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Chapter 1: The Process of

Measurement / An Overview
Mohammad Suliman Abuhaiba, Ph.D., PE
The Islamic University of Gaza
Mechanical Engineering Department

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WHAT MEASUREMENT?
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• "Whatever exists, exists in some amount“

• The determination of the amount is what
measurement is all about.
• The process of measurement consists of
obtaining a quantitative comparison between a
predefined standard and a measurand.
• Measurand is used to designate the particular
physical parameter being observed and
quantified - input quantity to the measuring
process: length of a piece of wood
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WHAT MEASUREMENT?
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• The act of measurement produces a result

• Standard of comparison must be of same
character as the measurand
• Usually, but not always, is prescribed &

Standard
defined by a legal or recognized organization:
National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
Measurand Process of Result
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Comparison
(Input) (Measurement) (Readout)

Example: Meter is a clearly defined standard of length

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SCOPEtoOF
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MECHANICAL
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MEASUREMENTS

• Mass, length, time

• Temperature
• Force, Strain
• Flow rate, pressure
• Displacement, velocity, acceleration
• Linear and angular measurements

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MECHANICAL
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MEASUREMENTS

• Measurement of mechanical quantities also

involves consideration of things electrical

• It is often convenient or necessary to change,

or transduce, mechanical measurand into a
corresponding electrical quantity

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SIGNIFICANCE
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OF MECHANICAL
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MEASUREMENT

• Measurement provides quantitative information

on the actual state of physical variables
• Measurement is both the vehicle for new
understanding of the physical world and the
ultimate test of any theory or design.
• Measurement is the fundamental basis for all
research, design, and development.

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SIGNIFICANCE
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OF MECHANICAL
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MEASUREMENT
All mechanical design of any complexity
involves three elements:
1. Experience element: based on previous
exposure to similar systems and on an
engineer's common sense
2. Rational element: relies on quantitative
engineering principles, laws of physics, … Measurement provides a
3. Experimental element: based on comparison between what
measurement of various quantities was intended and what
pertaining to the operation & performance of was actually achieved.
the device or process being developed
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SIGNIFICANCE
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OF MECHANICAL
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MEASUREMENT

• Measurement is a fundamental element of

any control process.
• The concept of control requires the measured
discrepancy between the actual and the
desired performances.
• The controlling portion of the system must
know the magnitude and direction of the
difference in order to react intelligently.

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SIGNIFICANCE
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OF MECHANICAL
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MEASUREMENT

• To be useful, measurement must be reliable.

• Having incorrect information is potentially

more damaging than having no information.

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FUNDAMENTAL
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METHODS
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OF
MEASUREMENTS

Two basic methods of measurement:

1. Direct comparison with either a primary or a secondary standard

2. Indirect comparison through the use of a calibrated system

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FUNDAMENTAL
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METHODS
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MEASUREMENTS : Direct Comparison

How would you measure the length of a bar of

steel?
• If you were to be satisfied with a measurement to within 1/8
inch (3 mm), you would probably use a Steel tap measure.
• You would compare the length of bar with a standard and
find that the bar is so many inches long because that many
inch-units on your standard are the same length as the bar.
• Thus, you have determined the length by direct comparison.
• Standard that you have used is called a secondary standard.
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METHODS
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MEASUREMENTS: Direct Comparison

• Human senses are not equipped to make direct

comparisons of all quantities with equal facility.
• In many cases they are not sensitive enough.
• We can make direct comparisons of small distances using
a steel ruler, with a precision of about 1 mm.
• Often we require greater accuracy. Then we must call for
additional assistance from some more complex form of
measuring system.
• Thus, Measurement by direct comparison is less common
than is measurement by indirect comparison.
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FUNDAMENTAL
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METHODS
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MEASUREMENTS
Using a Calibrated System

• Indirect comparison makes use of some form of

transducing device coupled to a chain of connecting
apparatus, the measuring system.
• This chain of devices converts the basic form of input into
an analogous form, which it then processes and presents
at the output as a known function of the original input.

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FUNDAMENTAL
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METHODS
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MEASUREMENTS
Using a Calibrated System

• For instance, Human senses are not designed to

detect the strain in a machine member.

• Assistance is required from a system that senses,

converts, and finally presents an analogous output
in the form of a displacement on a scale or chart or
as a digital readout.

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FUNDAMENTAL
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METHODS
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MEASUREMENTS
Using a Calibrated System
• Processing of analogous signal may take many forms.
• Often it is necessary to increase amplitude or power
through some form of amplification.
• Or it may be necessary to extract the desired
information from a mass of extraneous input by a
process of filtering.
• In each of the various cases requiring amplification, or
filtering, or remote recording, electrical methods
suggest themselves.
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GENERALIZED
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MEASURING
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SYSTEM
(GMS)

Most measuring systems consists of three stages:

1. Stage 1: A detection - transduction, or sensor - transducer stage

2. Stage 2: An intermediate stage, signal - conditioning stage
3. Stage 3: A terminating, or readout - recording stage

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GENERALIZED
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MEASURING
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SYSTEM
Block Diagram of GMS

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GENERALIZED MEASURING
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SYSTEM

First or Sensor - Transducer Stage

• Primary function: detect or sense the measurand
• This stage should be insensitive to every other possible
input.
if it is a strain gage, it should be insensitive to temperature
• Rare to find a detecting device that is completely selective.
• Unwanted sensitivity is a measuring error, called noise when
it varies rapidly and drift when it varies very slowly.

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GENERALIZED MEASURING
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SYSTEM

Second or Signal - Conditioning Stage

• Purpose:
 Modify transduced information so that it is acceptable to third stage
 Increase either amplitude or power of signal, or both, to the level
required to drive the final terminating device
• It may perform one or more basic operations: selective filtering
to remove noise, integration, differentiation, …
• 2nd stage must be designed for proper matching characteristics
between 1st & 2nd and between 2nd & 3rd stages.
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GENERALIZED title style SYSTEM
MEASURING

Third or Readout – Recording stage

• 3rd stage provides information sought in a form
comprehensible to one of human senses or to a controller.
• If output is intended for immediate human recognition, it
is generally presented in one of the following forms:
1. As a relative displacement, such as movement of an
indicating hand or displacement of oscilloscope trace
2. In digital form, as presented by a counter such as an
automobile odometer, or by liquid crystal display (LCD) or
light-emitting diode (LED) display as on a digital voltmeter
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GENERALIZED
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MEASURING
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SYSTEM
third

Example - 1

• Tire gage used for checking automobile tire pressure.

• It consists of a cylinder & piston, a spring resisting piston
movement, and a stem with scale divisions.
• As air pressure against the piston, resulting force
compresses the spring until spring and air forces
balance.
• Calibrated stem, which remains in place after the spring
returns the piston, indicates the applied pressure.

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GENERALIZED
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MEASURING
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SYSTEM
Example - 1
• Piston - cylinder combination constitutes a force - summing
apparatus, sensing and transducing pressure to force.
• As a secondary transducer, spring converts force to
displacement.
• Transduced input is transferred without signal conditioning to
scale and index for readout.

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GENERALIZED MEASURING
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SYSTEM
third
readou
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Example – 2: Velocity is to be measured

• 1st stage device: accelerometer provides a voltage
analogous to acceleration

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GENERALIZED
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MEASURING
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SYSTEM
Example - 2

In addition to voltage amplifier, 2nd stage may include a filter that selectively attenuates
unwanted high-frequency noise components. It may also integrate analog signal wrt time,
thereby providing a velocity-time relation. 2424
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GENERALIZED
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MEASURING
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SYSTEM
Example - 2
Signal voltage will probably need lo be increased to the level necessary to be sensed by 3rd stage,
which may consist of a data-acquisition computer and printer. Final record will then be in the form of
a computer-generated graph; with proper calibration. an accurate velocity vs time is the result.

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QUANTITIES
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Time Dependence
Mechanical quantities, in addition to their
inherent defining characteristics, also have
distinctive time-amplitude properties, which
may be classified as follows:
1. Static: constant in time
2. Dynamic: varying in time
a) Steady-state Periodic
b) Non-repetitive or transient
 Single pulse or aperiodic
 Continuing or random

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QUANTITIES
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• Static measurand is the most easily

measured.
• If the system is terminated by some form of
meter - type indicator, the meter's pointer
has no difficulty in eventually reaching a
definite indication.
• The rapidly changing dynamic measurand
presents the real measurement challenge.

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Two general forms of dynamic input

are possible:
1. Steady - state periodic input:
whose magnitude has a definite
repeating time cycle.
2. Transient input: time variation of a
transient quantity does not repeat.

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• An example of a pulsed transient quantity

is acceleration - time relationship
accompanying an isolated mechanical
impact.
• The magnitude is temporary, being
completed in a matter of milliseconds,
with portions of interest existing perhaps
for only a few microseconds.

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Analog and Digital Signals
• Most measurands of interest vary with time in a
continuous manner over a range of magnitudes.
 Example: speed of automobile, as it starts from rest,
has some magnitude at every instant during its motion.
 A sensor that responds to velocity will produce an
output signal having a time variation analogous to time
change in auto's speed.
 We refer to such a signal as an analog signal because it
is analogous to a continuous physical process.
 An analog signal has a value at instant in time, it
usually varies smoothly in magnitude.
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flow
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Analog and Digital Signals
• Some quantities may change in a stepwise manner between
two distinct values: high & low voltage or on & off
• Revolutions of a shaft could be counted with a cam -
actuated electrical switch that is open or closed, depending
on position of cam. If switch controls current from a battery,
current either flows with a given magnitude or does not.
• Current flow varies discretely between two values, which we
could represent as single digits: 1 (flowing) and 0 (not
flowing).
• Amplitude of such a signal may thus be called digital.

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Analog and Digital Signals
• Many electronic circuits store numbers as sets of digits strings of
1s and 0s with each string held in a separate memory register.
• When digital circuits are used to record an analog signal, they do
so only at discrete points in time because they have only a fixed
number of memory registers.
• Analog signal (has a value at every instant of time) becomes a
digital signal.
• A digital signal is a set of discrete numbers, each corresponding to
the value of the analog signal at a single specific instant of time.
• Digital signal contains no information about value of analog signal
at times other than sample times.
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QUANTITIES
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Analog and Digital Signals
• Mechanical quantities such as temperature, fluid flow,
pressure, stress, and strain - normally behave timewise
in an analog manner.
• Distinct advantages are obtained in converting analog
signal to a digital signal for the purposes of signal
conditioning and / or readout.
• Noise problems are reduced or sometimes eliminated
altogether, and data transmission is simpler.
• Computers are designed to process digital information,
and direct numerical display or recording is more easily
accomplished by manipulating digital quantities.
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MEASUREMENT STANDARDS
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• Measurement is a process of comparison.

• Regardless of measurement method, we must employ
a basis of comparison - standardized units.
• Standards must be precisely defined, and, because
different systems of units exist, method of conversion
from system to system must be mutually agreed upon.
• A relationship between standards and readout scale of
each measuring system must be established through
a process known as calibration.
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CALIBRATION

• At some point during the preparation of a

measuring system, known magnitudes of input
quantity must be fed into the sensor -
transducer, and the system's output behavior
must be observed.
• Such a comparison allows the magnitude of
output to be correctly interpreted in terms of
the magnitude of input.
• This calibration procedure establishes the
correct output scale for the measuring system.
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CALIBRATION

• By performing such a test on an instrument,

we both calibrate its scale and prove its
ability to measure reliably. In this sense, we
sometimes speak of proving an instrument.
• If the calibration is to be meaningful, the
known input must itself be derived from a
defined standard

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CALIBRATION
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• If output is exactly proportional to input (output =

constant x input), then a single simultaneous
observation of input and output will suffice to fix the
constant of proportionality.
• This is called single - point calibration.
• More often, however, multipoint calibrations used,
wherein a number of different input values applied.
• Multipoint calibration works when output is not simply
proportional, and, more generally, improves the
accuracy of the calibration.
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CALIBRATION
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• If a measuring system will be used to detect a time -

varying input, then the calibration should ideally be
made using a time - dependent input standard.
• Such dynamic calibration can be difficult, however,
and a static calibration, using a constant input signal,
is frequently substituted.
• The more nearly the calibration standard
corresponds to the measurand in all its
characteristics, the better the resulting
measurements.
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UNCERTAINTY:
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ACCURACY
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OF
RESULTS
• Error = measurement result - true value
• While we do know the measured value, we
do not know the true value, and so we do
not know the error either.
• If we estimate a likely upper bound on
magnitude of error, that bound is called the
uncertainty: We estimate, with some level
of odds, that the error will be no larger than
the uncertainty.

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UNCERTAINTY: title style
ACCURACY OF
RESULTS

• To estimate size of errors, we must

have some understanding of their
causes and classifications.
• Errors can be of two basic types:
1. bias or systematic error
2. precision or random error

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UNCERTAINTY:
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ACCURACY
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RESULTS

• Should a dishonest butcher place a

ball of putty under the scale pan,
readouts would be consistently in
error.
• Scale would indicate a weight of
product too great by the weight of
the putty.
• This zero offset represents one type
of systematic error.
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UNCERTAINTY: ACCURACY
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OF RESULTS

• Shrink rules are used to make patterns for casting of

metals.
• Cast steel shrinks in cooling by about 2%; hence
patterns used for preparing molds are oversized by
proper percentage amounts.
• Pattern maker uses a shrink rule on which the
dimensional units are increased by that amount.
• Should a pattern maker's shrink rule for cast steel be
unmistakably used for ordinary length measurements,
readouts would be consistently undersized by 1/50 in
one (2%). This is an example of scale error. 4242
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UNCERTAINTY:
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ACCURACY
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OF
RESULTS

• In each of the foregoing examples errors are

constant and of a systematic nature.
• Such errors cannot be uncovered by
statistical analysis.

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UNCERTAINTY:
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a ACCURACY
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RESULTS
• An inexpensive frequency counter may use the 60 Hz
power line frequency as a comparison standard.
• Power line frequency is held very close to 60 Hz
standard.
• Although it does wander slowly above and below the
average value, over a period of time - say a day -
average is very close to 60 Hz.
• Wandering is random and the moment to moment error
in the frequency meter readout (from this source) is
called precision or random error.
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UNCERTAINTY:
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ACCURACY
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RESULTS
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• Randomness may also be introduced by variations in the

measurand itself.
• If a number of hardness readings is made on a given sample of
steel, a range of readings will be obtained.
• An average hardness may be calculated and presented as the
actual hardness.
• Single readings will deviate from average
• Primary reason for variations in this case is the no homogeneity of
the crystalline structure of test specimen
• Deviations will be random due to variations in the measurand.
• Random error may be estimated by statistical methods. 4545
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REPORTING Master title style

Reports may be categorized as:

1. Executive Summary
2. Laboratory Note or Technical Memo
3. Progress Report
4. Full Technical Report
5. Technical Paper

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REPORTING
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Executive Summary (ES)

Is directed at a busy observer who wants

only key features of the work (outlined in
a few paragraphs):
 what was done
 what was concluded

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A Laboratory Note (LN)

• Is written to be read by someone thoroughly

familiar with the project, such as an immediate
supervisor or the experimentalist himself.
• A single page may be sufficient including:
 a sentence or two stating the problem
 a block diagram of the experimental setup
 some data (tabular or graphical form)

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REPORTING
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A Laboratory Note (LN)

• Any pertinent observations not directly evident
from the data should also be included.
• Sufficient information should be included so that
the experimenter can mentally reconstruct the
situation and results year or even 5 years hence.
• A date and signature should always be included
and, if there is a possibility of important
developments stemming from the work, such as a
patent, a second witnessing signature should be
included and dated.
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A Full Report (FR)

• FR tells the complete story to one who is interested
in the subject but who has not been in direct touch
with the specific work - perhaps top officials of a
large company or a review committee of a
sponsoring agency.
• FR must relate all the facts pertinent to the project.
• Make the purpose of the project completely clear.
• FR should also include enough detail to allow
another professional to repeat the measurements
calculations.
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A Full Report (FR)

• Make main body short and to the point, relegating to
appendices supporting materials, such data, detailed
descriptions of equipment, review of literature, sample
calculations, and so on.
• Frequent reference to these materials can be made
throughout the report, but the option to peruse the details
is left to the reader.

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A progress Report (PR)

• PR is one of possibly several interim reports

describing the current status of an ongoing
project, which will eventually be incorporated in
a full report.

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Results
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A Technical Paper (TP)

• TP is a brief summary of a project, extent of which must be
tailored to fit either a time allotment at a meeting or space in a
publication.
• A primary purpose of a TP is to make known the work of the
writer.
• For this reason, two particularly important portions of the
writing are the problem statement and the results.
• Adequately done, these two items will attract attention of other
workers interested in the particular field, who can then make
direct contact with the writer(s) for additional details and
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REPORTING
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A Technical Paper (TP)

• Space, number of words, limits on illustrations,

and perhaps time are all factors making
preparation of a TP particularly challenging.
• Once the problem statement and the primary
results have been adequately established,
remaining available space may be used to
summarize procedures, test setups, and the like.

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