Ch.02 Modeling in Frequency Domain

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System Dynamics and Control 1 Modeling in the Frequency Domain System Dynamics and Control 2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain
Chapter Objectives
After completing this chapter, the student will be able to
• find the Laplace transform of time functions and the inverse
Laplace transform
• find the transfer function (TF) from a differential equation and
solve the differential equation using the transfer function
• find the transfer function for linear, time-invariant electrical networks
• find the TF for linear, time-invariant translational mechanical systems
• find the TF for linear, time-invariant rotational mechanical systems
• find the TF for gear systems with no loss and for gear systems
with loss
• find the TF for linear, time-invariant electromechanical systems
• produce analogous electrical and mechanical circuits
• linearize a nonlinear system in order to find the TF
HCM City Univ. of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Nguyen Tan Tien HCM City Univ. of Technology, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering Nguyen Tan Tien
§1.Introduction §2.Laplace Transform Review

- Transforms: a mathematical conversion from one way of
Transform
Requirements
Draw a Develop a
Reduce
thinking to another to make a problem easier to solve
Functional Create a Mathematical Analyze and
into a Block
Block Schematic Model (Block Design
Physical Diagram problem in solution in solution in
Diagram Diagram) inverse
System original way of transform transform way original way of
transform
thinking of thinking thinking
- Mathematical models from schematics of physical systems
• transfer functions in the frequency domain - The Laplace transform the problem in time-domain to problem in
𝑠-domain, then applying the solution in 𝑠-domain, and finally using
• state equations in the time domain
inverse transform to converse the solution back to the time-domain
- Block diagram representation of
• a system input output
problem in Laplace solution in
Inverse
Laplace
solution in
time domain transform s domain time domain
system transform
𝑟(𝑡) 𝑐(𝑡)
• an interconnection of subsystems - The Laplace transform is named in honor of mathematician and

input output
subsystem subsystem subsystem astronomer Pierre-Simon Laplace (1749-1827)
𝑟(𝑡) 𝑐(𝑡)
- Others: Fourier transform, z-transform, wavelet transform, …
§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

- The Laplace transform of the function 𝑓(𝑡) for 𝑡 > 0 is defined - The Laplace transform table
by the following relationship Table 2.1 Laplace transform table
+∞
No. 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑓(𝑡) = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 (2.1)
0− 1 𝛿(𝑡) 1
𝑠 : complex frequency variable, 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 with 𝑠, 𝜔 are real 1

2 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠
numbers, 𝑠 ∈ 𝐶 for which makes 𝐹 𝑠 convergent 3 𝑡𝑢(𝑡)
1
𝑠2
ℒ : Laplace transform 4 𝑡 𝑛 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑛!
𝑠 𝑛+1
𝐹 : a complex-valued function of complex numbers 5 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
1
𝑠+𝑎
- The inverse Laplace transform of the function 𝐹(𝑠) for 𝑡 > 0 is 6 sin𝜔𝑡𝑢(𝑡)
𝜔
𝑠2 + 𝜔2
defined by the following relationship 𝑠
7 cos𝜔𝑡𝑢(𝑡)
1 𝜎+𝑗∞ 𝑠2 + 𝜔2
𝑓 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝐹 𝑠 𝑒 𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑠 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (2.2)
2𝜋𝑗 𝜎−𝑗∞
1 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 > 0
𝑢 : the unit step function, 𝑢 𝑡 = ቊ
0 𝑖𝑓 𝑡 < 0
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- Ex.2.1 Laplace Transform of a Time Function Table 2.2 Laplace transform theorem
No. Theorem Name
Find the Laplace transform of 𝑓 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) ∞
Solution Table 2.1 Laplace transform table 1 ℒ 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠) = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Definition
0−
∞ No. 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐹(𝑠) 2 ℒ 𝑘𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑘𝐹(𝑠) Linearity theorem
𝐹 𝑠 = න 𝑓(𝑡)𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 1 𝛿(𝑡) 1
3 ℒ 𝑓1 (𝑡) + 𝑓2 (𝑡) = 𝐹1 (𝑠) + 𝐹2 (𝑠) Linearity theorem
0 4 ℒ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎) Frequency shift theorem
∞ 1
2 𝑢(𝑡) 5 ℒ 𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑇) = 𝑒 −𝑠𝑇 𝐹(𝑠) Time shift theorem
= න 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑒 −𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑠
1 1 𝑠
3 𝑡𝑢(𝑡) 6 ℒ 𝑓(𝑎𝑡) = 𝐹 Scaling theorem
0 𝑠2 𝑎 𝑎
∞ 𝑛! 𝑑𝑓
−(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 4 𝑡 𝑛 𝑢(𝑡) 7 ℒ = 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑓(0−) Differentiation theorem
= 𝐴න 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑛+1
1
𝑑𝑡2
𝑑 𝑓
0 5 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) 8 ℒ ቊ 2 = 𝑠 2 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠𝑓(0−) − 𝑓 ′ (0−) Differentiation theorem
∞ 𝑠+𝑎 𝑑𝑡 𝑛
𝐴 𝜔 𝑑𝑛 𝑓
6 sin𝜔𝑡𝑢(𝑡) 9 ℒ = 𝑠 𝑛 𝐹(𝑠) − 𝑠 𝑛−𝑘 𝑓 𝑘−1 (0−) Differentiation theorem
𝑒 −(𝑎+𝑠)𝑡 ቤ
=− 2
𝑠 + 𝜔2 𝑑𝑡 𝑛
𝑡
𝑠+𝑎 0 7 cos𝜔𝑡𝑢(𝑡)
𝑠
10 ℒ ቊන 𝑓(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 = 𝐹(𝑠)/𝑠
𝑘=1
Integration theorem
𝑠2 + 𝜔2 0−
𝐴 11 ℒ 𝑓(∞) = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) Final value theorem
→𝐹 𝑠 = (2.3) 𝑠→0
𝑠+𝑎 12 ℒ 𝑓(0+) = lim 𝑠𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠→∞
Initial value theorem

- Ex.2.2 Inverse Laplace Transform Partial-Fraction Expansion
Find the inverse Laplace transform of 𝐹1 𝑠 = 1/(𝑠 + 3)2 𝑠 3 + 2𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 7
𝐹1 𝑠 =
Solution 𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 5
1 2
𝑓 𝑡 = ℒ −1 2 = 𝑡𝑢(𝑡) = (𝑠 + 1) + 2
𝑠 𝑠 +𝑠+5
𝑑𝛿(𝑡) 2
1 → 𝑓1 𝑡 = + 𝛿 𝑡 + ℒ −1 2
𝑓1 𝑡 = ℒ −1 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 +𝑠+5
(𝑠 + 3)2
= 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑓 𝑡 𝐹(𝑠)
→ 𝑓1 𝑡 = 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑡𝑢(𝑡) Using partial-fraction expansion to expand function like 𝐹(𝑠)
into a sum of terms and then find the inverse Laplace transform
for each term
ℒ 𝑡𝑢 𝑡 = 2
1
(Table 2.1 – 3) ℒ 𝛿 𝑡 =1 (Table 2.1 – 1)
𝑠 𝑑𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝛿(𝑡)
ℒ 𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐹(𝑠 + 𝑎) (Table 2.2 – 4) ℒ 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑠𝐹(𝑠) → ℒ 𝑑𝑡
=𝑠 (Table 2.2 – 7)
System Dynamics and Control 11 Modeling in Frequency Domain System Dynamics and Control 12 Modeling in Frequency Domain

Case 1. Roots of the Denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are Real and Distinct In general, given an 𝐹(𝑠) whose denominator has real and
2 𝐾1 𝐾2 distinct roots, a partial-fraction expansion
𝐹 𝑠 = = + (2.8) 𝑁(𝑠)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 + 2
𝐹 𝑠 =
lim [(2.8) × (𝑠 + 1)] 𝐷(𝑠)
𝑠→−1
𝑁(𝑠)
2 (𝑠 + 1)𝐾2 =
→ lim = lim 𝐾1 + (2.9) 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 … 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 … (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )
𝑠→−1 𝑠+2 𝑠→−1 𝑠+2
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑖 𝐾𝑛
→ 𝐾1 = 2 = + + ⋯+ + ⋯+ (2.11)
𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑠 + 𝑝2 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛
lim [(2.8) × (𝑠 + 2)]
𝑠→−2 To find 𝐾𝑖
2 (𝑠 + 2)𝐾1
→ lim
= lim + 𝐾2 • multiply (2.11) by 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖
𝑠+1 𝑠→−2
𝑠→−2 𝑠+1
• let 𝑠 approach −𝑝𝑖
→ 𝐾2 = −2
2 2
→𝐹 𝑠 = − ⟹ 𝑓 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (2.10)
𝑠+1 𝑠+2
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- Ex.2.3 Laplace Transform Solution of a Differential Equation 32 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
𝑌 𝑠 = = + +
Given the following differential equation, solve for 𝑦(𝑡) if all 𝑠(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠 𝑠+4 𝑠+8
initial conditions are zero. Use the Laplace transform Evaluate the residue 𝐾𝑖
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 32
+ 12 + 32𝑦 = 32𝑢(𝑡) 𝐾1 = ቤ =1
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 (𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠→0
Solution 32
32 𝐾2 = ቤ = −2
𝑠 2 𝑌 𝑠 + 12𝑠𝑌 𝑠 + 32𝑌 𝑠 = 𝑠(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠→−4
𝑠
32 32 32
→𝑌 𝑠 = = 𝐾2 = ቤ =1
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 32 𝑠(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠→−8
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3 1 2 1
= + + →𝑌 𝑠 = − +
𝑠 𝑠+4 𝑠+8 𝑠 𝑠+4 𝑠+8
ℒ
𝑑𝑓
= 𝑠𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑓(0− ) (Table 2.2 – 7) Hence 𝑦 𝑡 = 1 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑓
ℒ 𝑑𝑡 2
= 𝑠 2 𝐹 𝑠 − 𝑠𝑓(0− ) − 𝑓′(0− ) (Table 2.2 – 8)

32 Run ch2p1 through ch2p8 in Appendix B
𝑌 𝑠 =
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 12𝑠 + 32 Learn how to use MATLAB to
1 2 1
= − + • represent polynomials
𝑠 𝑠+4 𝑠+8
• find roots of polynomials
𝑦 𝑡 = 1 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 𝑢(𝑡) (2.20)
• multiply polynomials, and
The 𝑢(𝑡) in (2.20) shows that the response is zero until 𝑡 = 0
• find partial-fraction expansions
Unless otherwise specified, all inputs to systems in the text
will not start until 𝑡 = 0. Thus, output responses will also be
zero until 𝑡 = 0
For convenience, the 𝑢(𝑡) notation will be eliminated from now
on. Accordingly, the output response
𝑦 𝑡 = 1 − 2𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡 (2.21)

Case 2. Roots of the Denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are Real and Repeated
32 1 2 1 2
𝑌 𝑠 = = − + 𝐹 𝑠 = (2.22)
𝑠 3 + 12𝑠 2 + 32𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 𝑠 + 8 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
= + + (2.23)
Matlab [r,p,k] = residue([32],[1,12,32,0]) 𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 2)2 𝑠 + 2
Result r = [1, −2, 1], p = [−8, −4, 0], k = [ ] lim [(2.23) × (𝑠 + 1)]
𝑠→−1
2 (𝑠 + 1)𝐾2
1 1 1 → lim = lim 𝐾1 +
𝑠→−1 𝑠+2 𝑠→−1 𝑠+2
𝑌 𝑠 =ณ
0+ณ
1 + (−2
ด) +ณ
1
𝑘 𝑟1
𝑠 − (−8
ด) 𝑟
𝑠 − (−4
ด ) 𝑟 𝑠 − (ณ
0) → 𝐾1 = 2
2 3
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3
lim [(2.23) × (𝑠 + 2)2 ]
1 2 1 𝑠→−2
= − + 2 (𝑠 + 2)2 𝐾1
𝑠+8 𝑠+4 𝑠 → = + 𝐾2 + (𝑠 + 2)𝐾3 (2.24)
𝑠+1 𝑠+1
→ 𝐾2 = −2
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𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾3
𝐹 𝑠 = + + (2.23)
𝑠 + 1 (𝑠 + 2)2 𝑠 + 2 2
𝐹 𝑠 = (2.22)
𝐾1 = 2, 𝐾2 = −2 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2
2 (𝑠 + 2)2 𝐾1
= + 𝐾2 + (𝑠 + 2)𝐾3 (2.24)
𝑠+1 𝑠+1
Differentiate (2.24) with respect to 𝑠 Matlab F=zpk([], [-1 -2 -2],2)
−2 𝑠 + 2 𝑠𝐾1 Result F=
= + 𝐾3 (2.25) 2
𝑠+1 2 𝑠+1 2 ------------------
𝐾1 = 2, 𝑠 → −2 → 𝐾3 = −2 (s+1) (s+2)^2
2 2 2 Continuous-time zero/pole/gain model
→𝑌 𝑠 = − −
𝑠+1 𝑠+2 2 𝑠+2
Hence
𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 (2.26)

In general, given an 𝐹(𝑠) whose denominator has real and
2 2 2 2 distinct roots, a partial-fraction expansion
𝐹 𝑠 = = − − 𝑁(𝑠)
𝑠 3 + 5𝑠 2 + 8𝑠 + 4 𝑠 + 1 𝑠+2 2 𝑠+2
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝐷(𝑠)
Matlab [r,p,k] = residue([2],[1,5,8,4]) 𝑁(𝑠)
=
Result r = [−2, −2, 2], p = [−2, −2, −1], k = [ ] 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑟 𝑠 + 𝑝2 … 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 … (𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛 )
1 1 1 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝐾𝑟
𝐹 𝑠 =ณ
0 + (−2) + (−2
ด) +ณ
2 = + + ⋯+
𝑘
𝑠 − (−2
𝑟1
ด) 𝑟
ด ]2 𝑟 𝑠 − (−1
[𝑠 − −2
2
ด)
3
𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑟 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝑟−1 𝑠 + 𝑝1
2
𝑝1
2 2
𝑝2 𝑝3
𝐾𝑟+1 𝐾𝑖 𝐾𝑛
=− − + + + ⋯+ + ⋯+ (2.27)
𝑠+2 2 𝑠+2 𝑠+1 To find 𝐾𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑝2 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑖 𝑠 + 𝑝𝑛
𝑟 𝑟
• multiply (2.27) by 𝑠 + 𝑝1 to get 𝐹1 𝑠 = 𝑠 + 𝑝1 𝐹(𝑠)
• let 𝑠 approach −𝑝𝑖
1 𝑑 𝑖−1 𝐹1 (𝑠)
𝐾𝑖 = อ 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑟; 0! = 1
𝑖 − 1 ! 𝑑𝑠 𝑖−1
𝑠→𝑝1

Case 3. Roots of the Denominator of 𝐹(𝑠) are Complex or Imaginary 31 3 𝑠+2
𝐹 𝑠 = −
3 5 𝑠 5 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5
𝐹 𝑠 = (2.30) 3 1 3 𝑠 + 1 + 1/2 2
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5) = −
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑠 + 𝐾3 5 𝑠 5 (𝑠 + 1)2 +22
= + (2.31) 3 3 1
𝑠 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 → 𝑓 𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑡 cos2𝑡 + sin2𝑡 (2.38)
lim[(2.31) × 𝑠] → 𝐾1 = 3/5 5 5 2
𝑠→0
First multiplying (2.31) by the lowest common denominator, or
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5), and clearing the fraction 𝑓 𝑡 = 0.6 − 0.671𝑒 −𝑡 cos(2𝑡 − 𝜙) (2.41)
3 = 𝐾1 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 + 𝐾2 𝑠 + 𝐾3 𝑠 (2.32)
3 2 6
→ 3 = 𝐾2 + 𝑠 + 𝐾3 + 𝑠+3 (2.33)
5 5
Balancing the coefficients: 𝐾2 = −3/5, 𝐾3 = −6/5
3 31 3 𝑠 + 2
𝐹 𝑠 = = − ℒ 𝐴𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝑒 −𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 =
𝐵 𝑠+𝑎 +𝐵𝜔
(Table 2.1 – 6&7)
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5) 5 𝑠 5 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5 (𝑠+𝑎)2 +𝜔 2
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2 3
𝐹 𝑠 = (2.22) 𝐹 𝑠 = (2.30)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 + 2)2 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5)
𝑦 𝑡 = 2𝑒 −𝑡 − 2𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 − 2𝑒 −2𝑡 (2.26)
Matlab F=tf([3],[1 2 5 0])
Matlab numf=2; Result F=
denf=poly([-1 -2 -2]); 3
[r,p,k]=residue(numf,denf) -----------------------
s^3 + 2 s^2 + 5 s
Result r = [-2 -2 2], p = [-2 -2 -1], k = []
Continuous-time transfer function
1 1 1
𝐹 𝑠 =ณ 0 + −2
ด + (−2
ด) +ณ
2
𝑘 𝑟
ด )]2
[𝑠 − (−2 𝑟
𝑠 − (−2
ด ) 𝑟 𝑠 − (−1
ด)
1 2 3
𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3
1 1 1
= −2 −2 +2
(𝑠 + 2)2 𝑠+2 𝑠+1

In general, given an 𝐹(𝑠) whose denominator has complex or
purely imaginary roots, a partial-fraction expansion 3
𝑁(𝑠) 𝐹 𝑠 = (2.30)
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5)
𝐹 𝑠 =
𝐷(𝑠) 3 3 1
𝑁(𝑠) 𝑓 𝑡 = − 𝑒 −𝑡 cos2𝑡 + sin2𝑡 (2.38)
= 5 5 2
𝑠 + 𝑝1 (𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏) …
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑠 + 𝐾3
= + +⋯ (2.42) Matlab syms s; f=ilaplace(3/(s*(s^2+2*s+5))); pretty(f)
(𝑠 + 𝑝1 ) (𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏) Result f=
To find 𝐾𝑖 3/5 - (3*exp(-t)*(cos(2*t) + sin(2*t)/2))/5
/ sin(2 t) \
• the 𝐾𝑖 ’s in (2.42) are found through balancing the exp(-t) | cos(2 t) + ---------- | 3
coefficients of the equation after clearing fractions 3 \ 2 /
- - --------------------------------------
• put (𝐾2 𝑠 + 𝐾3 )/(𝑠 2 + 𝑎𝑠 + 𝑏) in to the form 5 5
𝐵 𝑠 + 𝑎 + 𝐵𝜔
(𝑠 + 𝑎)2 +𝜔 2

Run ch2sp1 and ch2sp2 in Appendix F
3
𝐹 𝑠 = (2.30) Learn how to use the Symbolic Math Toolbox to
𝑠(𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 5)
3/5 3 2 + 𝑗1 2 − 𝑗1 • construct symbolic objects
𝐹 𝑠 = − + (2.47) • find the inverse Laplace transforms of frequency
𝑠 20 𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗2 𝑠 + 1 + 𝑗2
functions
Matlab numf=3; denf=[1 2 5 0]; [r,p,k]=residue(numf,denf)
Result r=[-0.3+0.15i; -0.3-0.15i; 0.6]; p=[-1+2i; -1-2i; 0]; k=[]
• find the Laplace of time functions
1
𝐹 𝑠 =ณ 0 + (−0.3 + 𝑗0.15)
𝑘
𝑠 − (−1 + 𝑗2)
𝑟1
𝑝1
1 1
+(−0.3 − 𝑗0.15) + (0.6)
ด
𝑠 − (−1 − 2𝑗 ) 𝑟
𝑠 − (ณ
0)
𝑟2 3
𝑝2 𝑝3
0.3 − 𝑗0.15 0.3 + 𝑗0.15 1
=− − + 0.6
𝑠 + 1 − 2𝑗 𝑠 + 1 + 2𝑗 𝑠
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Skill-Assessment Ex.2.1 Skill-Assessment Ex.2.2
Problem Find the Laplace transform of Problem Find the inverse Laplace transform of
𝑓 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑒 −5𝑡 10
𝐹 𝑠 =
Solution 𝑠(𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)2
1 Solution Expanding 𝐹(𝑠) by partial fractions
𝐹 𝑠 = ℒ 𝑡𝑒 −5𝑡 = 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 𝐷
(𝑠 + 5)2
𝐹 𝑠 = + + +
𝑠 𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 3)2 𝑠 + 3
Matlab syms t s F; f = t*exp(-5*t); F=laplace(f, s); pretty(F) where,
Result 1
10 5 10
𝐴= ቤ = ,𝐵 = ቤ = −5
--------- (𝑠 + 2)(𝑠 + 3)2 𝑠→0 9 𝑠(𝑠 + 3)2 𝑠→−2
2
(s + 5) 10 10 𝑑𝐹(𝑠) 40
𝐶= ቤ = , 𝐷 = (𝑠 + 3)2 ቤ =
𝑠(𝑠 + 2) 𝑠→−3 3 𝑑𝑠 𝑠→−3 9
51 1 10 1 40 1
→𝐹 𝑠 = −5 + +
9𝑠 𝑠 + 2 3 (𝑠 + 3)2 9 𝑠 + 3
§2.Laplace Transform Review §3.The Transfer Function hàm truyền

51 1 10 1 40 1 - The transfer function (TF) of a component is the quotient of the
𝐹 𝑠 = −5 + +
9𝑠 𝑠 + 2 3 (𝑠 + 3)2 9 𝑠 + 3 Laplace transform of the output divided by the Laplace
Taking the inverse Laplace transform transform of the input, with all initial conditions assumed to be
5 10 40 zero
𝑓 𝑡 = − 5𝑒 −2𝑡 + 𝑡𝑒 −3𝑡 + 𝑒 −3𝑡 𝑟(𝑡)
system
𝑐(𝑡)
9 3 9 input
𝐺(𝑠)
output
𝑅(𝑠) 𝐶(𝑠)
Matlab syms s; f=ilaplace(10/(s*(s+2)*(s+3)^2)); pretty(f) - TFs are defined only for linear time invariant systems
Result exp(-3 t) 40 t exp(-3 t) 10 5 - The input-output relationship of a control system 𝐺 𝑠 𝐶(𝑠)
--------------- - exp(-2 t) 5 + ---------------- + -
9 3 9
𝑑 𝑛 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑡
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝑐 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1
𝑑 𝑚 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑟(𝑡)
= 𝑏𝑚 𝑚
+ 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1
𝑐(𝑡): output 𝑟(𝑡): input 𝑎𝑖 ’s, 𝑏𝑖 ’s : constant
§3.The Transfer Function §3.The Transfer Function

𝑑 𝑛 𝑐(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑛−1 𝑐 𝑡 - Ex.2.4 TF for a Differential Equation
𝑎𝑛 𝑛
+ 𝑎𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝑐 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑛−1 Find the TF represented by
𝑑 𝑚 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑚−1 𝑟(𝑡) 𝑑𝑐(𝑡)
= 𝑏𝑚 𝑚
+ 𝑏𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑟 𝑡 + 2𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑟(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚−1 𝑑𝑡
- Taking the Laplace transform of both sides with zero initial Solution
conditions Taking the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions
𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 𝐶 𝑠 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 𝐶 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑎0 𝐶 𝑠 𝑠𝐶 𝑠 + 2𝐶(𝑠) = 𝑅(𝑠)
= 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 𝑅 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 𝑅 𝑠 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑅 𝑠 The TF
- The TF 𝐶(𝑠) 1
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑏𝑚 𝑠 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑠 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0 𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2
𝐺 𝑠 ≡ = (2.53)
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑎𝑛 𝑠 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑠 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0
- The output of the system can be written in the form
𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺 𝑠 𝑅(𝑠) (2.54)
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Run ch2p9 through ch2p12 in Appendix B Run ch2sp3 in Appendix F
Learn how to use MATLAB to Learn how to use the Symbolic Math Toolbox to
• create TFs with numerators and denominators in • simplify the input of complicated TFs as well as
polynomial or factored form improve readability
• convert between polynomial and factored forms • enter a symbolic TF and convert it to a linear time-
• plot time functions invariant (LTI) object as presented in Appendix B,
ch2p9

- Ex.2.5 System Response from the TF 1
𝐺 𝑠 =
Given 𝐺 𝑠 = 1/(𝑠 + 2), find the response, 𝑐(𝑡) to an input, 𝑠+2
1
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑢(𝑡), a unit step, assuming zero initial conditions 𝑅 𝑠 =
𝑠
Solution 1 1
For a unit step 𝑐 𝑡 = − 𝑒 −2𝑡 (2.60)
2 2
𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑢 𝑡 → 𝑅 𝑠 = 1/𝑠 Matlab syms s
The output C=1/(s*(s+2))
C=ilaplace(C)
1 1
𝐶 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠 = Result C=
1 1 −2𝑡
𝑠𝑠+2 1/2 - exp(-2*t)/2 𝑐 𝑡 = − 𝑒
2 2
Expanding by partial fractions
11 1 1
𝐶 𝑡 = −
2𝑠 2𝑠 + 2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform
𝑐 𝑡 = 0.5 − 0.5𝑒 −2𝑡 (2.60)

Skill-Assessment Ex.2.3
1 1 −2𝑡 Problem Find the TF, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝐶(𝑠)/𝑅(𝑠), corresponding to the
𝑐 𝑡 = − 𝑒 (2.60)
2 2 differential equation
𝑑3𝑐 𝑑2𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝑑2𝑟 𝑑𝑟
+ 3 2 + 7 + 5𝑐 = 2 + 4 + 3𝑟
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Matlab t=0:0.01:1; Solution Taking the Laplace transform with zero initial conditions
plot(t,(1/2-1/2*exp(-2*t)))
𝑠 3 𝐶 𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 𝐶 𝑠 + 7𝑠𝐶 𝑠 + 5𝐶 𝑠
Result = 𝑠 2 𝑅 𝑠 + 4𝑠𝑅 𝑠 + 3𝑅 𝑠
Collecting terms
𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 5 𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3 𝑅(𝑠)
The TF
𝐶(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 3
𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 7𝑠 + 5
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Skill-Assessment Ex.2.4 Skill-Assessment Ex.2.5
Problem Find the differential equation corresponding to the TF Problem Find the ramp response for a system whose TF
2𝑠 + 1 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠 = 2 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑠 + 6𝑠 + 2 (𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8)
Solution The TF Solution For a ramp response
𝐶(𝑠) 2𝑠 + 1 1
𝐺 𝑠 = = 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑢 𝑡 → 𝑅 𝑠 = 2
𝑅(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 6𝑠 + 2 𝑠
Cross multiplying The output
𝑑2𝑐 𝑑𝑐 𝑑𝑟 𝐶 𝑠 =𝑅 𝑠 𝐺 𝑠
+ 6 + 2𝑐 = 2 + 𝑟 1 𝑠
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2
𝑠 (𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8)
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + +
𝑠 𝑠+4 𝑠+8
§3.The Transfer Function §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions hàm truyền cho mạng điện
1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶 Components and the relationships between voltage and current
𝐶 𝑠 = = + +
𝑠(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠 𝑠 + 4 𝑠 + 8 and between voltage and charge under zero initial conditions
where, Table 2.3 Voltage-current, voltage-charge, and impedance relationships for capacitors, resistors, and inductors
1 1 Component
Voltage-Current Current-Voltage Voltage-Charge Impedance Admittance
𝐴= ቤ = 𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) − 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) − 𝑞(𝑡) 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝑉(𝑠)/𝐼(𝑠) 𝑍(𝑠) = 𝐼(𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠)
(𝑠 + 4)(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠→0 32 𝑡
1 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 1 1
1 1 Capacitor
𝑣(𝑡) =
𝐶
න 𝑖(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶
𝑑𝑡
𝑣(𝑡) =
𝐶
𝑞(𝑡)
𝐶𝑠
𝐶𝑠
𝐵= ቤ =− 0
𝑠(𝑠 + 8) 𝑠→−4 16 1 𝑑𝑞(𝑡) 1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑅 𝑅 =𝐺
1 1 Resistor 𝑅 𝑑𝑡 𝑅
𝐶= ቤ = 𝑡
𝑠(𝑠 + 4) 𝑠→−8 32 𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑑 2 𝑞(𝑡) 1
𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 𝑖(𝑡) = න 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝐿 𝐿𝑠
Inductor 𝑑𝑡 𝐿 𝑑𝑡 2 𝐿𝑠
1 1 1 1 1 1 0
→𝐶 𝑠 = − +
32 𝑠 16 𝑠 + 4 32 𝑠 + 8 𝑣(𝑡) : voltage, 𝑉 𝑖(𝑡) : current, 𝐴 𝑞(𝑡) : charge, 𝑄
The ramp response 𝐶 : capacitor, 𝐹 𝑅 : resistor, Ω 𝐿 : inductor, 𝐻
1 1 1
𝑐 𝑡 = − 𝑒 −4𝑡 + 𝑒 −8𝑡
32 16 32
§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

Simple Circuits via Mesh Analysis 𝑑 2 𝑣𝐶 𝑑𝑣𝐶
𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣(𝑡)
- Ex.2.6 Transfer Function - Single Loop via the Differential Equation 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Find the transfer function 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠) Taking Laplace transform assuming zero initial conditions
𝐿 𝑅
Solution 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 = 𝑉(𝑠)
Solving for the transfer function
𝑣(𝑡) 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) The voltage loop
𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑖 1 1 1
𝐿 + 𝑅𝑖 + න 𝑖 𝜏 𝑑𝜏 = 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝐿𝐶
𝑑𝑡 𝐶 0 =
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑅 𝑠 + 1
Using the relationships 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑑𝑞(𝑡)/𝑑𝑡 and 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑣𝐶 𝐿 𝐿𝐶
𝑑2𝑞 𝑑𝑞 1 Block diagram of series RLC electrical network
𝐿 2 +𝑅 + 𝑞 = 𝑣(𝑡) 1
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝐶 𝑉(𝑡)
𝐿𝐶
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
𝑑 2 𝑣𝐶 𝑑𝑣𝐶 𝑅 1
𝑠 2 + 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝐿𝐶
→ 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
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Impedance trở kháng - The impedance of a resistor is its resistance
- A resistance resists or “impedes” the flow of current. The 𝑍 𝑠 =𝑅
corresponding relation is 𝑣/𝑖 = 𝑅. Capacitance and inductance - For a capacitor
elements also impede the flow of current 1 𝑡 𝐼(𝑠)
- An impedance is a generalization of the resistance concept 𝑣 𝑡 = න 𝑖𝑑𝑡 → 𝑉 𝑠 =
𝐶 0 𝐶 𝑠 𝑠
and is defined as the ratio of a voltage transform 𝑉(𝑠) to a
The impedance of a capacitor
current transform 𝐼(𝑠) and thus implies a current source 1
- Standard symbol for impedance 𝑍 𝑠 =
𝐶𝑠
𝑉(𝑠)
𝑍(𝑠) ≡ - For an inductor
𝐼(𝑠) 𝑑𝑖
(2.70)
- Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the transformed circuit 𝑣 𝑡 = 𝐿 → 𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐿𝐼 𝑠 𝑠
𝑑𝑡
[ Sum of Impedances ] × 𝐼 𝑠 = [ Sum of Applied Voltages ] (2.72) The impedance of a inductor
𝑍 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠

Series and Parallel Impedances - Series Impedances
- The concept of impedance is useful because the impedances • Two impedances are in series if they have the same current.
of individual elements can be combined with series and If so, the total impedance is the sum of the individual
parallel laws to find the impedance at any point in the system impedances
- The laws for combining series or parallel impedances are 𝑍 𝑠 = 𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2 (𝑠)
extensions to the dynamic case of the laws governing series • Example: A resistor 𝑅 and capacitor 𝐶 in series have the
and parallel resistance elements equivalent impedance
1 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝑖(𝑡) 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑍 𝑠 =𝑅+ =
𝑅 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 𝐶𝑠
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝑍 → ≡ 𝑍 𝑠 =
𝐶 𝐶𝑠 𝐼(𝑠) 𝐶𝑠
and the differential equation model is
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑖
𝐶 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

- Parallel Impedances Admittance
• Two impedances are in parallel if they have the same 1 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑌 𝑠 ≡ =
voltage difference across them. Their impedances combine 𝑍(𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠)
by the reciprocal rule In general, admittance is complex
1 1 1
= + • The real part of admittance is called conductance
𝑍(𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠) 1
• Example: A resistor 𝑅 and capacitor 𝐶 in parallel have the 𝐺=
𝑅
equivalent impedance 1 1 1 • The imaginary part of admittance is called susceptance
𝑖(𝑡) 𝐼(𝑠) = +
𝑍(𝑠) 1/𝐶𝑠 𝑅 To apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to the transformed circuit
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑅 𝐶 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑅 1.Redraw the original network showing all time variables,
𝑍 → ≡𝑍 𝑠 =
𝐼(𝑠) 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 such as 𝑣(𝑡), 𝑖(𝑡), and 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡), as Laplace transforms 𝑉(𝑠),
and the differential equation model 𝐼(𝑠), and 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠), respectively
𝑑𝑣 2.Replace the component values with their impedance values
𝑅𝐶 + 𝑣 = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
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- Ex.2.7 Transfer Function - Single Loop via Transform Method Simple Circuits via Nodal Analysis
Find the TF 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠) - Ex.2.8 Transfer Function - Single Node via Transform Method
𝐿 𝑅
Solution Find the transfer function 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠)
𝐿 𝑅
𝑣(𝑡) 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
The mesh equation using impedances Solution
𝑖(𝑡) 1 𝑣(𝑡) 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) The TF can be obtained by summing
𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑠 = 𝑉(𝑠)
𝐿𝑠 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 𝑖(𝑡) currents flowing out of the node whose
𝐼(𝑠) 1 voltage is 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
𝑉(𝑠)
1
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) → = 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 − 𝑉(𝑠) 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
𝐼(𝑠) 𝐶𝑠 𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 1 + =0 →
𝐶𝑠 1/𝐶𝑠 𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 𝑉(𝑠)
The voltage across the capacitor 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
1 : the current flowing out of the node through the
𝑉𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠) 𝐼/𝐶𝑠
capacitor
𝐶𝑠 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 − 𝑉(𝑠)
→ 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠) : the current flowing out of the node through the
𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠
series resistor and inductor

Complex Circuits via Mesh Analysis - Ex.2.10 Transfer Function – Multiple Loops
To solve complex electrical networks - those with multiple loops Find the transfer function 𝐼2 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠)
and nodes – using mesh analysis 𝑅1 𝑅2
Solution
𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑖2 (𝑡)
1.Replace passive element values with their impedances 𝑣(𝑡) 𝐿 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) Convert the network into Laplace transforms
2.Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace Summing voltages around each mesh
transform 𝑅1 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) through which the assumed currents flow
3.Assume a transform current and a current direction in each 𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠) 1 𝑅1 𝐼1 + 𝐿𝑠𝐼1 − 𝐿𝑠𝐼2 = 𝑉
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿𝑠 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
mesh 𝐶𝑠 1
𝐿𝑠𝐼2 + 𝑅2𝐼2 + 𝐼2 − 𝐿𝑠𝐼1 = 0
4.Write Kirchhoff’s voltage law around each mesh 𝐶𝑠
5.Solve the simultaneous equations for the output or 𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠 𝐼1 − 𝐿𝑠𝐼2 = 𝑉
1 (2.80)
6.Form the TF −𝐿𝑠𝐼1 + 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅2 + 𝐼 =0
𝐶𝑠 2

Review of Cramer’s Rule 𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠 𝐼1 − 𝐿𝑠𝐼2 = 𝑉
Consider a system of 𝑛 linear equations for 𝑛 unknowns, represented in matrix
multiplication form as follows 1 (2.80)
−𝐿𝑠𝐼1 + 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅2 + 𝐼 =0
𝐴𝑥 = 𝑏 𝐶𝑠 2
𝐴 : (𝑛 × 𝑛) matrix has a nonzero determinant
𝑥 : the column vector of the variables 𝑥 = (𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 )𝑇 Using Cramer’s rule
𝑏 : the column vector of known parameters 𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠 𝑉
The system has a unique solution, whose individual values for the unknowns are given by
det(𝐴𝑖 ) −𝐿𝑠 0
𝑥𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1, … , 𝑛 𝐼2 =
det(𝐴) 𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠 −𝐿𝑠
𝐴𝑖 : the matrix formed by replacing the 𝑖th column of 𝐴 by the column vector 𝑏 1
−𝐿𝑠
𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅2 +
𝐶𝑠
0 − (−𝐿𝑠)𝑉
=
1
𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅2 + − 𝐿2 𝑠 2
𝐶𝑠
2
𝐿𝐶𝑠 𝑉
→ 𝐼2 = (2.81)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅1
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𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 𝑉 Note
𝐼2 = (2.81)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅1𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅1 𝑅1 + 𝐿𝑠 𝐼1 − 𝐿𝑠𝐼2 = 𝑉
Forming the transfer function
𝐼2 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑉(𝑠) 1
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 −𝐿𝑠𝐼1 + 𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅2 + 𝐼 =0
𝐶𝑠 2
= (2.82)
𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅1
The network is now modeled as the transfer function of figure
𝑉(𝑡) 𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 𝐼𝑠 (𝑡)
𝑅1 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
(𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + (𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿)𝑠 + 𝑅1
𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠) 1
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿𝑠 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
𝐶𝑠

Run ch2sp4 in Appendix F Complex Circuits via Nodal Analysis
Learn how to use the Symbolic Math Toolbox to - Ex.2.11 Transfer Function – Multiple Nodes
• solve simultaneous equations using Cramer’s rule Find the transfer function 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠)
𝑅1 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) 𝑅2 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
• solve for the transfer function in (2.82) using (2.80) Solution
𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠)
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) Sum of currents flowing from the nodes
1
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐿𝑠
𝐶𝑠
marked 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) and 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉 𝑉𝐿 𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝐶
+ + =0
𝑅1 𝐿𝑠 𝑅2
(2.85)
𝑉𝐶 𝑉𝐶 − 𝑉𝐿
+ =0
1/𝐶𝑠 𝑅2
1
or 𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝑉 − 𝐺2 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐺1
𝐿𝑠 𝐿 (2.86)
−𝐺2 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐺2 + 𝐶𝑠 𝑉𝐶 = 0

1 - Another way to write node equations is to replace voltage
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 + 𝑉 − 𝐺2 𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝐺1
𝐿𝑠 𝐿 (2.86) sources by current sources
−𝐺2 𝑉𝐿 + 𝐺2 + 𝐶𝑠 𝑉𝐶 = 0 In order to handle multiple-node electrical networks → do perform
Solving for the transfer function the following steps
𝐺1 𝐺2 1.Replace passive element values with their admittances
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝑠
= 𝐶 (2.87) 2.Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐺 𝐺 𝐿+𝐶 𝐺
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝑠 2 + 1 2 𝑠+ 2 transform
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
Block diagram of the network 3.Replace transformed voltage sources with transformed
current sources
𝐺1 𝐺2
𝑉(𝑡)
𝐶 𝑠
𝑉𝐶 (𝑡)
4.Write Kirchhoff’s current law at each node
𝐺1 𝐺2 𝐿 + 𝐶 𝐺
(𝐺1 + 𝐺2 )𝑠2 + 𝑠+ 2
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 5.Solve the simultaneous equations for the output
6.Form the transfer function
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- Ex.2.12 Transfer Function – Multiple Nodes with Current Sources 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) 𝐺2 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
Find the transfer function 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠) Using the general relationship 𝐼 𝑠 =
𝑅1 𝑅2 1
Solution 𝑉(𝑠)𝐺1 𝐺1
𝐿𝑆
𝐶𝑠 𝑌 𝑠 𝑉(𝑠) and summing currents at the
𝑖1 (𝑡) 𝑖2 (𝑡) node 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠)
𝑣(𝑡) 𝐿 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) Convert all impedances to admittances
1
and all voltage sources in series with 𝐺1 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 +
𝑉 𝑠 + 𝐺2 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺1 𝑉(𝑠) (2.88)
𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) 𝐺2 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) an impedance to current sources in 𝐿𝑠 𝐿
parallel with an admittance using Summing the currents at the node 𝑉𝐶 (𝑠)
1
𝑉(𝑠)𝐺1 𝐺1
𝐿𝑠
𝐶𝑠 Norton’s theorem 𝐶𝑉𝐶 𝑠 + 𝐺2 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 = 0 (2.89)
Solving (2.88) and (2.89), forming the transfer function
𝐺1 𝐺2
𝑉𝐶 (𝑠) 𝑠
= 𝐶
Norton's Theorem 𝑉(𝑠) 𝐺 𝐺 𝐿+𝐶 𝐺
𝐺1 + 𝐺2 𝑠 2 + 1 2 𝑠+ 2
Any collection of batteries and resistances with two terminals is electrically equivalent 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶
to an ideal current source 𝑖 in parallel with a single resistor 𝑟. The value of 𝑟 is the
same as that in the Thevenin equivalent and the current 𝑖 can be found by dividing the
open circuit voltage by 𝑟

Note A Problem-Solving Technique
1 Sum impedances around a mesh in the case of mesh equations
𝐺1 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 + 𝐺2 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 = 𝐺1 𝑉(𝑠) (2.88)
𝐿𝑠 - Ex.2.13 Mesh Equations via Inspection
1 Write the mesh equations for the network
𝑠 𝐼3 (𝑠)
1 4𝑠 Solution
The mesh equations for loop 1
𝐶𝑉𝐶 𝑠 + 𝐺2 𝑉𝐶 𝑠 − 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 =0 (2.89) 1
+ 2𝑠 + 2 𝐼1 − 2𝑠 + 1 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 𝑉 (2.94.a)
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠)
3𝑠
2𝑠
1 The mesh equations for loop 2 1 The mesh equations for loop 3
𝑠 𝐼3 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝐼3 (𝑠) 1
1 4𝑠 − 2𝑠 + 1 𝐼1 + 9𝑠 + 1 𝐼2 − 4𝑠𝐼3 = 0 (2.94.b) 1 4𝑠 −𝐼1 − 4𝑠𝐼2 + 4𝑠 + 1 + 𝐼3 = 0 (2.94.c)
𝑠
1 1
𝑉(𝑠) 𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠) 𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠)
3𝑠 3𝑠
2𝑠 2𝑠
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+ 2𝑠 + 2 𝐼1 − 2𝑠 + 1 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 𝑉 (2.94.a) Result / 3 2 \
| V (20 s + 13 s + 10 s + 1) | 20𝑠 3 + 13𝑠 2 + 10𝑠 + 1 𝑉
− 2𝑠 + 1 𝐼1 + 9𝑠 + 1 𝐼2 − 4𝑠𝐼3 = 0 (2.94.b) | ----------------------------------- |
24𝑠 4 + 30𝑠 3 + 17𝑠 2 + 16𝑠 + 1
1 | #1 |
−𝐼1 − 4𝑠𝐼2 + 4𝑠 + 1 + 𝐼3 = 0 (2.94.c) | 3 2 |
𝑠 | V (8 s + 10 s + 3 s + 1) | 8𝑠 3 + 10𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 1 𝑉
| -------------------------------- |
24𝑠 4 + 30𝑠 3 + 17𝑠 2 + 16𝑠 + 1
| #1 |
| 2 |
| V s (8 s + 13 s + 1) | 𝑠 8𝑠 2 + 13𝑠 + 1 𝑉
| -------------------------- |
24𝑠 4 + 30𝑠 3 + 17𝑠 2 + 16𝑠 + 1
\ #1 /
where
Matlab syms s I1 I2 I3 V; 4 3 2
A=[(2*s+2) -(2*s+1) -1; -(2*s+1) (9*s+1) -4*s; -1 -4*s (4*s+1+1/s)]; #1 == 24 s + 30 s + 17 s + 16 s + 1
B=[I1;I2;I3]; C=[V;0;0];
B=inv(A)*C;
pretty(B)

+𝑉
Operational Amplifiers 𝑣1 (𝑡) Inverting Operational Amplifiers
𝑣2 (𝑡) 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
−𝑉 𝑣1 (𝑡)
𝑣2 (𝑡) 𝐴 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
- An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic amplifier

used as a basic building block to implement transfer functions - If 𝑣2 (𝑡) is grounded, the amplifier is called an inverting
- Op-amp has the following characteristics operational amplifier
1.Differential input, 𝑣2 𝑡 − 𝑣1 𝑡 - The output, 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡), is given by
2.High input impedance, 𝑍𝑖 = ∞ (ideal) 𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = −𝐴𝑣1 𝑡 (2.96)
3.Low output impedance, 𝑍𝑜 = 0 (ideal)
4.High constant gain amplification, 𝐴 = ∞ (ideal)
- The output, 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡), is given by
𝑣𝑜 𝑡 = 𝐴[𝑣2 𝑡 − 𝑣1 𝑡 ] (2.95)

Inverting Operational Amplifiers - Ex.2.14 Transfer Function – Inverting Op-Amp Circuit
𝑅2 = 220𝑘Ω 𝐶2 = 0.1𝜇𝐹
𝑍2 (𝑠) 𝐶1 = 5.6𝜇𝐹 Find the transfer function 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐼2 (𝑠) 𝑣1 (𝑡)
𝑍1 (𝑠) 𝑉1 (𝑠) 𝑣𝑖 (𝑡) Solution
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐴 𝑣𝑜 (𝑡)
𝐴 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐼1 (𝑠)
𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑅1 = 360𝑘Ω The impedances
1 1 1 1 360 × 103
= + → 𝑍1 = =
𝑍𝑖 𝑠 = ∞ → 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) = 0 𝑍1 1/𝐶1𝑠 𝑅1 1 2.016𝑠 + 1
𝐶1𝑠 +
𝐼1 𝑠 = −𝐼2 𝑠 𝑅1
1 3
107
𝐴=∞ → 𝑣1 𝑡 ≈ 0 𝑍2 = 𝑅2 + = 220 × 10 +
𝑉𝑖 𝑠 𝑉𝑜 𝑠 𝐶2 𝑠 𝑠
𝐼1 𝑠 = = −𝐼2 𝑠 = − The transfer function
𝑍1 𝑠 𝑍2 𝑠
107
The transfer function of the inverting operational amplifier 𝑉𝑜(𝑠) 𝑍2 𝑠 220 × 103 + 2
=− =− 𝑠 = −1.232 𝑠 + 45.95𝑠 + 22.55
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠) 𝑉𝑖(𝑠) 𝑍1 𝑠 360 × 103 𝑠
=− (2.97)
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠) 2.016𝑠 + 1
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Noninverting Operational Amplifiers - Ex.2.15 Transfer Function – Noninverting Op-Amp Circuit
𝑍2 (𝑠)
Find the transfer function 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐶2
𝑉1 (𝑠) Solution
𝐴 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑅2
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
The impedances
𝑍1 (𝑠) 𝑉1 (𝑠)
1
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 = 𝑅1 +
𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉1 𝑅1
𝐶1𝑠
𝑍1 1
𝑉1 = 𝑉 𝑅2
𝐶1 𝐶2𝑠
𝑍1 + 𝑍2 𝑜 𝑍2 =
1
The transfer function of the noninverting operational amplifier 𝑅2 +
𝐶2𝑠
𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2 (𝑠)
= (2.104) The transfer function
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1 (𝑠) 𝑉𝑜(𝑠) 𝑍1 𝑠 + 𝑍2(𝑠) 𝐶2𝐶1𝑅2𝑅1𝑠2 + (𝐶2𝑅2 + 𝐶1𝑅2 + 𝐶1𝑅1)𝑠 + 1
= =
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝑍1(𝑠) 𝐶2𝐶1𝑅2𝑅1𝑠2 + 𝐶2𝑅2 + 𝐶1𝑅1 𝑠 + 1

Skill Assessment Ex.2.6 𝑠 + 1 𝐼1 − 𝑠𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 𝑉
Problem Find 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠) using mesh and nodal analysis −𝑠𝐼1 + 2𝑠 + 1 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0
1𝐻 1𝐻 −𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝑠 + 2 𝐼3 = 0
𝐼3 (𝑠)
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 1Ω Solving the mesh equation for 𝐼2
𝑠 + 1 𝑉 −1
𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠)
𝑣(𝑡) 1𝐻 1𝐻 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑉(𝑠) 1𝐻 1𝐻 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠) −𝑠 0 −1
−1 0 𝑠+2 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1 𝑉
𝐼2 = =
Solution 𝑠+1 −𝑠 −1 𝑠(𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 2)
Mesh analysis −𝑠 2𝑠 + 1 −1
−1 −1 𝑠+2
Writing the mesh equations
The voltage across 𝐿
𝑠 + 1 𝐼1 − 𝑠𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 𝑉
𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1 𝑉
−𝑠𝐼1 + 2𝑠 + 1 𝐼2 − 𝐼3 = 0 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑠𝐼2 =
𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 2
−𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 𝑠 + 2 𝐼3 = 0 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1
→𝐺 𝑠 = = 2
𝑉 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 2

Nodal analysis 1
+ 2 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉
𝑠
1𝐻 1𝐻
2 1
𝐼3 (𝑠) −𝑉1 + + 1 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉
1Ω 1Ω 1Ω 𝑉 (𝑠) 1Ω
1
𝑠 𝑠
𝐼1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠) Solving the nodal equation for 𝑉𝐿
𝑣(𝑡) 1𝐻 1𝐻 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑉(𝑠) 1𝐻 1𝐻 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠)
1
+2 𝑉
𝑠
1
−1 𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1 𝑉
Writing the nodal equations 𝑠
𝑉𝐿 = =
1 1 𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 2
+ 2 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉 + 2 −1
𝑠 𝑠
2
2 1 −1 +1
−𝑉1 + + 1 𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉 𝑠
𝑠 𝑠 2
𝑉𝐿 𝑠 + 2𝑠 + 1
→𝐺 𝑠 = = 2
𝑉 𝑠 + 5𝑠 + 2
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Skill Assessment Ex.2.7 (a) Inverting Op-Amp
Problem If 𝑍1 (𝑠)is the impedance of a 10𝜇𝐹 capacitor and 𝑍2 (𝑠) 𝑍2 (𝑠)
𝑍2
𝐺 𝑠 =−
is the impedance of a 100𝑘Ω resistor, find the transfer 𝑍1 (𝑠) 𝐼2 (𝑠) 𝑍1
𝑉1 (𝑠)
function, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)/𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) if these components are 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝐴 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 105
used with (a) an inverting op-amp and (b) a 𝐼1 (𝑠)
𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) =− 5
10
noninverting op-amp 𝑠
𝑍2 (𝑠)
𝑍2 (𝑠) = −𝑠
𝐼2 (𝑠) 𝑉1 (𝑠)
𝑍1 (𝑠) 𝑉1 (𝑠) (b) Noninverting Op-Amp
𝑉𝑖 (𝑠) 𝐴 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠)
𝐼𝑎 (𝑠)
𝐴 𝑉𝑜 (𝑠) 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
𝑍2 (𝑠)
𝑍1 + 𝑍2
𝐼1 (𝑠)
𝑍1 (𝑠) 𝐺 𝑠 =
Solution 𝑍1
𝑉1 (𝑠)
105
1 1 105 𝑉𝑖 (𝑠)
+ 105
𝑍1 = 𝑍𝐶 = = = = 𝑠
𝐶𝑠 10−5 𝑠 𝑠 𝑍1 (𝑠)
105
𝑍2 = 𝑍𝑅 = 𝑅 = 105 𝑠
=𝑠+1
§5.Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions §5.Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
Table 2.4 Force-velocity, force-displacement, and impedance translational relationships for springs, - Ex.2.16 Transfer Function - One Equation of Motion
viscous dampers, and mass
𝐹(𝑠)
Find the transfer function 𝑋(𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠)
Component Force - Velocity Force - Displacement Impedance 𝑍𝑀 (𝑠) = 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑋(𝑠) 𝐾 Solution
Spring 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑡
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓𝑣 𝑀 Free body diagram
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾 න 𝑣(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐾𝑥(𝑡) 𝐾
𝐾 0 𝑥(𝑡) Using Newton’s law to sum all of the forces
Viscous
damper
𝑥(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡) 𝐾𝑥 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑑𝑥(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓𝑣 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 𝑓𝑣 𝑥 𝑀 𝑀 + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝐾𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓𝑣
𝑑𝑡 𝑀𝑥 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Mass 𝑥(𝑡) 𝑋(𝑠) Taking Laplace transform
𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝑥(𝑡)
𝑀𝑠 2
𝑀 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝑀
𝑑𝑡 2 𝐾𝑋 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋 𝑀
𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋 The transfer function
𝑓(𝑡) : force, 𝑁 𝑣(𝑡) : velocity, 𝑚/𝑠 𝑓𝑣 : damping coefficient, 𝑁𝑠/𝑚
𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑋(𝑠) 𝑋(𝑠) 𝐹 𝑠
𝐺(𝑠) = =
𝑥(𝑡) : displacement, 𝑚 𝑀 : mass, 𝑘𝑔(= 𝑁𝑠 2 /𝑚) 𝐾 : stiffness coefficient, 𝑁/𝑚 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝐹(𝑠) 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾
Impedance - Ex.2.17 Transfer Function - Two Degrees of Freedom
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)
- Define impedance for mechanical components 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓𝑣 3
Find the transfer function 𝑋2 (𝑠)/𝐹(𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 𝐾1 𝐾3
Solution
𝑍𝑀 𝑠 ≡ 𝑀1 𝐾2 𝑀2
𝑋 𝑠 Free body diagram of 𝑀1
→ 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑍𝑀 𝑠 𝑋 𝑠 𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2
𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑋1 (𝑠)
𝐹(𝑠) 𝐹(𝑠)
Sum of Impedances × 𝑋(𝑠) = Sum of Applied Forces 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝐾2 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝐾2 𝑋2 (𝑠)
𝐾1 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑀1 𝑀1 (𝐾1 + 𝐾2 )𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑀1
- The impedance of a spring is its stiffness coefficient 𝑀1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝐾2 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑀1 𝑠 2 𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋2 (𝑠)
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑋 𝑠 → 𝑍𝑀 𝑠 = 𝐾 (2.112) 𝑓𝑣1 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) (𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 )𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠)

forces on 𝑀1 due only forces on 𝑀1 due only all forces on 𝑀1
- For the viscous damper to motion of 𝑀1 to motion of 𝑀2
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑣 𝑠𝑋 𝑠 → 𝑍𝑀 𝑠 = 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 (2.113)
The Laplace transform of the equation of motion of 𝑀1
- For the mass
+ 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋2 = 𝐹
𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 2 𝑋 𝑠 → 𝑍𝑀 𝑠 = 𝑀𝑠 2 (2.114)
Sum of Impedances × 𝑋(𝑠) = Sum of Applied Forces
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The Laplace transform of the equations of motion
𝑓(𝑡)
𝑥1 (𝑡)
𝑓𝑣3
𝑥2 (𝑡)
+ 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋2 = 𝐹
𝐾1
𝑀1 𝐾2 𝑀2
𝐾3
− 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 + 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 + 𝐾3 𝑋2 = 0
Free body diagram of 𝑀2 The Laplace transform of the equations of motion
𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2
𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝐹
𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 0 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝐹
𝑀2 𝑠 2 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑀2 𝐾3 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑀2 𝑀2 𝑠 2 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑀2 𝑋2 = =
𝐾2 𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝐾2 𝑋1 (𝑠) (𝐾2 + 𝐾3 )𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝐾2 𝑋1 (𝑠) ∆ ∆
𝑓𝑣2 𝑠𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑣2 𝑠𝑋2 (𝑠) (𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 )𝑠𝑋2 (𝑠) where
forces on 𝑀2due only forces on 𝑀2due only all forces on 𝑀2
to motion of 𝑀2 to motion of 𝑀1 𝑀1𝑠2 + 𝑓𝑣1 +𝑓𝑣3 𝑠+ 𝐾1 +𝐾2 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2
∆=
− 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑀2𝑠2 + 𝑓𝑣2 +𝑓𝑣3 𝑠+ 𝐾2 +𝐾3
The Laplace transform of the equation of motion of 𝑀2
The transfer function
𝑋2 (𝑠) 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2
𝐺 𝑠 = =
Sum of Impedances × 𝑋(𝑠) = Sum of Applied Forces 𝐹(𝑠) ∆
Note - Ex.2.18 𝑥3 (𝑡) Equations of Motion by Inspection
The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝑀1 𝑀3 Write the equations of motion for the
𝑓𝑣 𝑓𝑣
+ 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾2 𝑋2 = 𝐹 mechanical network
3 4
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑀1 𝑀2
𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)
Solution
The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝑀2 The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝑀1
+ 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 − 𝐾2 𝑋2 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋3 = 0
𝑥3 (𝑡) 𝑥3 (𝑡)
𝑀3 𝑀3
𝑓𝑣3 𝑓𝑣4 𝑓𝑣3 𝑓𝑣4
𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑓(𝑡) 𝐾1 𝐾2 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑀1 𝑀2 𝑀1 𝑀2
𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2 𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2

𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)
The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝑀2 The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝑀3
−𝐾2 𝑋1 + [𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠 + 𝐾2 ]𝑋2 − 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠𝑋3 = 𝐹 −𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋1 − 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠𝑋2 + [𝑀3 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠]𝑋3 = 0
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𝑋2 (𝑠)
Problem Find the transfer function 𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑥 (𝑡) 𝑥 (𝑡)
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)
1 2
𝑓𝑣1 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝐾 = 1𝑁/𝑚 𝑓𝑣1 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝐾 = 1𝑁/𝑚

𝑓(𝑡) 𝑀1 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑀1
1𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑣3 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 1𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑣3 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚
𝑓𝑣2 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝑓𝑣2 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚
Solution 𝑓𝑣4 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝑀2 = 1𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑣4 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝑀2 = 1𝑘𝑔
− 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋1

+ 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋1
+ 𝑀2 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑓𝑣4 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋2 = 0
− 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋2 = 𝐹
2
→ −(3𝑠 + 1)𝑋1 + (𝑠 + 4𝑠 + 1)𝑋2 = 0
→ +(𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 1)𝑋1 − (3𝑠 + 1)𝑋2 = 𝐹
§5.Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions §6.Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
Table 2.5 Torque-angular velocity, torque-angular displacement, and impedance rotational relationships
for springs, viscous dampers, and inertia
+ 𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 1 𝑋1 − 3𝑠 + 1 𝑋2 = 𝐹 Torque-Angular Torque-Angular 𝑇(𝑠)
Component Impedance 𝑍𝑀 (𝑠) =
−(3𝑠 + 1)𝑋1 + (𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 1)𝑋2 = 0 Velocity Displacement 𝜃(𝑠)
Spring 𝑡
The solution for 𝑋2 𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃(𝑡)
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐾 න 𝜔(𝜏)𝑑𝜏 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐾𝜃(𝑡) 𝐾
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 1 𝐹 𝐾 0
− 3𝑠 + 1 0 3𝑠 + 1 𝐹 Viscous
damper
𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃(𝑡) 𝑑𝜃(𝑡)
𝑋2 = = 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐷𝜔(𝑡) 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐷 𝐷𝑠
∆ ∆ 𝐷
𝑑𝑡
where Inertia
𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃(𝑡)
𝑑𝜔(𝑡) 𝑑 2 𝜃(𝑡)
𝑠 2 + 3𝑠 + 1 − 3𝑠 + 1 𝐽 𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐽
𝑑𝑡
𝑇(𝑡) = 𝐽
𝑑𝑡 2
𝐽𝑠 2
∆=
− 3𝑠 + 1 𝑠 2 + 4𝑠 + 1
= 𝑠(𝑠 3 + 7𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 1) 𝑇(𝑡) : torque, 𝑁𝑚 𝜃(𝑡) : angular, 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐾 : spring coefficient, 𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑋2 (𝑠) 3𝑠 + 1 𝐷 : coefficient of viscous friction, 𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐽 : moment of inertia, 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
→𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝐹(𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 3 + 7𝑠 2 + 5𝑠 + 1)
§6.Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions §6.Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions
- Ex.2.19 Transfer Function – Two Equations of Motion Next, draw a free-body diagram of 𝐽1 và 𝐽2, using superposition
Find the TF, 𝜃2 (𝑠)/𝑇(𝑠), for the rotational system shown in
figure. The rod is supported by bearings at either end and is
undergoing torsion. A torque is applied at the left, and the
displacement is measured at the right
𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡) Torques on 𝐽1 due only Torques on 𝐽1 due only
to the motion of 𝐽1 to the motion of 𝐽2 Final free-body diagram for 𝐽1
𝐽1 𝐽2 𝐽1 𝐽2
𝐷1 torsion 𝐷2
𝐷1 𝐾 𝐷2
𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠) (2.127.a)
bearing bearing
Solution
First, obtain the schematic from the physical system
Torques on 𝐽2 due only Torques on 𝐽2 due only

to the motion of 𝐽2 to the motion of 𝐽1 Final free-body diagram for 𝐽2
−𝐾1 𝜃1 𝑠 + (𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾)𝜃2 𝑠 = 0 (2.127.b)

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𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)(2.127.a) Note
𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡)
−𝐾1 𝜃1 𝑠 + (𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾)𝜃2 𝑠 = 0 (2.127.b)
𝐽1 𝐽2
The solution for 𝜃2
𝐷1 torsion 𝐷2
𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑇 bearing bearing
𝜃2 = −𝐾 0 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠) (2.127.a)

∆ ∆
where
𝐽 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 −𝐾
∆= 1
−𝐾 𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2𝑠 + 𝐾
𝜃2 (𝑠) 𝐾 −𝐾1 𝜃1 𝑠 + (𝐽2𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾)𝜃2 𝑠 = 0 (2.127.b)
→𝐺 𝑠 = =
𝑇(𝑠) ∆
- Ex.2.20 Equations of Motion by Inspection
Write the Laplace transform of the equations of motion for the
system shown in the figure
𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝜃3 (𝑡) 𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝜃3 (𝑡)
𝐽1 𝐽2 𝐽3 𝐽1 𝐽2 𝐽3
𝐷1 𝐾 𝐷2 𝐷3 𝐷1 𝐾 𝐷2 𝐷3
Solution
The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝐽1 The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝐽2
+ 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 − 𝐾𝜃2 − 0𝜃3 = 𝑇(𝑠) (2.131.a) −𝐾𝜃1 + 𝐽2𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 − 𝐷2 𝑠𝜃3 = 0 (2.131.b)
Problem
𝑇(𝑡) 1𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜃2 (𝑡)
Find the transfer function 1𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝜃3 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑠) 2 1𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃 1 (𝑡) 1𝑘𝑔𝑚 1𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐽1 𝐽2 𝐽3 𝑇(𝑠)
𝐷1 𝐾 𝐷2 𝐷3
Solution
The Laplace transform of the equations of motion of 𝐽3 The equations of motion
+ 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1 𝜃1 𝑠 − (𝑠 + 1)𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)
−0𝜃1 − 𝐷2𝑠𝜃2 + 𝐽3 𝑠 2 + 𝐷3 𝑠 + 𝐷2 𝑠 𝜃3 = 0 (2.131.c)

− 𝑠 + 1 𝜃1 𝑠 + (2𝑠 + 2)𝜃2 𝑠 = 0
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§6.Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions §7.Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝑇2 (𝑡) Kinematic relationship
𝑟1 𝑟2
𝜃2 𝑟1 𝑁1
𝑇(𝑡) 1𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝜃2 𝑟2 = 𝜃1 𝑟1 → = =
1𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 𝑟2 𝑁2
𝜃2 (𝑡)
1𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
Power on gears 𝜃1 𝑁1 𝜃2
𝜃1 (𝑡) 1𝑘𝑔𝑚2 1𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 gear 1 gear 2
The equations of motion input driver gear output driven gear 𝑇1 𝜃1 = 𝑇2 𝜃2 𝑁2
𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1 𝜃1 𝑠 − (𝑠 + 1)𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)
The ratio of torques on two gears
− 𝑠 + 1 𝜃1 𝑠 + (2𝑠 + 2)𝜃2 𝑠 = 0 𝑇2 𝜃1 𝑁2 𝑇1 𝑇2
𝑁2
Solving for 𝜃2 (𝑠) = = 𝑁1
𝑇1 𝜃2 𝑁1
𝑠2 + 𝑠 + 1 𝑇 𝜃1 , 𝜃2 : rotation angles of gear 1 and 2, 𝑟𝑎𝑑
− 𝑠+1 0 (𝑠 + 1)𝑇
𝜃2 = = 𝑟1, 𝑟2 : radius of gear 1 and 2, 𝑚
𝑠2
+ 𝑠 + 1 −(𝑠 + 1) 2𝑠 3 + 3𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1
𝑁1 , 𝑁2 : number of teeth of gear 1 and 2
− 𝑠+1 2𝑠 + 2
𝜃2 (𝑠) 𝑠+1 𝑇1, 𝑇2 : torques on gear 1 and 2, 𝑁𝑚
→𝐺 𝑠 = = 3
𝑇(𝑠) 2𝑠 + 3𝑠 2 + 2𝑠 + 1
§7.Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears §7.Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡)

𝑁1 𝑁1
𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝑇1 (𝑡)
𝐽 𝐽 𝐽 𝐽
𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2
𝐾 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝐾 𝐾 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝐾
𝑁1 𝑁1
a.rotational system driven by b.equivalent system at the output a.rotational system driven by b.equivalent system at the output
gears after reflection of input torque gears after reflection of input torque
What happens to mechanical impedances that are driven by gears? 𝑇1 can be reflected to the output by multiplying by 𝑁2 /𝑁1
(a) : gears driving a rotational inertia, spring, and viscous damper 𝑁2
𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇1 (𝑠) (2.131)
(b) : an equivalent system at 𝜃1 without the gears 𝑁1
Can the mechanical impedances be reflected from the output to Convert 𝜃2 (𝑠) into an equivalent 𝜃1 (𝑠), so that
the input, thereby eliminating the gears? 𝑁1 𝑁2
𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃 𝑠 = 𝑇1 (𝑠) (2.132)
𝑁2 1 𝑁1
2 2
𝑁2 𝑁2
𝐽 𝐷 Generalizing the results
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑁1 𝑁1
𝑁1 Rotational mechanical impedances can be reflected through
𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝑁2 2 gear trains by multiplying the mechanical impedance by the
𝐽 𝐽 𝐾
𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁1 ratio
𝐾 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝐾
𝑁1
a.rotational system driven by b.equivalent system at the output c.equivalent system at the input
gears after reflection of input torque after reflection of impedances
where the impedance to be reflected is attached to the source
𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇1 (𝑠)(𝑁2 /𝑁1 ) (2.131)
shaft and is being reflected to the destination shaft
𝐽𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑠 + 𝐾 (𝑁1 /𝑁2 )𝜃1 𝑠 = 𝑇1 (𝑠)(𝑁2 /𝑁1 ) (2.132)
2 2 2
𝑁1 𝑁1 𝑁1
→ 𝐽 𝑠2 + 𝐷 𝑠+𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 = 𝑇1 (𝑠) (2.133)
𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2
Thus, the load can be thought of as having been reflected from
the output to the input
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- Ex.2.21 Transfer Function - System with Lossless Gears
Find the transfer function, 𝜃2 (𝑠)/𝑇1 (𝑠), for the system
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡)
𝑁1 2 2 𝑁1 2 2
𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2
𝐽1 𝐽𝑒 = 𝐽1 + 𝐽2 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷1 + 𝐷2 𝐽1 𝐽𝑒 = 𝐽1 + 𝐽2 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷1 + 𝐷2
𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷2 𝑁1 𝑁1 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝐷2 𝑁1 𝑁1
𝐷1 𝐷1
𝐽2 𝐽𝑒 𝐽2 𝐽𝑒
𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁2
𝐾2 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑒 = 𝐾2 𝐾2 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃 (𝑡) 𝐾𝑒 = 𝐾2
𝑁1 2 𝑁1 2
a.rotational mechanical system with gears b.system after reflection of torques a.rotational mechanical system with gears b.system after reflection of torques
and impedances to the output shaft and impedances to the output shaft
Solution
Reflect the impedances (𝐽1 and 𝐷1) and torque (𝑇1) on the input 𝐽𝑒 𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑒 𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇1 𝑠 (𝑁2 /𝑁1 ) (2.139)
shaft to the output, where the impedances are reflected by where, 𝐽𝑒 = 𝐽1 (𝑁2 /𝑁1 )2 +𝐽2, 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷1(𝑁2 /𝑁1 )2 +𝐷2, 𝐾𝑒 = 𝐾2
(𝑁2 /𝑁1 )2 and the torque is reflected by (𝑁2 /𝑁1)
Solving for 𝐺(𝑠)
The equation of motion can now be written as 𝜃2 (𝑠) 𝑁2 /𝑁1 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡)
𝑁2 /𝑁1
𝑁2 𝐺 𝑠 = =
(𝐽𝑒 𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑒 )𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇1 𝑠 (2.139) 𝑇1 (𝑠) 𝐽𝑒 𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑒 𝐽𝑒 𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑒
𝑁1
- In order to eliminate gears with large radii, a gear train is used - Ex.2.22 Transfer Function – Gears with Loss
to implement large gear ratios by cascading smaller gear ratios. Find the transfer function, 𝜃1 (𝑠)/𝑇1(𝑠), for the system
𝜃1 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡)
𝑁1 𝑁1
𝜃2 𝑁1 𝐷1 , 𝐽1 𝐽𝑒
𝑁2′ 𝜃2 = 𝜃 𝑁2′
𝑁2 1 𝐷𝑒 𝑁1 2
𝑁1 𝑁2′
2
𝜃3 𝐷2 , 𝐽2 𝐽2′ 𝐽𝑒 = 𝐽1 + (𝐽2 + 𝐽2′ ) + (𝐽3 + 𝐽3′ )
𝑁2 𝑁3′ 𝑁2′ 𝑁1 𝑁2′ 𝜃3 𝑁2 𝑁2 𝑁3
𝜃3 = 𝜃 = 𝜃 𝑁2
𝜃4 𝑁3 2 𝑁2 𝑁3 1 𝜃2
𝐽3 𝐽3′ 𝑁1 2
𝑁3 𝐷𝑒 = 𝐷1 + 𝐷2
𝑁3′ 𝑁1 𝑁2′ 𝑁3′ 𝑁3 𝑁2
𝜃4 = 𝜃 = 𝜃
𝑁4 𝑁4 3 𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁4 1 a.system using a gear train b.equivalent system at the input
𝑁1 𝑁2′ 𝑁3′ Solution
𝜃 𝜃4 =
𝑁2 𝑁3 𝑁4 1 Reflect all of the impedances to the input shaft, 𝜃1
- For gear trains, the equivalent gear ratio is the product of the The equation of motion can now be written as
individual gear ratios
𝐽𝑒 𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑠 𝜃1 𝑠 = 𝑇1 𝑠
𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃1 𝑠 /𝑇1 𝑠 = 1/(𝐽𝑒 𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑒 𝑠)
𝑇(𝑡) 1𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
Problem Find the TF 𝑁1 = 25
𝜃2
𝜃2 (𝑠) 1𝑘𝑔𝑚 2
𝐺 𝑠 =
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑁2 = 50 4𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 1𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜃𝑎
1𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝜃𝑎
1𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑 2 1𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑
1𝑘𝑔𝑚2 The equation of motion 1𝑘𝑔𝑚
Solution Transforming the network to one without gears by

reflecting the 4𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑 spring to the left and multiplying
by (25/50)2
2 + 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝑠𝜃𝑎 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)
25
4[𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑] × = 1[𝑁𝑚/𝑟𝑎𝑑]
50
−𝑠𝜃1 𝑠 + (𝑠 + 1)𝜃𝑎 𝑠 = 0
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§7.Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears §8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions
The equation of motion
𝑠 2 + 𝑠 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝑠𝜃𝑎 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)
−𝑠𝜃1 𝑠 + (𝑠 + 1)𝜃𝑎 𝑠 = 0
Solving for 𝜃𝑎 (𝑠)
𝑠2 + 𝑠 𝑇
𝜃𝑎 𝑠 = 2 −𝑠 0 = 𝑠𝑇(𝑠)
𝑠 +𝑠 −𝑠 𝑠3 + 𝑠2 + 𝑠
−𝑠 𝑠+1
𝜃𝑎 𝑠 1
→ =
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠 2 + 𝑠 + 1
1
𝜃2 𝑠 𝜃𝑎 𝑠 1/2 NASA flight simulator robot arm with electromechanical control system components
=2 = 2
𝑇(𝑠) 𝑇(𝑠) 𝑠 +𝑠+1
§8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions §8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

- A motor is an electromechanical component that yields a
displacement output for a voltage input, that is, a mechanical • A conductor moving at right angles to a magnetic field
output generated by an electrical input generates a voltage at the terminals of the conductor equal to
- Derive the transfer function for the armature-controlled dc 𝑒 = 𝐵𝑙𝑣
servomotor (Mablekos, 1980) 𝑒 : the voltage
• Fixed field: a magnetic field is developed by stationary 𝑣 : the velocity of the conductor normal to the magnetic field
permanent magnets or a stationary electromagnet
• Armature: a rotating circuit, through which current 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) • The current-carrying armature is rotating in a magnetic field,
flows, passes through this magnetic field at right its voltage is proportional to speed
angles and feels a force 𝑣𝑏 𝑡 = 𝐾𝑏 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡) (2.144)
𝑅𝑎 𝐿𝑎 fix field 𝐹 = 𝐵𝑙𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝑅𝑎 𝐿𝑎 fix field
𝑣𝑏 𝑡 : back electromotive force (back emf)
𝐵 : the magnetic field strength 𝐾𝑏 : a constant of proportionality called
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) amature 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡)
𝑙 : the length of the conductor amature the back emf constant
𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡)𝑇𝑚 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡)𝑇𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) 𝑣𝑏 (𝑡)
𝜃𝑚(𝑡): the angular velocity of the motor
• Taking the Laplace transform • Rearranging Eq.(2.147)

𝑉𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) (2.145) 1
𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) = 𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) (2.148)
• The relationship between the armature current, 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) , the 𝐾𝑡
applied armature voltage, 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡), and the back emf, 𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) • To find the TF of the motor, first substitute Eqs. (2.145) and
(2.148) into (2.146), yielding
𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝐿𝑎 𝑠𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑏 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑠 (2.146) (𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎 𝑠)𝑇𝑚 (𝑠)
• The torque developed by the motor is proportional to the + 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑠 (2.149)
𝐾𝑡
armature current
• Then, find 𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) in terms of 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠), separate the input and
𝑇𝑚 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑡 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 (2.147) output variables and obtain the TF 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑎 (𝑠)
𝑅𝑎 𝐿𝑎 fix field 𝑅𝑎 𝐿𝑎 fix field
𝑇𝑚 : the torque developed by the motor 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)
𝐺(𝑠)
𝐾𝑡 : the motor torque constant, which
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) amature 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡)
depends on the motor and amature
𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃 (𝑡) 𝑇 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡)𝑇𝑚 (𝑡)
𝑣𝑏 (𝑡) 𝑚 𝑚
magnetic field characteristics 𝑣𝑏 (𝑡)
𝑉𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) (2.145), 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝐿𝑎 𝑠𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑏 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑠 (2.146)

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• A typical equivalent mechanical loading on a motor • Assume that the armature inductance, 𝐿𝑎 , is small compared
𝑇𝑚 (𝑡)𝜃𝑚 (𝑡) to the armature resistance, 𝑅𝑎 , which is usual for a dc motor,
𝐽𝑚 Eq. (2.151) becomes
𝐷𝑚
𝑅𝑎
𝐽𝑚 : the equivalent inertia at the armature and includes both the 𝐽 𝑠 + 𝐷𝑚 + 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) (2.152)
armature inertia and, the load inertia reflected to the armature 𝐾𝑡 𝑚
𝐷𝑚 : the equivalent viscous damping at the armature and • After simplification
includes both the armature viscous damping and, the 𝐾𝑡 1
𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝑅𝑎 𝐽𝑚
load viscous damping reflected to the armature = (2.153)
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 𝐷 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾
𝑇𝑚 𝑠 = (𝐽𝑚 𝑠 2 + 𝐷𝑚 𝑠)𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) (2.150) 𝐽𝑚 𝑚 𝑅𝑎 𝑏
• Substituting Eq.(2.150) into Eq.(2.149) • The form of Eq.(2.153)
(𝑅𝑎 + 𝐿𝑎𝑠)(𝐽𝑚𝑠2 + 𝐷𝑚𝑠)𝜃𝑚(𝑠) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝐾
+ 𝐾𝑏𝑠𝜃𝑚 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎(𝑠) (2.151) = (2.154)
𝐾𝑡 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 𝛼)
(𝑅𝑎 +𝐿𝑎 𝑠)𝑇𝑚 (𝑠) (𝑅𝑎+𝐿𝑎𝑠)(𝐽𝑚 𝑠2+𝐷𝑚𝑠)𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)
+ 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑠 (2.149) + 𝐾𝑏𝑠𝜃𝑚 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎(𝑠) (2.151)
𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡

• First discuss the mechanical constants, 𝐽𝑚 and 𝐷𝑚 . Consider • Substituting Eqs.(2.145), (2.148) into Eq. (2.146), with 𝐿𝑎 = 0
motor
𝑁1 the figure: a motor with inertia 𝐽𝑎 and motor
𝑁1 𝑅𝑎
𝑇 𝑠 + 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑠 (2.156)
damping 𝐷𝑎 at the armature driving a 𝐾𝑡 𝑚
𝐽𝑎 , 𝐷𝑎 𝐽𝑎 , 𝐷𝑎
𝐽𝐿 load consisting of inertia 𝐽𝐿 and 𝐽𝐿
Taking the inverse Laplace transform
𝑁2 𝐷𝐿 𝑁2 𝐷𝐿
damping 𝐷𝐿 𝑅𝑎
Assuming that all inertia and damping values shown are 𝑇 𝑡 + 𝐾𝑏 𝜔𝑚 𝑡 = 𝑒𝑎 𝑡 (2.157)
𝐾𝑡 𝑚
known, 𝐽𝐿 and 𝐷𝐿 can be reflected back to the armature as
• When the motor is operating at steady state with a dc voltage
some equivalent inertia and damping to be added to 𝐽𝑎 and
input
𝐷𝑎 , respectively → The equivalent inertia, 𝐽𝑚 , and equivalent
𝑅𝑎
damping, 𝐷𝑚 , at the armature 𝑇 + 𝐾𝑏 𝜔𝑚 = 𝑒𝑎 (2.158)
2 𝐾𝑡 𝑚
𝑁1 𝐾𝑏 𝐾𝑡 𝐾𝑡
𝐽𝑚 = 𝐽𝑎 + 𝐽𝐿 (2.155.a) → 𝑇𝑚 = − 𝜔 + 𝑒 (2.159)
𝑁2 𝑅𝑎 𝑚 𝑅𝑎 𝑎
2
𝑁1
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑎 + 𝐷𝐿 (2.155.b)
𝑁2 𝑉𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) (2.145), 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝐿𝑎 𝑠𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑏 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑠 (2.146), 𝐼𝑎 (𝑠) =
1
𝑇 (𝑠)
𝐾𝑡 𝑚
(2.148)

The stall torque - Ex.2.23 Transfer Function-DC Motor and Load
motor
𝑁1 𝐾𝑡 𝜃𝐿 𝑠
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑒 (2.160) Given the system and torque-speed curve, find the TF,
𝑅𝑎 𝑎 fix field
𝐸𝑎 𝑠
𝐽𝑎 , 𝐷𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑇𝑚 (𝑁𝑚)
𝐽𝐿
𝑁2 𝐷𝐿 The no-load speed
500
𝑒𝑎 𝑁1 = 100
torque
𝑇𝑚 𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = (2.161) 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) amature 𝜃 (𝑡) 𝐽𝐿 = 700𝑘𝑔𝑚

2
2
𝑒𝑎 = 100𝑉
𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝐾𝑏 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡)
𝐽𝐿
𝜔𝑚 (𝑟𝑝𝑚)
The electrical constants of the motor 𝐽𝑎 = 5𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑁2 = 1000 𝐷𝐿
speed 50
𝐷𝑎 = 2𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝐿 = 800𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
𝐾𝑡 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝜔 𝑚 = (2.162)
Torque-speed curves with an 𝑅𝑎 𝑒𝑎
armature voltage, 𝑒𝑎 , as a parameter 𝑒𝑎
𝐾𝑏 = (2.163)
𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
The electrical constants, 𝐾𝑡 /𝑅𝑎 and 𝐾𝑏 , can be found from a
dynamometer test of the motor, which would yield 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 and
𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 for a given 𝑒𝑎
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Solution Find the electrical constants from the torque-speed curve
Find the mechanical constants 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 500, 𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 50, 𝑒𝑎 = 100
fix field fix field
𝑅𝑎 𝑇𝑚 (𝑁𝑚) 𝑅𝑎 𝑇𝑚 (𝑁𝑚)
𝑁1 = 100 500 𝑁1 = 100 500
torque
torque
2 2
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) amature 𝜃 (𝑡) 𝐽𝐿 = 700𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑒𝑎 = 100𝑉 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡) amature 𝜃 (𝑡) 𝐽𝐿 = 700𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑒𝑎 = 100𝑉
2 2
𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡) 𝑖𝑎 (𝑡) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑡)
𝐽𝐿 𝐽𝐿
𝐽𝑎 = 5𝑘𝑔𝑚 2
𝑁2 = 1000 𝐷𝐿 𝜔𝑚 (𝑟𝑝𝑚) 𝐽𝑎 = 5𝑘𝑔𝑚 2
𝑁2 = 1000 𝐷𝐿 𝜔𝑚 (𝑟𝑝𝑚)
speed 50 speed 50
𝐷𝑎 = 2𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝐿 = 800𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝑎 = 2𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝐷𝐿 = 800𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
2 2 𝐾𝑡 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 500
𝑁1 100 = = =5
𝐽𝑚 = 𝐽𝑎 + 𝐽𝐿 = 5 + 700 × = 12 𝑅𝑎 𝑒𝑎 100
𝑁2 1000
2 2 𝑒𝑎 100
𝑁1 100 𝐾𝑏 = = =2
𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑎 + 𝐷𝐿 = 2 + 800 × = 10 𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 50
𝑁2 1000

The transfer function 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) Skill-Assessment Ex.2.11
𝐾𝑡 1 Problem Find the TF, 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝜃𝐿 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑠 (𝑠), for the motor and load
= system. The torque-speed curve is given by 𝑇𝑚 =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 𝐷 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾 − 8𝜔𝑚 + 200 when the input voltage is 100𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠
𝐽𝑚 𝑚 𝑅𝑎 𝑏 motor 𝐽𝑎 = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚2
𝑁1 = 20
1 𝐷𝑎 = 5𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
5× 𝑒𝑎 (𝑡)
𝐽𝐿 = 400𝑘𝑔𝑚2
= 12 𝐽𝑎 , 𝐷𝑎
𝑁2′ = 25
𝐷𝐿 = 800𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑
1 𝜃𝐿 (𝑡)
𝑠 𝑠+ × 10 + 5 × 2 𝑁2 = 100
12 𝐽𝐿
0.417 Solution 𝑁3 = 100 𝐷𝐿
= Find the mechanical constants
𝑠(𝑠 + 1.667)
2 2
The transfer function 𝜃𝐿 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑁1 𝑁2′ 20 25
𝐽𝑚 = 𝐽𝑎 + 𝐽𝐿 = 1 + 400 × × =2
𝑁1 100 𝑁2 𝑁3 100 100
𝜃𝐿 (𝑠) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝑁2 0.417 × 1000 0.0417 2 2
= = = 𝑁1 𝑁2′ 20 25
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.667) 𝑠(𝑠 + 1.667) 𝐷𝑚 = 𝐷𝑎 + 𝐷𝐿 = 5 + 800 × × =7
𝑁2 𝑁3 100 100

Find the electrical constants from the torque-speed eq. Substituting all values into the motor transfer function
𝜔𝑚 = 0 → 𝑇𝑚 = 200 𝐾𝑡 1
𝑇𝑚 = 0 → 𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 = 200/8 = 25 =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠 𝑠 + 1 𝐷 + 𝐾𝑡 𝐾
motor 𝐽𝑎 = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚2
𝐽𝑚 𝑚 𝑅𝑎 𝑏
𝑁1 = 20
𝐷𝑎 = 5𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 1
𝑒𝑎 (𝑡)
𝐽𝐿 = 400𝑘𝑔𝑚2 2×
𝐽𝑎 , 𝐷𝑎
𝑁2′ = 25
𝐷𝐿 = 800𝑁𝑚𝑠/𝑟𝑎𝑑 = 2
𝜃𝐿 (𝑡) 1
𝑁2 = 100 𝑠 𝑠+ 7+2×4
𝐽𝐿 2
𝑁3 = 100 𝐷𝐿 1
𝐾𝑡 𝑇𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙 200 =
𝑠(𝑠 + 7.5)
= = =2
𝑅𝑎 𝐸𝑎 100 The transfer function 𝜃𝐿 (𝑠)/𝐸𝑎 (𝑠)
𝐸𝑎 100 𝑁1 𝑁2′
𝐾𝑏 = = =4 20 25
𝜔𝑛𝑜−𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 25 𝜃𝐿 (𝑠) 𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) 𝑁2 𝑁3 100 × 100 0.05
= = =
𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝐸𝑎 (𝑠) 𝑠(𝑠 + 7.5) 𝑠(𝑠 + 7.5)
𝑇𝑚 = −8𝜔𝑚 + 200
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§9.Electric Circuit Analogs §9.Electric Circuit Analogs

- Electric circuit analog: an electric circuit that is analogous to a Series Analog
system from another discipline 𝐾
𝑥(𝑡) 𝐿 𝑅
- The mechanical systems can be represented by the equivalent 𝑓𝑣 𝑀

𝑓(𝑡)
𝑒(𝑡) 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡)
electric circuits 𝑖(𝑡)
- Analogs can be obtained by comparing the describing mechanical system desired electrical representation
equations, such as the equations of motion of a mechanical
system, with either electrical mesh or nodal equations Consider the translational mechanical system, the equation of motion
• when compared with mesh equations, the resulting electrical 𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾
𝑀𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋 𝑠 = 𝐹 𝑠 = 𝑠𝑋 𝑠
circuit is called a series analog 𝑠
• when compared with nodal equations, the resulting electrical 𝐾
→ 𝑀𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
circuit is called a parallel analog 𝑠
Kirchhoff’s mesh equation for the simple series RLC network
1
𝐿𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝐼 𝑠 = 𝐸(𝑠)
𝐶𝑠

- Ex.2.24 Converting a Mechanical System to a Series Analog
𝐿 𝑅 𝑀 𝑓𝑣
Draw a series analog for the mechanical system
1 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑒(𝑡) 𝐶 𝑣𝐶 (𝑡) 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓𝑣3
𝑖(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡) 𝐾
𝐾1 𝐾3
𝑀1 𝐾2 𝑀2
desired electrical representation series analog
𝑣 𝑣 𝑓1 𝑓2
Parameters for series analog Solution
mass =𝑀 → inductor 𝐿 = 𝑀 henries The equations of motion with 𝑋(𝑠) → 𝑉(𝑠)
𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝐾2
viscous damper = 𝑓𝑣 → resistor 𝑅 = 𝑓𝑣 ohms 𝑀1 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉2 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠
spring =𝐾 → capacitor 𝐶 = 1/𝐾 farads
𝐾2 𝐾2 + 𝐾3
applied force = 𝑓(𝑡) → voltage source 𝑒 𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉1 𝑠 + 𝑀2 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉2 𝑠 = 0
𝑠 𝑠
velocity = 𝑣(𝑡) → mesh current 𝑖 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑡)

Coefficients represent sums of electrical impedance. Parallel Analog
Mechanical impedances associated with 𝑀1 form the first mesh, 𝐾
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡)
where impedances between the two masses are common to 𝑓(𝑡)

𝑓𝑣 𝑀 𝑖(𝑡) 𝐶 𝑅 𝐿
the two loops. Impedances associated with 𝑀2 form the second
mesh desired electrical representation
mechanical system
𝑣1 (𝑡) and 𝑣2 (𝑡)are the velocities of 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 , respectively
1 Consider the translational mechanical system, the equation of motion
𝑀1 𝐾1 𝑓𝑣1 𝑀2 𝑅
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝐾
𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓𝑣3 𝑀𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣 + 𝑉 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐾1 𝐾3 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠
𝑀1 𝐾2 𝑀2 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓𝑣2
𝑣1 (𝑡) 1 𝑣2 (𝑡)
𝐾2
Kirchhoff’s nodal equation for the simple parallel RLC network
𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2 1 1
𝐶𝑠 + + 𝐸 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝑅𝑠 𝐿𝑠
𝐾1 +𝐾2 𝐾2
+ 𝑀1 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉2 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐾2 𝐾2 +𝐾3
− 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉1 𝑠 + 𝑀2 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉2 𝑠 = 0
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- Ex.2.25 Converting a Mechanical System to a Parallel Analog
𝑥(𝑡) 𝑒(𝑡) 𝑣(𝑡)
𝐾 Draw a parallel analog for the mechanical system
𝑓(𝑡) 1 1 𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡)
𝑓𝑣 𝑀 𝑖(𝑡) 𝐶 𝑅 𝐿 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑀 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓𝑣3
𝑓𝑣 𝐾
𝐾1 𝐾3
𝑀1 𝐾2 𝑀2
mechanical system desired electrical representation parallel analog
𝑣 𝑣 𝑓1 𝑓2
Parameters for parallel analog Solution
mass = 𝑀 → capacitor 𝐶 = 𝑀 farads The equations of motion with 𝑋(𝑠) → 𝑉(𝑠)
𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝐾2
viscous damper = 𝑓𝑣 → resistor 𝑅 = 1/𝑓𝑣 ohms 𝑀1 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉2 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝑠 𝑠
spring =𝐾 → inductor 𝐿 = 1/𝐾 henries
𝐾2 𝐾2 + 𝐾3
applied force = 𝑓(𝑡) → current source 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡) − 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉1 𝑠 + 𝑀2 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑉2 𝑠 = 0
𝑠 𝑠
velocity = 𝑣(𝑡) → node voltage 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡)

Coefficients represent sums of electrical admittances. Admittances Skill-Assessment Ex.2.12
associated with 𝑀1 form the elements connected to the first Problem Draw a series and parallel analog for the rotational
node, where mechanical admittances between the two masses mechanical system
are common to the two nodes. Mechanical admittances associated
𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡) 𝑇(𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝜃2 (𝑡)
with 𝑀2 form the elements connected to the second node 𝑣1 (𝑡)
𝐽1 𝐽2 𝐽1 𝐽2
and 𝑣2 (𝑡) are the velocities of 𝑀1 and 𝑀2 , respectively 𝐷1 𝐾 𝐷2
1 𝐷1 torsion 𝐷2
𝑓𝑣3 bearing bearing
Solution
𝑥1 (𝑡) 𝑥2 (𝑡) 𝑣1 (𝑡) 𝑣2 (𝑡)
𝑓(𝑡) 𝑓𝑣3 The equations of motion
𝐾1 𝐾3 1 1 1 1
𝑀1 𝐾2 𝑀2 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑀1
𝑓𝑣1 𝐾1
1 𝑀2
𝑓𝑣2 𝐾2 + 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠)
𝐾3
𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2
−𝐾𝜃1 𝑠 + 𝐽2𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 = 0
𝐾1 +𝐾2 𝐾2
+ 𝑀1 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉1 𝑠 − 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉2 𝑠 = 𝐹(𝑠)
𝐾2 𝐾2 +𝐾3
− 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉1 𝑠 + 𝑀2 𝑠 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 + 𝑠
𝑉2 𝑠 = 0
§9.Electric Circuit Analogs §10.Nonlinearities

𝐽1𝑠 2 + 𝐷1𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠) - A linear system possesses two properties
−𝐾𝜃1 𝑠 + 𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 𝑠 = 0 • Superposition
Letting 𝜃1 𝑠 = 𝜔1 (𝑠)/𝑠, 𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝜔2 (𝑠)/𝑠 𝑟1 (𝑡)
linear system
𝑐1 (𝑡)
𝑟1 (𝑡) + 𝑟2 (𝑡) 𝑐1 (𝑡) + 𝑐2 (𝑡)
𝐾 𝐾 linear system
𝐽1 𝑠 + 𝐷1 + 𝜔1 𝑠 − 𝜔2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠) 𝑟2 (𝑡) 𝑐2 (𝑡)
𝑠 𝑠 linear system
𝐾 𝐾 • Homogeneity
− 𝜔1 𝑠 + 𝐽2 𝑠 + 𝐷2 + 𝜔2 𝑠 = 0 𝑟1 (𝑡) 𝑐1 (𝑡) 𝐴𝑟1 (𝑡) 𝐴𝑐1 (𝑡)
𝑠 𝑠 linear system linear system
From these equations, draw both series and parallel - Some examples of physical nonlinearities
analogs by considering these to be mesh or nodal
equations, respectively
𝐽1 𝐷1 𝐽2 𝐷2 𝜔1 (𝑡) 𝜔2 (𝑡)
1
1 1 1
𝑇(𝑡) 𝑇(𝑡) 𝐽1 𝐾 𝐽2
𝐾 𝜔 (𝑡) 𝐷1 𝐷2
𝜔1 (𝑡) 2
series analog parallel analog

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§11.Linearization §11.Linearization
- To obtain transfer function from a nonlinear system - Assume a nonlinear system operating at point 𝐴, [𝑥0 ,𝑓(𝑥0 )],
• recognize the nonlinear component and write the nonlinear small changes in the input can be
differential equation related to changes in the output about
the point by way of the slope of the curve
• find the steady-state solution is called equilibrium
at the point 𝐴
• linearize the nonlinear differential equation
𝑓 𝑥 − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) ≈ 𝑚𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
• take the Laplace transform of the linearized differential → 𝛿𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑚𝑎 𝛿𝑥
equation, assuming zero initial conditions
→ 𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑚𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑥0
• separate input and output variables and form the transfer function ≈ 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑚𝑎 𝛿𝑥
𝑚𝑎 : the slope of the curve at point 𝐴
δ𝑥 : small excursions of the input about point 𝐴
𝛿𝑓(𝑥) : small changes in the output related by the slope at point 𝐴
- Ex.2.26 Linearizing a Function Taylor series expansion
Linearize 𝑓 𝑥 = 5cos𝑥 about 𝑥 = 𝜋/2 Taylor series expansion expresses the value of a function in
Solution terms of the value of that function at a particular point, the
Using the linearized equation excursion away from that point, and derivatives evaluated at
that point
𝑓 𝑥 ≈ 𝑓 𝑥0 + 𝑚𝑎 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 ) 𝑑 2 𝑓 (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )2
where 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥0 + ቤ + 2อ +⋯
𝜋 𝜋 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥 1! 𝑑𝑥 2!
𝑓 = 5cos =0 0 𝑥=𝑥0
2 2 For small excursions of 𝑥 from 𝑥0 , the higher-order terms can
𝑑𝑓
𝑚𝑎 = ቤ = (−5sin𝑥)ቚ 𝜋 = −5 be neglected
𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝜋 𝑥=
2 𝑑𝑓
2 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥0 + ቤ (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 )
The system can be presented as 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥
0
𝑓 𝑥 ≈ −5𝛿𝑥
for small excursions of 𝑥 about 𝜋/2
- Ex.2.27 Linearizing a Differential Equation 𝑑𝑓
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑥0 + ቤ (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
Linearize the following equation for small excursion about 𝑥 = 𝜋/4 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥
0
𝑑2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑓 𝑥 = cos𝑥 = cos 𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4
+2 + cos𝑥 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑓 𝑥0 = 𝑓 𝜋/4 = cos(𝜋/4) = 2/2
Solution 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝛿𝑥
The presence of the term cos𝑥 makes this equation nonlinear 𝑑𝑓 𝑑cos𝑥
ቤ = ቤ = − sin 𝜋/4 = − 2/2
Since we want to linearize the equation about 𝑥 = 𝜋/4, we let 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑥=𝜋/4
0
𝑥 = 𝜋/4 + 𝛿𝑥, where 𝛿𝑥 is the small excursion about 𝜋/4
𝑑 2 (𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4) 𝑑(𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4) 2 2
+2 + cos(𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4) = 0 → cos 𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4 = + − 𝛿𝑥
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 2
𝑑 2 (𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4) 𝑑 2 𝛿𝑥 The linearized differential equation
= 𝑑 2 𝛿𝑥 𝑑𝛿𝑥 2 2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑(𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4) 𝑑𝛿𝑥 +2 − 𝛿𝑥 = −
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 2 2
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 Solve this equation for 𝛿𝑥, and obtain 𝑥 = 𝛿𝑥 + 𝜋/4
26
19/08/2021
- Ex.2.28 Transfer Function-Nonlinear Electrical Network - Evaluate the equilibrium solution
Find the transfer function, 𝑉𝐿 (𝑠)/𝑉(𝑠), for the electrical network, • Set the small-signal source, 𝑣(𝑡), equal to zero
which contains a nonlinear resistor whose • Evaluate the steady-state current
𝑖(𝑡) 1𝐻 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡) 𝑖(𝑡) 1𝐻 𝑣𝐿 (𝑡)
voltage-current relationship is defined by 𝑖𝑟 = In the steady state 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡 and 𝑑𝑖/𝑑𝑡,
nonlinear 2𝑒
0.1𝑣𝑟
𝑣(𝑡) , where 𝑖𝑟 and 𝑣𝑟 are the resistor 𝑣(𝑡) nonlinear
resistor given a constant battery source. Hence, the
𝑟 𝑟
resistor
current and voltage, respectively. Also, 𝑣(𝑡) is resistor voltage, 𝑣𝑟 , is 20𝑉
20𝑉 20𝑉
a small-signal source
𝑖𝑟 = 2𝑒 0.1𝑣𝑟 = 2𝑒 0.1×20 = 14.78𝐴
Solution
→ 𝑖0 = 𝑖𝑟 = 14.78𝐴
From the voltage-current relationship
𝑖0 is the equilibrium value of the network current → 𝑖 = 𝑖0 + 𝛿𝑖
𝑖𝑟 = 2𝑒 0.1𝑣𝑟 𝑑𝑖
→ 𝑣𝑟 = 10ln(0.5𝑖𝑟 ) = 10ln(0.5𝑖) 𝐿 + 10 ln 0.5𝑖 − 20 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
Applying Kirchhoff’s voltage law around the loop 𝑑(𝑖0 + 𝛿𝑖)
→𝐿 + 10 ln[0.5 𝑖0 + 𝛿𝑖 ] − 20 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑖 𝑑𝑡
𝐿 + 10 ln 0.5𝑖 − 20 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑓 The linearized equation with 𝐿 = 1𝐻, 𝑖0 = 14.78𝐴
𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑓 𝑖0 + ቤ (𝑖 − 𝑖0 )
𝑑𝑖 𝑖=𝑖 𝑑𝛿𝑖 𝑉(𝑠)
0 + 0.677𝛿𝑖 = 𝑣(𝑡) → 𝛿𝑖 𝑠 =
𝑓 𝑖 = ln(0.5𝑖) = ln[0.5 𝑖0 + 𝛿𝑖 ] 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 + 0.677
𝑓 𝑖0 = ln(0.5𝑖0 ) The voltage across the inductor about the equilibrium point
𝑑(𝑖0 + 𝛿𝑖) 𝑑𝛿𝑖
𝑖 − 𝑖0 = 𝛿𝑖 𝑣𝐿 𝑡 = 𝐿 =𝐿 → 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠𝛿𝑖 𝑠 = 𝑠𝛿𝑖 𝑠
𝑑𝑓 𝑑 ln(0.5𝑖) 1 1 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
ቤ = ቤ = ቤ = The voltage across the inductor about the equilibrium point
𝑑𝑖 𝑖=𝑖 𝑑𝑖 𝑖 𝑖 0
0 𝑖=𝑖 𝑖=𝑖 0 0 𝑉(𝑠)
1 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 = 𝑠
→ ln[0.5 𝑖0 + 𝛿𝑖 ] = ln(0.5𝑖0 ) + 𝛿𝑖 𝑠 + 0.677
𝑖0 The final transfer function
The linearized equation 𝑉𝐿 𝑠 𝑠
𝑑𝛿𝑖 1 =
𝑉(𝑠) 𝑠 + 0.677
𝐿 + 10 ln(0.5𝑖0 ) + 𝛿𝑖 − 20 = 𝑣(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡 𝑖0 for small excursions about 𝑖 = 14.78𝐴 or, equivalently, about
𝐿
𝑑(𝑖0 +𝛿𝑖)
+ 10 ln[0.5 𝑖0 + 𝛿𝑖 ] − 20 = 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑣 𝑡 =0
𝑑𝑡
Skill-Assessment Ex.2.13 Linearize 𝑒 𝑣
Problem Find the linearized TF 𝐺 𝑠 = 𝑉(𝑠)/𝐼(𝑠), for the electrical 𝑑𝑓
𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑓 𝑣0 + ቤ (𝑣 − 𝑣0 )
network. The network contains a nonlinear resistor 𝑑𝑣 𝑣=𝑣
0
whose voltage-current relationship is defined by 𝑖𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑣𝑟 .
𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑣0 +𝛿𝑣
The current source, 𝑖(𝑡), is a small-signal generator
𝑣(𝑡) 𝑓 𝑣0 = 𝑒 𝑣0
𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝛿𝑣
nonlinear
2𝐴 𝑖(𝑡)
resistor
𝑟 1𝐹
𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑒 𝑣
Solution ቤ = ቤ = 𝑒𝑣 ቚ = 𝑒 𝑣0
𝑑𝑣 𝑣=𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑣=𝑣 𝑣=𝑣0
0 0
The nodal equation
𝑑𝑣 → 𝑒 𝑣0 +𝛿𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑣0 + 𝑒 𝑣0 𝛿𝑣
𝐶 + 𝑖𝑟 − 2 = 𝑖 𝑡 The linearized equation
𝑑𝑡
But 𝐶 = 1, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝛿𝑣, 𝑖𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑣𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑣 = 𝑒 𝑣0 +𝛿𝑣 𝑑𝛿𝑣
+ 𝑒 𝑣0 + 𝑒 𝑣0 𝛿𝑣 − 2 = 𝑖 𝑡
𝑑(𝑣0 + 𝛿𝑣) 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑒 𝑣0 +𝛿𝑣 − 2 = 𝑖 𝑡 𝑑(𝑣0 +𝛿𝑣)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝑒 𝑣0 +𝛿𝑣 − 2 = 𝑖 𝑡
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19/08/2021
§11.Linearization §12.Case Studies

Setting 𝑖 𝑡 = 0 and letting the circuit reach steady
state, the capacitor acts like an open circuit. Thus, 𝑣0 =
𝑣𝑟 with 𝑖𝑟 = 2. But, 𝑖𝑟 = 𝑒 𝑣𝑟 or 𝑣𝑟 = ln𝑖𝑟 . Hence, 𝑣0 =
ln2 = 0.693
𝑑𝛿𝑣
+ 𝑒 𝑣0 + 𝑒 𝑣0 𝛿𝑣 − 2 = 𝑖 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝛿𝑣
→ + 2𝛿𝑣 = 𝑖 𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Taking the Laplace transform
𝑠 + 2 𝛿𝑣 𝑠 = 𝐼(𝑠)
𝛿𝑣(𝑠) 𝑉(𝑠) 1
= =
𝐼(𝑠) 𝐼(𝑠) 𝑠 + 2
about equilibrium
28

Ch.02 Modeling in Frequency Domain

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Ch.02 Modeling in Frequency Domain

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19/08/2021

§1.Introduction §2.Laplace Transform Review

• an interconnection of subsystems - The Laplace transform is named in honor of mathematician and

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

𝑠 : complex frequency variable, 𝑠 = 𝜎 + 𝑗𝜔 with 𝑠, 𝜔 are real 1

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §2.Laplace Transform Review

§2.Laplace Transform Review §3.The Transfer Function hàm truyền

§3.The Transfer Function §3.The Transfer Function

§3.The Transfer Function §3.The Transfer Function

§3.The Transfer Function §3.The Transfer Function

§3.The Transfer Function §3.The Transfer Function

§3.The Transfer Function §3.The Transfer Function

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

- An operational amplifier (op-amp) is an electronic amplifier

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

§4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions §4.Electrical Network Transfer Functions

𝐹 𝑠 = 𝐾𝑋 𝑠 → 𝑍𝑀 𝑠 = 𝐾 (2.112) 𝑓𝑣1 𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠) (𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 )𝑠𝑋1 (𝑠)

+ 𝑀1 𝑠 2 + 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾1 + 𝐾2 𝑋1 − 𝐾2 𝑋2 − 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠𝑋3 = 0

𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2 𝑓𝑣1 𝑓𝑣2

𝑓𝑣1 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝐾 = 1𝑁/𝑚 𝑓𝑣1 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝐾 = 1𝑁/𝑚

Solution 𝑓𝑣4 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝑀2 = 1𝑘𝑔 𝑓𝑣4 = 1𝑁𝑠/𝑚 𝑀2 = 1𝑘𝑔

− 𝑓𝑣1 + 𝑓𝑣2 + 𝑓𝑣3 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝑋1

Torques on 𝐽2 due only Torques on 𝐽2 due only

−𝐾1 𝜃1 𝑠 + (𝐽2 𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾)𝜃2 𝑠 = 0 (2.127.b)

𝜃2 = −𝐾 0 = 𝐾𝑇 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 𝑠 − 𝐾𝜃2 𝑠 = 𝑇(𝑠) (2.127.a)

+ 𝐽1 𝑠 2 + 𝐷1 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃1 − 𝐾𝜃2 − 0𝜃3 = 𝑇(𝑠) (2.131.a) −𝐾𝜃1 + 𝐽2𝑠 2 + 𝐷2 𝑠 + 𝐾 𝜃2 − 𝐷2 𝑠𝜃3 = 0 (2.131.b)

−0𝜃1 − 𝐷2𝑠𝜃2 + 𝐽3 𝑠 2 + 𝐷3 𝑠 + 𝐷2 𝑠 𝜃3 = 0 (2.131.c)

𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡) 𝑇1 (𝑡) 𝜃1 (𝑡)

Solution Transforming the network to one without gears by

§8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions §8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

§8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions §8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

• Taking the Laplace transform • Rearranging Eq.(2.147)

𝑉𝑏 (𝑠) = 𝐾𝑏 𝑠𝜃𝑚 (𝑠) (2.145), 𝑅𝑎 𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝐿𝑎 𝑠𝐼𝑎 𝑠 + 𝑉𝑏 𝑠 = 𝐸𝑎 𝑠 (2.146)

§8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions §8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions

§8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions §8.Electromechanical System Transfer Functions