cell concentration and at high cell
concentration, with and without acetoin
1 1
Yield (g g glucose) q (mmol g dry weight h 1)
Specific rate
result from a higher fermentative activity, but was likely due across the tubes and dissolved in the medium. At this point,
to the reduced production of glycerol, which leaves more the dissolved oxygen level actually declined below the
ATP for the growth. detection limit of the oxygen probe. This more oxygen-
limited condition determined a further decrease of the
growth rate and also caused, surprisingly, a decrease of the
Growth under conditions of oxygen limitation
specific glucose consumption rate (Table 2, phase II). This
The growth in the presence of inhibitors of the respiratory could not have been due to a decreased glucose concentra-
chain can be very different from the growth under the tion in the medium, because this was still sufficiently high to
condition of a real oxygen limitation. In order to investigate maintain the low-affinity glucose transporter RAG1 being
the response of K. lactis under limited oxygen availability, we induced (Chen et al., 1992). As a consequence of the reduced
performed experiments in a fermentor in the absence of air flux of glucose, the specific ethanol production rate de-
supply and nitrogen flux, to avoid strict anaerobic condi- creased, and the glycerol production rate decreased as well
tions. Furthermore, the presence of the silicon tubes and (Table 2, phase II). In terms of yields, all the parameters
continuous stirring in the fermentor allowed some oxygen (biomass, ethanol and glycerol) reached almost the same
diffusion and the presence of a very low level of dissolved values as already observed during growth in the presence of
oxygen (Visser et al., 1990; for more details, see also antimycin A.
Materials and methods). At the time of the inoculation, the The addition of acetoin under these conditions elicited a
dissolved oxygen concentration was 100% of the air satura- response similar to the one that occurred in the experiment
tion, but it declined to 0.2% in 30 min, due to cell respira- performed in the presence of antimycin A. It caused an
tion and growth. Under these conditions, K. lactis exhibited increase in the specific growth rate that could be maintained
a respiro-fermentative metabolism and grew exponentially throughout the experiment and a strong decrease in the
at a specific rate of 0.26 h 1 (Table 2, phase I). As already glycerol consumption rate without influencing the fermen-
observed in the presence of antimycin A, oxygen limitation tative activity (Table 2). Yields were influenced as well: lower
reduced the specific growth rate, but to a lesser extent than ethanol and glycerol yields resulted in a higher biomass yield
in the case of antimycin A. The specific glucose consump- (Table 2).
tion rate was almost three times higher than in aerobiosis
but also higher than in the presence of antimycin A,
Growth under more oxygen-limited conditions
resulting in a higher ethanol and glycerol production rate
(for a comparison, see Tables 1 and 2). As the biomass The observation that the oxygen limitation affected glucose
increased, the condition of oxygen limitation became more metabolism and fermentative activity needed further inves-
stringent in the bioreactor, because an increased number of tigations. It is known that K. lactis is unable to grow under
cells consumed the very low amount of the oxygen diffusing strict anaerobic conditions on synthetic media even in the
c 2009 Federation of European Microbiological Societies FEMS Yeast Res 9 (2009) 749–756
Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved
Fermentation pattern in Kluyveromyces lactis 753
presence of sterols and fatty acids (Kwast et al., 2002). In main effect elicited by acetoin was the reduction of glycerol
order to test the K. lactis response under more oxygen- production, in terms of both productivity and yield.
limited conditions, cells were inoculated in the fermentor at
higher cell concentrations (Fig. 1). In this set of experiments, Enzyme activities and RAG1 expression
the same level of dissolved oxygen as that described in the
To verify how the induction of the fermentative metabolism
above experiment was available, but for a higher amount of
is related to the activity of involved enzymes under the
cells, thus providing a more stressful condition of oxygen-
different conditions of growth, several of them were ana-
limited growth. Noticeably, the dissolved oxygen concentra-
lyzed (Table 3). As expected, and already reported (Kiers
tion declined below the oxygen sensor sensitivity already
et al., 1998), pyruvate dehydrogenase and ADH activities
after 3 min from the inoculation. In this way, furthermore,
increased during the growth under limited oxygen condi-
the cells grew in a fresh medium and then at the appropriate
tions. The activity of GPD increased under limited oxygen
glucose concentration for the RAG1 induction and without
conditions as well and this correlated with the observed
30
indicate that, as in S. cerevisiae, the glycolytic flux is
Biomass (OD)
10 25
stimulated under hypoxia, as expected due to the lower
20
energetic efficiency of fermentation over respiration. Our
15
1 experiments proved that K. lactis, similar to S. cerevisiae,
10
increases its glucose metabolism and accumulates ethanol
5
0.1 0
and glycerol in response to a reduced oxygen availability/
0 2 4 6 8 10 respiratory activity (Tables 1 and 2). The glucose consump-
Time (h) tion rate was substantially higher under oxygen-limited
Fig. 1. Growth of Kluyveromyces lactis under conditions of oxygen conditions or in the presence of respiration inhibitors than
limitation inoculated at a high cell concentration: ’, biomass; under fully aerobic conditions, but this relationship seems
~, glucose; m, ethanol; and n, glycerol. to be strictly correlated to the oxygen level. In fact, when the
Table 3. Analysis of the activities of pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC), alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH), GPD, hexokinase (HXK) and G6PDH and of RAG1
expression under aerobic conditions and under conditions of oxygen limitation
Enzyme activity (U mg 1) mRNA expression (AU)
Table 4. Comparison of growth parameters under strict anaerobic or must be transported to the cytosol and oxidized via forma-
oxygen-limited conditions in three different yeasts (data in parentheses tion of glycerol. In S. cerevisiae, different shuttle systems
obtained under aerobic conditions) have been described that generate an NAD/NADH gradient
S. cerevisiae S. kluyveri K. lactis across the inner mitochondrial membrane. One is the
mmax (h 1) 0.35 (0.38) 0.24 (0.47) 0.16 (0.5) dihydroxyacetone phosphate–glycerol-3-phosphate, cata-
qglu (mmol g 1 dry 26.8 (13.2) 14.9 (8.7) 9.4 (11.95) lyzed by the cytoplasmic GPD1 product, and the mitochon-
weight h 1) drial GPD2 product, which has been shown to be induced
qEtOH (mmol g 1 dry 35.4 (21.8) 20.5(3.4) 14 (0) specifically under anaerobiosis (Ansell et al., 1997). The
weight h 1)
ethanol–acetaldehyde shuttle has also been reported to be
qgly (mmol g 1 dry 4.17 (1.98) 3 (0.4) 1.7 (0)
involved and ADH3 is induced by anaerobiosis (Bakker
weight h 1)
Biomass yield 0.08 (0.11) 0.089 (0.29) 0.1 (0.4) et al., 2000; Overkamp et al., 2000). Similarly, FRDS1 and
(g g 1 glucose) OSM1, coding for the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial form
c 2009 Federation of European Microbiological Societies FEMS Yeast Res 9 (2009) 749–756
Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved
Fermentation pattern in Kluyveromyces lactis 755
oxygen decreases, an overall reduction of the glucose meta- glucose transporter gene RAG1 in Kluyveromyces lactis.
bolism occurs, which in turn leads to a reduced fermenta- Eukaryot Cell 7: 1895–1905.
tion activity. A redox imbalance, caused by the reduced Blanco M, Núñez L, Tarrı́o N, Canto E, Becerra M, González-Siso
respiratory activity and by the decreased glycolytic flux, also MI & Cerdán ME (2007) An approach to the hypoxic and
results. It remains unclear at present as to what is the nature oxidative stress responses in Kluyveromyces lactis by analysis of
of the signal that triggers the response to hypoxia. The mRNA levels. FEMS Yeast Res 7: 702–714.
evolution of a fermentative lifestyle is undoubtedly asso- Camarasa C, Faucet V & Dequin S (2007) Role in anaerobiosis of
ciated with the capacity to become independent from the the isoenzymes for Saccharomyces cerevisiae fumarate
oxygen availability. This skill is strictly correlated with the reductase encoded by OSM1 and FRDS1. Yeast 24: 391–401.
possibility to regulate gene expression and it is assisted by Chen XJ, Wésolowski-Louvel M & Fukuhara H (1992) Glucose
transport in the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis. II. Transcriptional
the presence of multiple genes differently expressed under
regulation of the glucose transporter gene RAG1. Mol Gen
aerobic/anaerobic conditions, as it occurs in S. cerevisiae.
Genet 233: 97–105.
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factors in mediating the anoxic response. J Bacteriol 184: Microb 55: 468–477.
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c 2009 Federation of European Microbiological Societies FEMS Yeast Res 9 (2009) 749–756
Published by Blackwell Publishing Ltd. All rights reserved