Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29

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Studies in Educational Evaluation

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/stueduc

Successful implementation of information and communication technology T

integration in Malaysian public schools: An activity systems analysis
approach
⁎
N. Asiah Razak, Habibah Ab. Jalil, Steven Eric Krauss , Nor Aniza Ahmad
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This multiple-case study drew upon Engeström's (1987) activity theory (AT) to understand the conditions and
ICT integration effectiveness explain the systematic contradictions that facilitate successful Information and Communication Technology
Evaluation utilization (ICT) integration in schools. The data were collected through in-depth interviews and document analysis from
Successful ICT integration one primary and one secondary public school in Malaysia. In-depth interviews were carried out with nine
Activity theory
participants, including principals, ICT coordinators, and teachers. Findings revealed three conditions that led to
Activity systems analysis approach
successful ICT integration: 1) types of ICT tools in the school, 2) rules and regulations in the school that shape the
Systemic contradictions
ICT culture, and 3) division of labour within the school community. The findings indicate that school stake-
holders must work together to resolve tensions introduced by systemic contradictions in different activity sys-
tems, which shape school ICT culture. The study aims to enrich the discourse on ICT integration by assisting
school stakeholders to reflect on their own ICT integration strategies.

1. Introduction
ICT integration involves the utilization of technological tools that
can support teachers to be innovative and effective in teaching while
allowing students to learn at their own pace. Various studies have
documented the impact of global ICT integration on every level of the
school community, including students, teachers, peers, and experts, in
the process of acquiring and sharing knowledge (Donnelly, McGarr, &
O’Reilly, 2011; Gunjan, 2016; Sultan, Woods, & Koo, 2011). New
learning environments support knowledge sharing and learning colla-
boration with the use of computers (Anderson, 2008). ICT integration in
schools does not just occur within the school building, but beyond the
classroom as well due to the availability of technologies that connect
students with teachers, peers, and experts across vast distances and at
any time. Students can access educational resources, such as interactive
subject contents with multimedia, communicate through social media
platforms like Facebook and Twitter, and participate in active and
collaborative learning through applications like ZohoWriter, and
Google Hangout messenger (Gunjan, 2016; Parycek, Sachs, &
Schossböck, 2011; Tay, Lim, Lim, & Koh, 2012).
Organizational change is key to ensuring successful ICT integration
in schools (Laferrire, Hamel, & Searson, 2013; Tearle, 2004). High ICT
investment in schools does not guarantee that the technology will be
used effectively for teaching and learning purposes. Previous studies
conducted mainly in advanced economies portray how roles, rules and
activities within a school’s sociocultural context reflect how the orga-
nization must change for successful technology integration (Laferrire
et al., 2013). A lack of understanding about the conditions pertaining to
organizational change affects successful ICT integration in schools
(Laferrire et al., 2013). Scholars have revealed the links between lack of
organizational change and technological investment (Divaharan & Lim,
2010; Lim, Zhao, Tondeur, Chai, & Tsai, 2013). Lim et al. (2013) found
that after comparing the outcomes achieved through investment in
technology with sectors outside education, the gains in terms of re-
duced costs and increased productivity achieved by schools were sig-
nificantly smaller. They urge organizational change for schools by fo-
cusing on an over-arching ICT strategy to provide clear direction to the
key players especially subject teachers, ICT teachers and ICT co-
ordinators.
As a nation, Malaysia is one of the highest in terms of ICT ex-
penditures in schools (Ministry of Education Malaysia [MOE], 2013).
The Malaysian government has allocated more than RM6 billion for ICT
initiatives in education. However, recent studies indicate a low level of
ICT usage in Malaysian schools (Alazzam, Bakar, Hamzah, & Asimiran,
2012; Umar & Hassan, 2015). In November 2016, Malaysia's Educa-
tional Technology Division (ETD) endorsed a list of schools with

⁎
Corresponding author at: Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail address: lateef@upm.edu.my (S.E. Krauss).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2018.05.003
Received 13 June 2017; Received in revised form 3 April 2018; Accepted 11 May 2018
0191-491X/ © 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
N.A. Razak et al.
different levels, or star rankings, to evaluate the implementation of ICT
integration in each school. The star ranking system for level of ICT
integration is based on the Smart School Qualification Standards
(SSQS), ranging from 1 Star (lowest) to 5 Star (highest). The SSQS is an
appraisal indicator for each school in terms of technology utilization
(40%), human capital (40%), applications (10%) and technology in-
frastructure (10%). These indicators are intended to show not only the
school's ability in performing general ICT operations, but also in de-
veloping creativity, interactivity, collaborative learning, critical
thinking, and problem-solving skills through such tools (Frost &
Sullivan, 2010; Malaysia National ICT Initiative [MSC], 2009). Missing
from Malaysia’s system of ICT integration success is an understanding
of the conditions or factors that contribute to success ICT integration in
schools. Thus, to date, little is known as to why certain schools are more
successful than others at integrating ICT into teaching.
Drawing on Engeström's Activity Theory (AT) (1987), the first aim
of this study was to understand how the conditions within different
activity systems have led to the successful integration of ICT into
teaching. Second, the study set out to explain how systematic contra-
dictions within and between activity systems affect the success of ICT
integration in schools. The study research questions were: 1) how is the
integration of ICT into teaching successfully implemented; and 2) how
do systemic contradictions that introduce and resolve tensions lead to
successful ICT integration?
This multiple-case study investigated successful ICT integration in
two types of Malaysian schools, based on the schools’ achievement of
being given a five-star ranking (i.e., highest level of success) as reported
by the Malaysian Smart School Qualification Standards (SSQS). ICT
integration is defined as the use of technology to facilitate the con-
nection between modern technologies and teachers, students, peers,
educational resources and also experts inside or outside classrooms.
Within Malaysian education policy circles, it is believed that a failure to
embrace educational technological advancements could cause Malaysia
to lag behind other nations by not preparing its workforce with the
skills suitable for a high-income economy. Without a well-executed
implementation by schools to produce the necessary ICT skill sets, it
will be more challenging for Malaysian students to compete later on.
Successful ICT integration in schools thus requires properly planned
and optimized technology investment decisions. In line with this need,
this paper sought to explain the importance of understanding successful
implementation of ICT integration in schools.
1.1. Study context
The Malaysian Ministry of Education (MOE) began investing in
technological integration in the 1980’s. The first ICT program was the
formation of the MOE-MIMOS Joint Committee in 1986, which marked
the initiation of broad-based computer usage in Malaysian schools. In
1997, the MOE proposed Smart Schools, a program that utilized high
capital-intensive investments to provide schools with ICT infra-
structure. In 2006, 88 Smart Schools were selected as ‘model schools’ to
act as a reference for Smart School concepts, materials, skills, and
technologies developed by MOE (Frost & Sullivan, 2010). In 2013, the
Ministry aimed for all schools to officially qualify as “Smart Schools” by
achieving minimum standards of ICT utilisation, capability, availability
of infrastructure, and applications integrating ICT into the teaching and
learning process (Ministry of Education Malaysia [MOE], 2013). Since
then, various additional ICT programs have been introduced into the
education system, including 1BestariNet and VLEFrog.
Despite these efforts, issues regarding ICT infrastructure in schools,
particularly Internet connectivity and accessibility, still need to be ad-
dressed to ensure the successful implementation of ICT integration. To
address this need, the Ministry has introduced 1BestariNet under Wave
1 of the Malaysian Education Blueprint 2013-2025. The 1BestariNet
aims to equip all public schools, approximately 10,000 primary and
secondary schools across Malaysia, with high-speed 4G Internet access
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Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
and a virtual learning environment (VLE). The VLE benefits 5.5 million
students, 500,000 teachers, and 4.5 million parents. VLE enables tea-
chers to share educational materials, online assignments, learning sites,
and digital textbooks with their students (Xchanging, 2014). By the end
of Wave 1 in 2015, a total of 8940 schools nationwide were connected
to 1BestariNet (Ministry of Education Malaysia [MOE], 2015).
Despite these ICT initiatives, few studies have looked at the ICT
integration process in Malaysia. Therefore, it is timely to examine how
ICT integration can act as a mediating tool to enhance students’ access
to knowledge. The activity system of ICT-integrated teaching involves
the entire school ecosystem including ICT coordinators, principals,
Ministry officials, Parent-Teacher Associations, and alumni. This sys-
temic way of looking at the activity systems can assist in understanding
how ICT becomes part of a school’s teaching process. Furthermore,
researchers have noted that the most appropriate time to study the
implementation of an initiative is approximately three years following
its implementation (Fullan & Stiegelbauer, 2001). Hence, ICT integra-
tion in Malaysia needs to be studied holistically with a clear theoretical
underpinning in order to provide an in-depth understanding of the ICT
integration implementation in schools.
2. Theoretical framework: activity theory
Engeström's Activity Theory (1987), is a descriptive tool to describe
the components — and their interrelationships in different forms — of
human activity as a developmental process (Daniels, 2004; Kuutti,
1996). AT is also referred to as cultural-historical activity theory
(CHAT). Engeström (1987, 2001, 2015) differentiated the evolution of
the theory into three phases referred to as first, second and third gen-
erations. In the first generation, Vygotsky proposed the idea of med-
iation, expressed as the triad of subject, object, and mediating artefact
(see Vygotsky, 1978, p. 40). According to Engeström (1987, 2001,
2015), the limitation of this idea was its focus on the individual as the
unit of analysis. He stated that “the individual could no longer be un-
derstood without his or her cultural means; and the society could no
longer be understood without the agency of individuals who use and
produce artefacts” (p. 5).
This limitation was overcome when the second generation came
into place, inspired by Leont’ev’s work, which introduced the idea that
a historically evolving division of labour has brought about a crucial
differentiation between an individual action and a collective activity.
Leont’ev also brought the notion of mediation as not only a mediating
artefact, but also other humans and social relations in human activity
(Engeström & Miettinen, 1999). Leont’ev’s conceptualization was
transformed into a graphical model by Engestrom (Engeström, 1987, p.
78). Engeström (1987, 2001, 2015) called the graphical model an ac-
tivity system, as shown in Fig. 1. Engestrom also conceptualized the
role of society and how collaboration influences the way people act.
Fig. 1. The structure of a human activity system in Activity Theory (Engeström,
1987, p. 78).
Note: The large oval refers to the first generation of activity theory (Vygotsky,
1978, p. 40). The small oval indicates that “object-oriented actions are always,
explicitly or implicitly, characterized by ambiguity, surprise, interpretation,
sense making, and potential for change (Engestrom, 2001, p. 134).
N.A. Razak et al. Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29

The limitation of the second generation of AT was its lack of emphasis
on cultural diversity. Hence, in the third generation of the theory, En-
gestrom developed conceptual tools “to understand dialogue, multiple
perspectives, and networks of interacting activity systems” (Engestrom,
2001, p. 135–136: see also 2015). The third generation of AT also ex-
panded the unit of analysis from a single activity system to two or more
interconnected activity systems (Engeström & Kerosuo, 2007; Harry
Daniels, 2007). The third generation of AT has assisted researchers to
analyse the “historical relationships among multiple activities by
identifying how the results from a past activity affect new activities”
(Yamagata-Lynch, 2010, p. 1–2). Various studies refer to activity theory
as activity theory (AT) (see Goodnough, 2016; Gregorcic, Etkina, &
Planinsic, 2017; Lim & Hang, 2003), while other studies refer to it as
cultural-historical activity theory (CHAT) (see Daniels & Warmington,
2007; Ho, Victor Chen, & Ng, 2016; Ivey & Johnston, 2015). This study
used the third generation of AT to examine historical, object-oriented
activities, mediations, systemic contradictions, and the relationships
between components within and among the different activity systems
for successful ICT-integrated teaching.
2.1. Activity theory as an analytic lens to study ICT integration
Prominent scholars of ICT in education claim that AT can be used
“to analyse successes, failures, and contradictions in complex situations,
as in most ICT-mediated learning environments, without reductionist
simplifications” (Bannayan et al., 2014, p. 9). More than a decade ago,
researchers used AT to explain ICT integration (Demiraslan & Usluel,
2008; Divaharan & Lim, 2010; Laferrire et al., 2013; Lim, 2007). For
example, Laferrire et al. (2013) examined barriers to the successful
implementation of technology in rural schools in Canada. Laferrire
et al. (2013) defined the barriers as "tensions that pulled constituents of
an activity system or activity systems in opposite directions” (p. 463).
They argued that the process of overcoming barriers by emphasizing
the contradiction principle of AT lead to successful technology in-
tegration.
Other studies on ICT integration revealed that the contradictions
that occur in activity systems help to understand the ‘breakdown’ in
relationships (Demiraslan & Usluel, 2008; Murphy & Rodriguez-man-
zanares, 2008). Lim (2007) adopted AT to analyse the effectiveness of
ICT integration and the supporting context of the school in Singapore
primary schools. Lim revealed six conditions that facilitate effective ICT
integration including classroom management issues, availability of ICT
tools, establishment of disciplinary and educational rules, division of
labour among teachers, teacher assistants and students, and revised
school policies. A similar study conducted in Singapore secondary
school classrooms found that schools need to function as learning or-
ganisations to be adaptable to changes, especially rapid changes
brought about by technology integration in curriculum (Divaharan &
Lim, 2010). Divaharan and Lim put forward the need to study AT
within a context, given the fact that “actions are intended and purpo-
seful to help the subject to transform the object through interaction and
mediation with other components of the activity systems to achieve the
outcome of the activity” (p. 759). In the AT perspective, context occurs
within the context of an activity, while the activity takes place within
the context of community (Shariq, 1998). The context also is the ac-
tivity system itself (Lim, 2001). An activity system can help researchers
understand an individual activity in relation to its context and how
individual activities and their context affect one another (Engeström,
1987). Thus, AT is used in the current study as the analytic lens to study
the collective context in a school comprised of ICT teachers, Techni-
cians, ICT coordinators, principals, local business owners, and Parent-
Teacher Associations (PTA).
3. Methodology: activity systems analysis
Engeström's (1987) third generation AT emphasizes that activity
systems analysis (ASA) is a methodology that can be valuable for
qualitative researchers to understand human activity situated in a col-
lective context. According to Yamagata-Lynch (2010), this method can
guide researchers to design, implement, analyse, and develop conclu-
sions for research studies including program evaluations. The ASA can
also be used to map human interactions in natural settings. Over the
past two decades, several studies have referred to ASA as a descriptive
tool to: 1) capture the processes involved in organizational change
(Barab, Schatz, & Scheckler, 2004; Harness & Yamagata-Lynch, 2016),
2) identify guidelines for designing constructivist learning environ-
ments (Jonassen & Rohrer-Murphy, 1999), 3) identify systemic con-
tradictions and tensions that shape developments in educational set-
tings (Barab, Barnett, Yamagata-Lynch, Squire, & Keating, 2002), 4)
demonstrate historical developments in professional development
(Yamagata-lynch, 2003), and 5) determine the factors and their inter-
action that support teachers’ integration of ICT (Divaharan & Lim,
2010). Yamagata-Lynch (2010) emphasized the need for further ap-
plication of ASA as a research methodology. Thus, the current study
employed ASA to explore different activity systems.
In AT, human activities cannot be understood only within the
context of an activity itself (Barab et al., 2002; Engeström, 1999a,
1999b). Engestrom developed the human activity system, which is
descriptive rather than predictive in nature (Nardi, 1996). The activity
system is a conceptual framework for describing, analysing and making
sense of human activity. The top triangle of the activity system (Fig. 1)
is identical to Vygotsky’s mediated action triangle, referred to as the
first generation of AT. The triangle is commonly expressed as the triad
of subject, object, and mediating artefact. Engeström (1999a, 1999b)

Table 1
Description of components of an activity system.
Components Descriptions

Subject The individual or groups of individuals involved in the activity (Engestrom, 2001; Jonassen & Rohrer-Murphy, 1999; Yamagata-Lynch, 2010).
Tool Mediating artefacts act as tools (technical or physical and psychological). Technical tools are used to handle or manipulate objects. Therefore, they extend
human beings’ abilities to achieve targeted objects. Psychological tools (e.g., sign, symbol, or language) are used to influence an activity in one way or
another. In addition, the artefacts that function as tools are not conveniently handed to the subject. They are invented, purchased, discarded, and replaced in
the activity system and can even be sources of disruptions (Engeström & Middleton, 1996). The tool also includes social others and artefacts that can act as
resources for the subject in the activity (Yamagata-Lynch, 2010, p. 2).
For the purpose of this article, the study focuses on the mediation of technical tools (e.g., hardware, software, Internet connectivity) used by teachers in their
ICT integration activities as the main condition for the success of ICT integration in school.
Object The object is the raw material or problem space that provides a reason for the subject to participate in the activity. In addition, the object is depicted (Fig. 1)
with “the help of an oval indicating that object-oriented actions are always, explicitly or implicitly, characterized by ambiguity, surprise, interpretation,
sense making, and potential for change” (Engestrom, 2001, p. 134). It can be the goal or motive of the activity (Yamagata-Lynch, 2010).
Rules Any formal or informal regulations that in varying degree can constrain or liberate the activity and provide guidance to the subject of what are correct
procedures and acceptable interactions to take with other community members (Engeström, 1993).
Community The social group of which the subject identifies being a member while participating in the activity. The members of the community are usually organised to
participate in the activity at a common place and time (Engeström, 1993; Yamagata-Lynch, 2010).
Division of labour Refers to how the tasks are shared among the community (Engeström, 1993; Yamagata-Lynch, 2010).

19
N.A. Razak et al.
asserts that Vygotsky omitted the sociohistorical aspects of mediation
embedded in the rules, community, and division of labour components.
Six components of activity systems are described in Table 1. All of these
components of the activity system, including the top triangle and the
bottom sociohistorical components, can mediate change not only for
the object but also for each other. For achieving the outcomes within an
activity system, the activity of the subject is directed towards the object
that is then “moulded and transformed into outcomes with the help of
physical and symbolic external and internal tools (mediating instru-
ments and signs)” (Engeström, 1993, p. 67).
Prominent scholars of AT claim that activity systems are not stable
and harmonious processes due to the nature of each component, which
can create tensions within a given system and also between systems
(Engestrom, 2001; Lim, Tay, & Hedberg, 2011; Yamagata-lynch, 2003).
The systemic contradictions constitute a key concept in AT and are
characteristic within and between activity systems, struggling to re-
solve tensions within and among activity systems, producing cycles of
change where each cycle produces new contradictions (Engeström,
1987; Lim et al., 2011). The systemic contradictions are devel-
opmentally significant and exist in the form of tensions that are in-
volved in achieving the object and transforming it into desired out-
comes, and also as emerging dilemmas and disturbances (Lim et al.,
2011). Engestrom (2001) stated that “contradictions are a source of
change and development” (p. 137) as innovative attempts to change the
activity even though the contradictions that occur in activity systems
generate tensions, disturbances, and conflicts (Engestrom, 2001). In this
sense, ‘systemic contradiction’ is counted as an important aspect as it
enlightens how the interaction within and between activity systems as
tensions can affect the subject’s ability to achieve the object by taking a
role as an obstacle, making it difficult for the subject to achieve the
object, or by taking a role as an enabling influence for the subject to
achieve the object (Yamagata-Lynch, 2010). Therefore, it is important
to identify systemic contradictions that occur, and explain how one
activity in a particular context (new activity) is affected by another
activity (past activities).
3.1. Activity settings
In ASA, the activity setting is the scene in which the participants’
object-oriented activities take place. It is a situation where participants
have common goals and are bound together by the actions and activ-
ities in which they participate (Tharp & Gallimore, 1988). Researchers
must identify the bounded system of the activity setting in order to
describe the relationship between participant activities and the social
environment, without being overwhelmed with contextual information
that may be unrelated to the study (Yamagata-Lynch, 2010). Activity
settings provide the context in which activities take place and can be
considered as the unit of analysis of a study. In this study, three ac-
tivities were used for three types of unit of analysis in three different
activity systems. The first activity system was in the classroom where
the unit of analysis was ICT-integrated teaching. The analysis specifi-
cally focused on the ICT facilities and equipment provided in the
classroom during teacher-conducted ICT-integrated teaching to under-
stand conditions and explain systemic contradictions to enhance stu-
dents access to knowledge. The second activity system was at the de-
partment where the unit of analysis was teachers’ relationship with the
subject coordinator, peers and other participants that supported them.
The third activity system was at the school where the unit of analysis
was the teachers’ relationship with the principal, ICT coordinator,
subject coordinators, and other teachers in the ICT and other subject
departments. The school activity system also focused on the role of the
administrative staff, PTA, alumni and local business owners support of
ICT-integrated teaching. The focus of analysis at both the department
and school activity systems was on the conditions and systemic con-
tradictions affecting the teachers’ use of ICT in their teaching. Thus,
these three activities helped the researchers to interpret how
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Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
participant activities were influencing and were being influenced by the
social context as a factor determining the success of ICT integration.
4. Methods
4.1. Research design
This study utilized a qualitative multiple-case study design
(Creswell, 2007; Denzin & Lincoln, 2005; Patton, 2015; Stake, 2006) to
explore the interactions of activity systems within schools that con-
tributed to ICT integration. These interactions were identified through
the examination of the schools’ sociocultural context in relation to ICT
integration in the research participants’ activity settings. A within and
between-case approach utilizing qualitative content analysis (Mayring,
2000, 2014) was used to generate the case study data.
4.2. Participants
A purposive sampling method with criterion-based case selection
(Creswell, 2007; Patton, 2015) was used to select the schools and
participants. The main selection criterion of the schools sampled was
achieving the highest level, or five-star ranking, in ICT integration as
reported in Malaysia's SSQS. A snowball or referral technique was used
to gain access to the schools that met the sample criteria. In each se-
lected school, the study participants, including the principal, ICT co-
ordinator, and teachers were identified based on their availability and
willingness to be interviewed. The teachers were considered primary
informants as the implementers of ICT-integrated teaching. Nine par-
ticipants were interviewed by the researchers: five participants from
School S and four from School P. The number of participants was de-
termined by the point of data saturation. The study reached saturation
or data redundancy when no new themes emerged from the analysis
(Guest, 2006; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The
saturation of data was determined using three in-depth interview ses-
sions for each study participant.
Multiple-case study research can include anywhere from two to 15
cases, which allows the researcher to conduct cross-case theme analysis
(Creswell, 2007; Stake, 2006). In multiple-case study design, the sample
size depends on the duration of in-depth interviews and number of
sessions with each participant. Fewer sessions and shorter interview
duration generally require a larger sample. In the current study, a small
sample comprised of multiple interview sessions provided in-depth data
leading to a better understanding of the phenomenon under study. The
study achieved saturation with three interview sessions with at least
four participants in each school. Demographic information about the
participants is provided in Table 2.
4.3. Case selection
Based on the aforementioned criteria in the sample section, two
public schools were selected in this study: an urban primary school and
a rural secondary school. The two schools was selected due to their
achieving the highest level, or five-star ranking, in ICT integration as
reported by Malaysia's SSQS.
4.3.1. Primary school P
School P is a national-type Chinese primary school that was estab-
lished in 1938. At the time of study, the school had 2080 pupils (52%
male; 93% Chinese). In terms of manpower, there were 85 teachers
(86% Female; 91% Chinese) and nine support personnel. School P had
used the School Management System since 2005, and started to use
computers in teaching and learning in 2007. In 2010, the Digital School
Plan and Smart Class programs were launched and implemented. This
school was awarded Five Stars by Malaysia's Educational Technology
Division (ETD) based on the SSQS for six consecutive years since 2011.
At the time of the study, the school had one computer lab equipped
N.A. Razak et al.
Table 2
Demographic Profile of Study Participants.
School Participants' Pseudonym Positions
Primary in an urban area Mr. Siew Principal
(P)
P Miss Ng ICT-coordinator
P Mrs. Hidayah English Teacher
P Miss Siti History Teacher
Secondary in a rural area (S) Mr. Amir Principal
S Mr. Alam ICT-Coordinator
S Mr. Abu ICT
Teacher
S Mr. Muthu Math teacher
S Mrs. Hanan Science Teacher
with 138 laptops, a data projector, projector screen, and whiteboard.
Other ICT facilities include 84 CCTVs, LCD TVs in the counseling rooms,
and nine WIFI Hotspots. A student technology representative was
available in each classroom to assist the teacher in solving minor
technical problems, such as setting up the equipment for educational
purposes. These students were selected on a voluntary basis for their
technology-related problem-solving skills. In order to avoid interrup-
tions during the teaching and learning process, ICT teachers were also
available to solve major technical hurdles that could occur in the
computer rooms, such as program failures and software problems.
School P used the learning management system (LMS) called VLEFrog,
whereby teachers and students communicate with one another in an
effort to make learning activities more interactive and meaningful. The
applications in VLEFrog include Google Hangout as a social media
platform and various learning Web 2.0 sites. VLEFrog allows teachers
and students to access digital textbooks and educational materials.
School P also used AllSchools application (app) as the School
Management System and teachers were required to install the appli-
cation on their smartphones. The school also encouraged parents to
install the app in an effort to make it easier for school management to
notify parents about their children’s attendance, results, homework,
and school activities. The app also includes other functions for ad-
ministrators and teachers, including ePayment, payment record
tracking, timetable, discipline, course registration, smart card, library
alert, and payment request. The school also converted certain areas into
free access corners that are equipped with computers for students to
learn independently.
4.3.2. Secondary school S
School S is a national secondary school in a rural area of Malaysia.
At the time of study, 1743 students (82% Malay) were enrolled in the
school. In terms of manpower, there were 160 teachers, including four
ICT teachers, and nine support staff in the school. There were 46 classes
for all students from Form One to Form Six and each class had a
maximum number of 35 students. At the time of the study, the school
had two 21st-century classrooms equipped with an LCD TV, projector,
computer, printer, and 21st-century seating styles for teachers to di-
versify their teaching. In order to avoid conflicting demands, the school
provides a classroom-booking system allowing teachers to book the
21st-century classroom based on a schedule. Other facilities in the
school included 18 dongles with three WIFI Hotspots and one computer
lab with 40 Chromebooks. Similar to School P, student technology re-
presentatives are appointed to assist teachers to solve minor technical
problems. The students are selected from those whom the teachers re-
cognize as having the necessary technology-related problem-solving
skills. ICT teachers are available to handle major technical difficulties in
the computer rooms, such as program failures and CD-ROM access
problems. School S also used VLEFrog for communication between
teachers and students, and students with their peers during learning
activities. They also used this platform to access digital textbooks and
educational materials. School S used the Edupage app as their School
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Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
No. of years of experience Specialization Qualification
30 Science Degree
20 IT Degree
11 English Degree
3 Geography Degree
26 Geography Master
15 IT Degree
20 Malay Language Diploma
12 Mathematic Degree
15 Science Degree
Management System. Similar to School P, this app is made compulsory
for teachers to install on their phones, where it can be used for viewing
the school timetable. Parents can view payments and students’ grades,
and they can also sign in to acknowledge the grades and input elec-
tronic absence notes. Like School P, this school also converted certain
areas into free access corners with computers available for the students
to learn at their own pace during breaks.
4.4. Procedures
Data collection was guided by the theoretical framework and two
research questions of the study. Approval for data collection was re-
ceived from the schools and the authors’ University Ethics Committee.
Interviews were conducted with the principal, ICT coordinator, and
teachers in each school to gather different perspectives pertaining to the
scope of the study. Each interview lasted 60–90 min. The interviews
were held in a private area within each school, and a semi-structured
interview protocol was used to guide the researchers in conducting the
sessions. The interviews were conducted in Malay language, as pre-
ferred by the participants. Brislin (1970) back translation method was
used to translate the data from Malay into English. Some of the ques-
tions had to be revised after the initial interview sessions to ensure
adequate depth and richness of data. The researchers transcribed the
interviews immediately following the interview sessions. The names of
the selected schools and participants were kept confidential by the re-
search team members. Pseudonyms were employed to protect the
identity of the participants.
Some information could not be acquired during the interviews, and
thus other sources of data were used to triangulate the interview data.
Data and method triangulation are often used in qualitative studies to
ensure the accuracy of reporting and to enhance trustworthiness of the
study findings (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The researchers triangulated the
primary data with document analysis. However, there were limitations
in the use of the information gathered from documents as some of the
school sources were confidential and could not be reported directly.
Thus, the researchers only reviewed documents that were accessed via
the Ministry's official website and schools’ official website. The re-
searchers also reviewed other documents such as school handbooks,
strategic plans, and information on school vision, mission, rules, and
regulations governing the ICT integration in the classrooms. Documents
also included the ICT policies of the school, as well as implementation
strategies. The document review provided a relevant historical and
contextual grounding in each school’s cultural context, enriching the
study with rich information and extensive description (Glesne &
Peshkin, 1992).
4.5. Data analysis
Yamagata-lynch (2003) asserts that “drawing activity systems from
a rich body of data is a novel and not necessarily straightforward
analysis technique. There are many aspects of this process that are
N.A. Razak et al.
difficult for researchers to share in their study write-up because it is not
entirely objective” (p. 106). Therefore, qualitative content analysis with
deductive and inductive category application Mayring (2000) of three
different activity systems were used for identifying the prominent
themes. The analysis was conducted concurrently with data collection.
Atlas.Ti version 7.5 was used to organize and analyse the large data set.
Starting from the deductive category application process, the re-
searchers identified three main categories identified from the activity
settings, namely, classroom, department, and school. Each main cate-
gory has sub-categories consisting of the six components of an activity
system. The researchers drew upon these six components when reading
through the transcripts. Coding rules were used to “determine exactly
under what circumstances a text passage could be coded with a cate-
gory” (Mayring, 2000). For example, according to the coding rules for
the ‘tools’ sub-category, the texts included only technical tools (e.g.,
hardware, software, Internet connectivity). This process was put to-
gether using a coding agenda, which contained the category labels,
category definitions, anchor examples, and coding rules (Mayring,
2014). After multiple readings of the texts, the researchers revised the
sub-categories and coding agenda. As this process continued, themes
and sub-themes emerged and were further revised. The interpretation
of texts resulted in the findings for the first research question, how ICT
integration was successfully implemented into teaching.
The inductive category formation process was used to answer the
second research question, how systemic contradictions that introduce
and resolve tensions lead to the successful implementation of ICT in-
tegration. According to Mayring (2014), “the level or theme of cate-
gories to be developed must be defined previously” (p. 80). Based on
the research question, the categories were tensions and resolution of
tensions, which the researchers’ drew upon in order to determine the
aspects of the data taken into account. Then, the researchers read and
reread the texts until they identified which activity systems the cate-
gories fell into. Once the main category was identified, the storyline
was developed to elicit the meanings of successful ICT integration into
teaching. The descriptive narrative presented explains how the theo-
retical components within and between activity systems create suc-
cessful ICT integration in a sociocultural context.
5. Findings and discussion
For the purpose of this article and limited space, the findings and
discussion of the first research question have been presented according
to cross-case analysis.
Addressing the first research question, the researchers considered
the mediators as important in understanding human activity. This view
is supported by Nardi (1996), who claims that "an activity cannot be
understood without understanding the role of mediators in everyday
existence, especially the way that mediators are integrated into social
practice” (p. 14). In AT, the relations between subject and object are not
direct but are mediated by components of an activity system, namely
the tools, rules, and division of labour (Kuutti, 1996; Yamagata-Lynch,
2002). Table 3 provides an overview of the findings by illustrating the
main categories, sub-categories and summarized themes and sub-
themes of conditions for successful implementation of ICT integration
in the different activity systems. The mediators in the activity systems
are represented as sub-categories. The table also presents the methods
of data collection used to generate the themes and sub-themes of the
first research question.
5.1. Conditions for successful implementation of ICT integration
The findings highlight three conditions in the different activity
systems that constitute successful implementation of ICT integration in
schools: types of ICT tools, rules and regulations that shape the ICT
culture, and division of labour among a collective of stakeholders and
the context of the school community.
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Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
5.1.1. Tools
The findings present the technical tools such as hardware, software,
and application that helped to achieve the outcomes of the three ac-
tivity systems. Two types of ICT tools were used for successful ICT in-
tegration in the schools.
5.1.2. Adequate ICT facilities
In facilitating teachers using ICT, the Ministry and schools provided
ICT facilities for hardware, software, Internet connection, and systems.
The schools installed WIFI as there are many users during peak hours.
Mr. Abu, an ICT teacher in School S, used documents that he received
from the Ministry of Education to illustrate the breadth of ICT facilities
provided to all schools in Malaysia (Fig. 2).
The list (Fig. 2) was consistent with data from other documents that
the researchers acquired from the Educational Technology Division
website (http://btp.moe.gov.my/btp/media/FAQ/FAQ-BTP.html)
(Ministry of Education Malaysia [MOE], 2017). Both schools were also
equipped with computer labs and computers. The Ministry also pro-
vided broadband for Internet accessibility in the schools. These findings
were obtained from an interview with the ICT coordinator at School P.
Various ICT facilities that our Ministry provided. We have 40
Chromebooks. Most government schools have almost 40
Chromebooks. The Ministry also provided computer labs, desktop
computer, and printer. What I can say we have completed set of
equipment for us to conduct teaching and learning in our school.
The Ministry provided internet accessibility through YES provider.
Ministry Educational Technology Division provides digital contents
such as audio, video and interactive multimedia on VLEFrog and
LMS platforms. All of the contents meets Malaysian curriculum.
Unfortunately, the equipment's life cycle only lasts five years. (Miss
Ng)
5.1.3. Utilization of web-based resources
Web-based resources are the second type of tool that promoted
successful ICT integration in both schools. The schools both adopted a
School Management System, ASC Edupage and AllSchools App. They
also encouraged their teachers and students to utilize the VLE provided
by the Ministry. School P fully utilized their internet accessibility in
using VLE as a learning tool. They used a VLE application, like Google
Handout, as a communication tool between teachers, students, and
their peers during learning activities, both inside and outside the
classroom setting. It is interesting to note that they also used Google
Handout for exchanging knowledge with schools in other countries as
well, such as Korea and Indonesia. These activities were recorded and
shared on the VLE platform which was then used by other teachers
interested in integrating such approaches in their teaching. Mrs.
Hidayah, an English teacher in School P, shared pictures of students'
activities during her English course (Fig. 3). She further commented:
We use Web 2.0 as our teaching platform. We are lucky that our
government introduced VLEFrog. We should develop teachers' ICT
skills by providing more training to our teachers, so they can be an
expert in VLEFrog. We can get free access to the Web 2.0 applica-
tion. Here, I show you the picture how our students used Google
Handout to communicate with other schools around the world. We
also use web cameras and microphones in order to smooth the
conversation. (Mrs. Hidayah)
The ICT coordinator at School S mentioned that his school used VLE
as a learning tool for the students to do exercises and read digital
textbooks, thus achieving the Key Performance Index (KPI) set by the
Ministry. The Ministry's KPI states that students must access VLE for six
hours a week in order to meet the criteria of successful integration of
ICT.
N.A. Razak et al.
Table 3
Overview of the conditions for successful Implementation of ICT integration in a collective context.
Main Categories
Activity systems: Classroom
Department School
Classroom Activity System
Department Activity System
School Activity System
Classroom Activity System
Department Activity System
School Activity System
Fig. 2. Ministry of Education Slide Presentation of ICT Facilities.
5.1.4. Rules
The successful integration of ICT in the schools under study was
mediated by the rules and procedures that shaped ICT culture in the
schools. Each activity system had its own rules according to one of three
types to govern the participants in a collective context.
Sub-Categories (AT Components)
Types of ICT tools (Tools)
Rules and regulations that shape the
ICT culture (Rules)
Division of labour in a collective
context
(Division of Labour)
Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
Themes and Sub-themes of Conditions for Successful Implementation of ICT Integration
i. Adequate ICT facilities:
the Ministry provided hardware-PC, laptop, printer, LCD projector server, and 1Malaysia notebook,
computer lab, Internet connectivity through YES provider (document reviews and interviews); the
schools provided another ICT facilities-equipments to setup 21st-century classroom; (document
reviews and interviews); schools installed WIFI (interviews:principal and ICT coordinator)
ii. Utilization of web-based resources:
The Ministry provided the Learning Management System-VLEFrog (document reviews and
interviews with ICT coordinators and teachers); the schools provided the school Management
System such as ASC Edupage and AllSchools App (reviews of schools' website and interviews with all
participants)
i. Governing the students’ activity during the ICT-integrated teaching:
a. procedures in using ICT (interviews with principals and ICT coordinators, review of schools’
official website)
b. step-by-step demonstration of web-based resources (interviews: principals, ICT coordinators, and
teachers)
i. Governing the teachers’ motivation to use ICT in teaching:
a. all information provided by the Ministry to ICT teachers must be disseminated effectively to the
school's stakeholders pertaining to ethical procedures in using ICT (interviews: principals and ICT
coordinators, review of schools’ official website)
b. step-by-step demonstration of web-based resources in an ethical manner (interviews:principals,
ICT coordinators, and teachers)
i. Governing the ICT facilities for teaching purpose:
a. all teachers are required to install the School Management System (interviews: principals, ICT
coordinators, and teachers)
b. students can access the Internet provided by the school in an open area (interviews: principals,
ICT coordinators, and teachers)
c. display of procedures for booking a 21st-century classroom, computer lab, and access to the
centre for learning activities (interviews: principals, ICT coordinators, and teachers)
i. Teachers’ and students’ ICT usage in school and home (interview with teachers)
ii. Student ICT representatives need to solve minor technical problems and help teachers in
managing classroom during lessons (interviews with teachers)
iii. Technicians solve major technical problems (interviews with ICT coordinators)
i. ICT teachers should disseminate all information obtained from the Ministry to the school's
stakeholders (interviews with ICT coordinators)
ii. Subject coordinators support ICT teachers dissemination of all information (interviews with
teachers and ICT coordinators)
iii. IT-savvy teachers’ engagement in peer sharing (interview: teachers and ICT coordinators)
i. Principals’ leadership characteristics required are proactive, optimistic, distributive, and
entrepreneurial (interviews with ICT coordinators, teachers, image reviews of schools' official
website)
ii. ICT coordinators should monitor the web-based system and be involved in ICT planning at the
school (interviews: principals and ICT coordinators)
iii. Community concerns (interviews with principals)
5.1.5. Governing the students’ activity during ICT-integrated teaching
Several procedures in using ICT were provided such as: 1) learning
must occur in groups; and 2) to achieve the KPI set by the Ministry,
teachers must monitor their students in using VLE. Teachers were re-
quired to conduct a step-by-step demonstration for students on how to
use web-based resources like online quizzes. Technicians had to solve
major technical problems that were beyond the capabilities of the
student ICT representatives. They needed to solve the problems as soon
as possible to avoid disruptions in the teaching and learning process.
Students appointed as ICT representatives – acting as an integral part of
the school community – were tasked with solving minor technical
problems and helping the teachers in managing the classrooms.
5.1.6. Governing the teachers’ motivation to use ICT in teaching
ICT teachers were responsible to disseminate all information ob-
tained from the Ministry to the school stakeholders with support from
the subject coordinators. Therefore, information about ethical proce-
dures to teachers, parents, and students in using ICT were distributed to
provide awareness about negative activities such as cyberbullying, bad
language use, and the dangers of online socialisation. The information
was disseminated through seminars, flyers, and in-house trainings. ICT
teachers were also required to conduct a step-by-step demonstration to
other teachers, showing how to use web-based resources in an ethical
manner. Through addressing the ethical issues, the teachers’ motivation
23
N.A. Razak et al.
Fig. 3. School P students' Web-Based Activities.
increased as fear of ICT abuse decreased. A science teacher in School S
with 15 years of teaching experience responded to a question about
roles of ICT teachers accordingly:
As what I know, ICT teachers disseminate information to us. But the
subject coordinator helps too. They convey the messages through
seminar, flyers about ethical issue and cybercrime. (Mrs. Hanan)
5.1.7. Governing the ICT facilities for teaching purposes
The school stakeholders developed the rules in this activity system
to govern the ICT facilities for teaching purposes. These included: 1)
procedures for booking the ‘21st-century classroom’ computer lab and
access centres for learning activities had to be displayed on the notice
board, 2) students could access the Internet provided by the school in
an open area, and 3) all teachers were required to install the School
Management System. These were explained in detail during our inter-
view with the principal at School S.
We remind our teachers to strategize their teaching by allowing
learning to occur in groups, in new seating styles like 21st-century
seating arrangement, student-centred learning environments to en-
courage students’ thinking, and building leadership and language
proficiency through debate. We design regulations for the teachers
to comply with MOE’s KPI. As we always tell our teachers, if there is
a problem in achieving the KPI, let us know and we will solve the
problems together. Besides, students can access the Internet pro-
vided by the school as much as they wish in the open areas, and
teachers must monitor their students to achieve 6 h a week. (Mr.
Amir)
In an interview with the ICT coordinator from School S, he ex-
plained how the school management supported their teachers in using
the timetable and provided an open communication channel for ad-
ministrators, teachers, and their peers.
We use the School Management System whereby it is compulsory for
all teachers to install it into their Smartphone. This system is used to
manage teachers' timetable, for them to receive messages from the
school management and communicate with administrative officers
and peers. So we named this system as 'Timetable Management
System' in which it allows teachers to exchange their timetable with
other colleagues. Then, I can use this system to alert those who want
to exchange their time, but I also remind the teacher that he or she
must cover the missing class period or syllabus. (Mr. Alam).
5.1.8. Division of labour
Division of labour refers to the individuals assigned to accomplish
the activities within the context of the school community. The success
of ICT integration should not depend merely on teachers. The school
community, such as ICT coordinators and heads of department of in-
structional programs in the schools should also play their role in
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Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
contributing towards effective implementation. Thus, this section ex-
plains the findings of the division of labour within the three activity
settings.
5.1.9. Classrooms
The teaching and learning process with the use of ICT can occur in
both school and at home. Students appointed as ICT representatives –
acting as an integral part of the school community – are tasked with
solving minor technical problems and helping their teachers in mana-
ging the classrooms. Technicians solved major technical problems that
were beyond the capabilities of the ICT student representatives. The
technicians ensured that the problems were solved as quickly as pos-
sible to avoid disruptions in the teaching and learning process. A tea-
cher in School P explained the roles of the student ICT representatives:
Every class has an ICT representative. They were selected based on
their ICT competencies when the school conducted ICT training to
students. Their role is different from other class representatives.
Every morning, they need to key in their classmates’ attendance into
the AllShools app. They also update the daily activities of their
classmates, such as the school sessions, venue, and time for co-
curriculum. They also help the teachers to solve minor technical
problem in the classroom. They must ensure that all ICT equipment
is in good condition and they must prepare the equipment for tea-
chers to use during any class session or teaching activity. (Miss Siti)
5.1.10. Departments
All of the ICT teachers interviewed stated that one of their respon-
sibilities was to disseminate all information obtained from the Ministry
to the school's stakeholders. Subject coordinators helped ICT teachers to
distribute information to teachers in their respective departments. At
the same time, the IT savvy teachers engaged in peer sharing by
teaching their peers how to share their experiences and teaching aids in
the schools’ web-based systems.
5.1.11. Schools
One of the critical players in the school community was the ICT
coordinator. ICT coordinators were charged with monitoring the web-
based system and were involved in ICT planning in their respective
schools. Likewise, from the interviews, the researchers learned that the
ICT coordinators also had critical leadership skills that were funda-
mental to the schools’ successful ICT integration. Another critical player
was each school’s respective local community, which was concerned
about successful ICT integration in their respective schools.
5.1.12. Leadership characteristics of successful ICT integration
The analysis revealed several common leadership characteristics of
the principals, namely that they were distributive, proactive, optimistic,
and entrepreneurial. The attributes of being proactive and optimistic
were found in their initiative in finding potential funders to solve
N.A. Razak et al.
budget constraints and to provide training on new teaching strategies
for ICT teachers. Distributive leadership was seen in certain situations,
such as when the principal assigned a teacher to manage the hall’s
rental and sound system services. School leaders with entrepreneurial
skills generated income through diverse activities, making the most use
of existing school resources. The ICT coordinator in School S described
his principal’s leadership as follows:
He does not know the meaning of giving up. He is very experienced
and has faced many problems from rural to urban schools. He was
awarded the Best Principal award. Whenever he finds any problem,
he will have a meeting with me and make a drastic solution with
various strategies. His decision is always right… maybe due to his
previous experiences and attitudes of not giving up and knowing
what a leader should do to influence his subordinates. For example,
he discussed with me and we worked as a team to find donors and
generate income through the school's activities, hall rental, and
sound system services. With his permission, I developed a team to
organize the sound system. He always reminds the teachers to be
innovative in teaching, and he provides training about new teaching
strategies to ICT teachers so that they can disseminate the knowl-
edge to all other teachers. (Mr. Alam)
Successful ICT integration also came about through the way the
leaders managed their teams – their distributive characteristics – while
making efforts to reduce teachers’ workload by emphasizing teamwork
through peer support and sharing. An example of peer support was
replacing someone’s slot on the flexible timetable, while peer-sharing
activities include sharing teaching content in the provided platform or
medium. The principle in School S shared how he encouraged teachers
to use ICT effectively given the constraints imposed on them:
We overcome all the constraints through teamwork. For example,
we create flexible timetables which allow teachers to swap their
time with each other if any teacher is not available or has an urgent
case for that particular time. Besides, whatever the activity is, we
will do it together. Even though we are not involved in the activity,
we still come to give moral support. Additionally, we upload and
share the contents we use in our class via the VLE platform. Other
teachers can re-use it in their teaching and this can reduce the time
they spend to create new content. This peer-sharing activity can
solve the teachers’ workload issues. (Mr. Amir)
School P’s ICT coordinator added:
He is determined to bring this school to the level that he wants. He
solves problems as best as he can. He always reminds us to work as a
family, to work and solve problems together. For example, we had a
budget constraint to buy ICT equipment for pedagogy, such as
Skyzone 3d goggles and interactive wireless speakers. He proposed
for us to organize a "Charity night" in which we invited our alumni
and other business owners. We were surprised to see that we man-
aged to collect millions. We also got sponsors for a badminton court
and we rent it out. We also sell the energy which we collected
through the solar panel to TNB (energy company). (Miss Ng)
5.1.13. Community concerns
Apart from the within-school context, successful ICT integration
included the involvement of the socio-cultural context. The findings
revealed that community concerns were crucial in determining the
success or failure of ICT integration. These concerns may come from
Parent-Student Associations, which can help schools raise funds in
support of students’ learning through the creation of conducive learning
environments, co-curriculum activities and support for poor students.
The Math teacher at School P commented:
I am involved with the school team in organizing the sound system.
We collect school income through this service. Usually, this money
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Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
we use to enhance the school environment, support for co-curri-
culum activities and donations for poor students. Some parents
cannot afford to pay bus fare or to buy school equipment. So, we use
the money to help them. (Mr. Muthu)
Local business owners donated money and equipment like solar
panels for the schools to generate their income. The wider community
also supported the schools financially as the main customers of the
schools’ rental services. Therefore, successful ICT integration in the
schools involved the support of many people, from both inside and
outside of the school setting.
5.2. Systemic contradictions that introduce and resolve tensions leading to
successful ICT integration
To address the second research question, the researchers developed
three models of activity system to explain the systemic contradictions
within and between the three different activity systems that led to
successful ICT integration. The storylines presented below explain how
changes within a context of past activities produced systemic contra-
dictions that introduced tensions to the new activity affecting the out-
comes of those activities (Yamagata-Lynch, 2010). Analysis of the three
activity systems indicated that the classroom activity system (new ac-
tivity) was affected by the department and school activity system (past
activities) for achieving successful ICT integration (outcomes of those
activities). The storyline also illustrates how the school stakeholders
played their respective roles to resolve the tensions. For addressing the
research question, the findings are presented for one school, School P,
to make it easier to understand how the systemic contradictions in the
different activity systems occurred.
5.2.1. Classroom activity system
Tension existed between the tools and object (a) within the subject-
tools-object triangle of this activity system (Fig. 4). The teacher (sub-
ject) could not achieve the object (enhance students access to knowl-
edge) because the school (past activity) was not provided the two types
of ICT tools due to budget constraints. Miss Ng, the ICT coordinator
mentioned that “unfortunately, the equipment's life cycle only lasts five
years and should be maintained or replaced.” Despite the breadth of
provided hardware, it was not able to meet the object of the teacher to
conduct ICT-integrated teaching. The tools did not sufficiently cater to
the number of students in the classroom. Moreover, the broadband did
not provide enough Internet accessibility for all of the teachers and
students. This tension was resolved with effort from several school
members, especially the principal of the school (past activity) to ensure
that the object of the new activity (ICT-integrated teaching) was
achieved. The principal addressed the budget constraints by involving
the alumni, PTA as well as local business owners to collaborate on
various activities such as facility rental and services (e.g., use of solar
panels) for generating income. Another source of income came from co-
curricular activities, teacher donations and crowdfunding from alumni,
parents, local business owners, and the public. The income was used to
install WIFI and the School Management System as the government did
not provide a budget to purchase other ICT resources. Therefore, by
resolving tensions between the school activity system (past activity)
and the classroom activity system (new activity), successful ICT in-
tegration was achieved.
5.2.2. Department activity system
In this activity system, tension existed between the rules and object
(b) within the tools-rules-object triangle (Fig. 5). Tension arose when
the ICT teachers were supposed to disseminate information about two
types of ICT tools to school stakeholders, especially to teachers who are
not IT savvy. In addition, the ICT teachers also experienced tension
when the subject coordinator did not support them in disseminating
information in their respective departments. Thus, tension arose
N.A. Razak et al.
Fig. 4. Contradiction for Successful ICT Integration (subject-tools-object).
Note: The arrow with ‘(a)’ indicates that tension exists between tools and object.
between the teachers and everyone else in the activity system, espe-
cially the ICT teachers and subject coordinator who did not complete
the tasks assigned to them due to time constraints. This impacted the
teachers’ ability to integrate ICT into their classroom teaching. Thus,
the teachers’ motivation to use ICT decreased (past activity) yielding a
low level of teachers’ use of ICT, which affected classroom activities
(new activity). Mrs. Hidayah, an English teacher, explained that “we as
teachers felt pressured when the information that we were supposed to
receive didn’t reach us because the ICT teachers were busy. Our subject
coordinator was also busy, but not sure about other subject co-
ordinators because I told you based on my experience in my depart-
ment.” This view was supported by her ICT coordinator, Miss Ng, who
said, “For those appointed as leaders like the subject coordinator, they
have many competing priorities in their everyday work lives. I know
sometimes they couldn’t commit to supporting ICT teachers, and there
is much information never transferred to teachers, but we always
Fig. 5. Contradiction for Successful ICT Integration (tools-rules-object).
Note: The arrow with ‘(b)’ indicates tension exists between rules and object.
26
Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29
remind them to respond to their tasks no matter what and we also
provide a surcharge system for those who couldn’t complete their
tasks.” The tension was resolved with the intervention of the school
activity system (past activity) in which the school management devel-
oped department rules pertaining to increasing teachers’ motivation to
use ICT. In this sense, governing the teachers’ motivation (formal rules)
to use ICT in teaching (object) was achieved when the school man-
agement (school’s activity system division of labour) took action by
continually reminding the subject coordinators to support the ICT tea-
chers in disseminating the information to teachers in their respective
departments. School management also continually reminded the ICT
teachers about the significance of distributing information regarding
ethical issues around ICT use. The management also emphasized the
importance of peer sharing for those who were IT savvy. Hence, both
activities at the department and school activity system (past activities)
affected the activity in the classroom (new activity) and made the
N.A. Razak et al. Studies in Educational Evaluation 58 (2018) 17–29

Fig. 6. Contradiction for Successful ICT Integration (division of labour-rules-object).

Note: The arrow with ‘(c)’ indicates the tension exist between rules and division of labour.

teachers ready to conduct ICT-integrated teaching. the systemic contradictions in three different activity systems namely
the classroom, department, and school. The findings indicate that AT
and ASA are appropriate to understand the conditions and systemic
5.2.3. School activity system
contradictions of ICT integration in a collective, school-based socio-
In the school activity system, tensions existed between the division
cultural context. Like most middle-income economies, Malaysia is
of labour and rules (c) within the division of labour-rules-object triangle
moving towards effective ICT integration to enhance the education
(Fig. 6). Tension existed when individuals who shared the object in the
process as well as provide tools for students to access knowledge.
activity system could not comply and be responsive to the regulations
Therefore, full ICT integration in schools is seen as an effective me-
that the schools established. For instance, Mr. Siew, a headmaster, ex-
chanism that could support the nation’s aims.
plained that “we received a poor response when we asked teachers to
Even though tension existed within and between activity systems,
attend the ICT workshops even stating that it is compulsory. They
the findings indicate that school stakeholders worked together to re-
would usually say they were busy at work, have prior engagements and
solve the tension. This was evidenced by the systemic contradictions
would skip the training. If they did not attend the workshops, they
that occurred within and between the different activity systems. It is
usually lost information because we trained on how to use our booking
crucial for all school stakeholders to know their respective roles in
system, the installed school Management system, and did training on
working to successful ICT integration in schools. The actions taken by
other courseware and applications. That is the challenge that we face as
the principals were also important for the success of ICT integration.
administrators.” In this sense, governing the ICT facilities for teaching
Good organizational practices can shape activity to ensure that each
purposes (formal rules) to enhance the teachers’ use of ICT in teaching
stakeholder is playing their role effectively for making “contradictions
(object) could not be achieved when the community in the activity
as sources of change and development” (Engestrom, 2001, p. 137). An
system resisted change. From the teacher's perspective, Mrs. Hidayah,
organization should also identify its tensions to successful ICT in-
an English teacher, explained that they were becoming increasingly
tegration from the grassroots. Without positive changes to organiza-
frustrated at the lack of support and recognition that they were re-
tional practice, no such culture can possibly be formed. As Fullan
ceiving from administrators. However, that changed when “we saw our
(2002) stated:
headmaster’s concern for us.” In order to resolve these tensions, the
principal himself monitored all the management procedures pertaining Leading in a culture of change means creating a culture (not just a
to ICT facilities especially for teaching purposes. He monitored the ICT structure) of change. It does not mean adopting innovations, one
in-house training assisted by the ICT coordinator and ICT teachers. Miss after another; it does mean producing the capacity to seek, critically
Siti, a History teacher mentioned that “our headmaster is very sup- assess, and selectively incorporate new ideas and practices – all the
portive, he always attends our ICT workshops. For me, I am excited to time, inside the organization as well as outside it. (p. 7)
attend the workshop when I see the enthusiasm of our headmaster for
The study points to several important implications for policymakers,
implementing ICT in our school.” Hence, the school’s activity system
school administrators and teachers in terms of shared ownership in
(past activity) affected the classroom activity system (new activity)
addressing systemic contradictions in different activity systems.
directly without intervention from the department activity system (past
Teachers’ integrating ICT into teaching is not without its own set of
activity) to manage ICT facilities for teacher use during ICT-integrated
tensions, wherever and whenever issues arise, efforts from the schools’
teaching.
community, including alumni and local business owners, can provide
strong social and financial support. Although the current study is lim-
6. Conclusion ited in scope, it has put forward important lessons for the successful
implementation of ICT integration, from which other schools sharing
This study highlighted how key interactions within the three dif- similar characteristics and contexts can benefit.
ferent activity systems led to successful ICT integration in a collective
context within a school community. Three activity settings analysed
using activity system analysis to understand the conditions and explain

27
N.A. Razak et al.
6.1. Study limitations
In conjunction with other studies (e.g., Divaharan & Lim, 2010; Lim
et al., 2013; Tondeur, van Keer, van Braak, & Valcke, 2008), the find-
ings obtained from this study have provided empirical data that support
how ICT integration in schools can be successfully implemented.
Nevertheless, limitations exist that require further consideration, while
the study findings provide several insights for future research. One
limitation is the use of in-depth interviews and document analysis. The
study could have benefitted from more prolonged observation at each
school to better understand the schools’ culture and activities related to
ICT integration (Angrosino & de Perez, 2003). However, both in-depth
interviews and document analysis were considered adequate for
achieving the study purpose. The study did not focus on the interaction
between students and teachers in the classroom, but rather the inter-
action within and between the activity systems.
Funding
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
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