METAMORPHIC ROCKS

METAMORPHIC ROCKS
Metamorphic rocks are produced from pre-existing igneous, sedimentary or even other metamorphic rocks. Every
metamorphic rock has a parent rock, the rock from which it was formed. Metamorphic rocks may change so much that they
may not resemble the original rock.

METAMORPHISM
Metamorphism means to change form. It is a process that leads to changes in the mineralogy, texture and sometimes chemical
composition of rocks. Metamorphism takes place when pre-existing rocks, subjected to new physical or chemical conditions,
gradually change until a state of equilibrium with the new environment is reached.
Most metamorphic changes occur at the elevated temperatures and pressures present in the zone below Earth ’s surface.
Metamorphism occurs gradually, from slight changes (low-grade metamorphism) to substantial changes (high-grade
metamorphism).
LOW-GRADE METAMORPHISMS
Under low-grade metamorphism, the common sedimentary rocks Shale
becomes the more compact metamorphic rock called Slate.
HIGH-GRADE METAMORPHISMS
High-grade metamorphic environments remove the existing texture and often
change the mineralogy of the parent rock. High-grade metamorphism occurs at
temperatures close to those at which rocks melt.

METAMORPHIC TEXTURE
The degree of metamorphism is reflected in a rock ’s texture (size, shape and
arrangement of grains within a rock) and mineralogy. The metamorphic rocks have two typed of textures>
• foliated
• non-foliated
FOLIATED TEXTURE
In metamorphic environments, mineral grains of pre-existing rocks develop parallel, or nearly parallel, alignments. Under the
pressures of metamorphism, some mineral grains become reorientated and aligned at right angles to the stress. The resulting
orientation of mineral grains gives the rock a foliated (layered) texture.

NON-FOLIATED TEXTURE
Metamorphic rocks that exhibit a non-foliated texture typically develop in environments where deformation is minimal. The
parent rocks are composed of minerals that have a relatively simple chemical composition, such as quartz or calcite.
For example, when a fine-grained limestone (made of calcite) is metamorphosed by the intrusion of a hot magma body
(contact metamorphism), the small calcite grains recrystallize and form larger crystals. The resulting rock, marble, exhibits
large, equidimensional grains that are randomly oriented, similar to those in a coarse-grained igneous rock.
PLATE TECTONICS
PLATE TECTONICS THEORY
Plate tectonics is the first theory to provide a comprehensive view of the processes that produced Earth ’s major surface
features, including the continents and oceans. Within this theory, geologist have found explanations for the basic causes and
distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain chains. Furthermore, we are now better able to explain the distriburion of
plants and animals I the geologic past, as well as the distribution of mineral deposits.
Prior to the late 1960s, most geologists thought that the oceans and continents had fixed geographic positions. After new
studies, a completely different model of Earth’s tectonic processes emerged. Researchers realize that Earth ’s continents are not
static; instead, they gradually migrate across the globe (Continental Drift). Because of these movements, blocks of continental
material collide, deforming the crust, generating Earth ’s great mountain chains. Tectonic processes are processes that deform
Earth’s crust in order to create massive structural features, such as mountains, continents and oceans.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
The idea that continents, particularly South America and Africa, fit together like pieces of a puzzle came about during the
1600s. However, only in 1915 little consideration was given to this notion, when Alfred Wegner, a German meteorologist and
geophysicist proposed its hypothesis (Continental Drift) going against the long-held assumption that the continents and oceans
had fixed geographic positions.
Wegner suggested that a single supercontinent consisting of all Earth ’s landmasses once existed. He named this giant landmass
Pangea (meaning “all lands”). Wegner also hypothesized that during the Mesozoic era, Pangea began began to fragment into
smaller landmasses. These continental blocks the drifted to their present positions.
Wegner collected substantial evidence to support its point of view. The fit of South America and Africa and the geographic
distribution of fossils and ancient climates all seemed to sustain the idea that these now separate landmasses were once joined.

THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

Research conducted during World War II led to new insights that helped revive Wegner ’s hypothesis of continental drift.
1. Exploration of the seafloor revealed previously unknown features, including long ocean ridge system.
2. Sampling of the oceanic crust revealed that it was quite young respect to the continets.
3. Furthermore, sediment accumulations in the seafloor were found to be thin, not the thousands of meters that were
predicted.
By 1968 these developments ad let to the knowledge of a much broader theory of continental drift, known as the plate tectonic
theory.
PLATE TECTONICS MODEL
According to the plate tectonics model, the crust and the uppermost part of
the mantle constitute Earth’s outer layer, known as the lithosphere. The
lithosphere varies in both thickness and density, depending on whether it is
oceanic lithosphere or continental lithosphere.
The asthenosphere or low-velocity zone (LVZ) is a hotter, weaker region
in the mantle that lies below the lithosphere. The temperatures and
pressures in the upper asthenosphere are such that rocks at this depth are in
a state of partial melting responding to forces by flowing. This plasticity is
the basis of the plate tectonics.
EARTH’S MAJOR PLATES
The lithosphere is broken into segments of irregular size and shape called
lithospheric plates, that are in constant motion with respect to one another.
There are:
• seven large plates that account for 94% of the Earth ’s surface area. The largest is the Pacific plate, which contains a
significant portion of the Pacific Ocean
• seven intermediate-size plates and numerous micro-plates that account for the remaining 6%
PLATE BOUNDARIES
One of the main points of the plate tectonics theory is that plates move as rigid units. Because plates are in constant motion
relative to each other, most major interactions among them occur along their boundaries. Plates are bounded by three distinct
types of boundaries, which are differentiated by the type of movement they exhibit.
Plates may be:
• Divergent → constructive margins – moving apart from each other
• Convergent → destructive margins – collision of two continental blocks to create a mountain belt
• Transform → conservative margins – moving laterally beyond each other without producing or destroying
lithosphere
Divergent and Convergent plate boundaries each account for about 40% of all plate boundaries.
DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES AND SEAFLOOR SPREADING
When two plates move away from each other, tension forces open cracks in the plate, allowing magma to escape and generate
new parts of the seafloor. The mechanism, that operates along the oceanic ridge system to create new seafloor, is called
seafloor spreading. This process generates new oceanic lithosphere at a rate of 2 to 15 centimetres each year.
CONTINENT-CONTINENT
Divergent boundaries are not limited to the seafloor. Even continents can break apart, starting ith a continental rift and then
leading to a new opening between the two sides of the rift.
Continental rifting begins when plate motions produce opposing (tensional) forces that push and stretch the lithosphere.
During this process the outermost crustal rocks, which are cool, break into large blocks that sink, generating an elongated
depression named a continental rift. The continental rift can lead to the formation of a new ocean basin.
In Iceland is present a rift that crosses the whole country.

CONVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARIES AND SUBDUCTION

New lithosphere is constantly being produced on the oceanic ridges. However, the total surface area of our planet remains
constant. A balance is maintained because older, denser portions of oceanic lithosphere descend into the mantle at a rate equal
to seafloor production. This activity occurs along convergent plate boundaries.
Convergent boundaries are also called subduction zones. When two plates move towards each other, oceanic lithosphere is
subducted into the mantle, where it is recycled. Subduction occurs because the density of the descending lithospheric plate is
greater than the density of the underlying asthenosphere.
Oceanic lithosphere is about 2% more dense than the underlying asthenosphere. Therefore, it can subduct at great depths.
Continental lithosphere, in contrast, is less dense and it its not subject to subduction. Trenches are the surface manifestations
produced when oceanic lithosphere descends into the mantle. These large linear depressions are long and deep.
The nature of the convergent boundaries is influenced by the type of crustal material involved.
• Oceanic-continental: oceanic lithosphere is subducting under the continental lithosphere (Andes)
• Oceanic-oceanic: it involves two plates of oceanic lithosphere (Marianas Trench, Island Volcanoes like Philippines
and Japan)
• Continental-continental: Continental plate collision (Himalayas)
OCEAN-CONTINENT COLLISION
After the collision, the continental block remains floating. Instead the denser oceanic crust sinks into the mantle (descending
into the asthenosphere). When a descending oceanic plate reaches a depth of about 100 km, water driven from subducting
plate triggers melting in the mantle. The wet rock in a high-pressure environment melts at a lower temperature than the dry
rock of the same composition. The resulting mixture of water and rock melts at a lower temperature. This process, called
partial melting, generates some molten material, which is mixed with unmelted mantle rock. Being less dense than the
surrounding mantle, this hot mobile material gradually rise toward the surface giving rise to a volcanic eruption. However,
much of this material never reaches the surface, rather, it solidifies in depth.
The volcanoes of the Andes are the product of molten rock generated by the subduction of the Nazca plate under the South
America continent. Mountain systems, such as Andes, are called continental volcanic arcs. They are generated by volcanic
activity associated with the subduction of oceanic lithosphere.
OCEAN-OCEAN COLLISION
Two oceanic plates converge, descending one under the other. The water pushed by the subducting plates lowers the melting
temperature of the mantle rock to generate magma. This magma gradually rises and volcanoes grow up from the ocean floor
rather than on a continental platform. The newly formed land consisting is an arc-shaped chain of volcanic islands is called a
volcanic arc. Island arcs are generally located from 100 to 300 km far from a deep-ocean trench. They are typically simple
structures made up of numerous volcanic cones. Most volcanic island arcs are located in the western Pacific.
CONTINENT-CONTINENT COLLISION
This convergent boundary results when one landmass moves toward the margin of another. The continental material remains
floating inhibiting the subduction because it is less dense than the underlying asthenosphere. This event folds and deforms the
sedimentary rocks along the continental margins. The result is the formation of a new mountain belt composed by deformed
sedimentary and metamorphic rocks.
The ongoing collision of the subcontinent of India with Eurasia began about 50 million years ago generating the Himalayas. In
addition to the Himalayas, several other major mountain systems, including the Alps, Appalachians and Urals, formed when
continental fragments collided.

TRANSFORM PLATE BOUNDARIES

When to plates slide over each other by moving in different directions or in the same direction, it is called a transform
boundary. It is characterized by a transformed fault and seismic activity. Shallow earthquakes signal the movement of these
plates. Most transform faults are found on the ocean floor.
An example of a transform fault is the San Andreas Fault in California. Here the North American Plate joins the Pacific Plate.
The difference in the movement of the plates along the contact (fault) leads to an accumulation of energy which once released
causes the earthquake.
HOT SPOT VOLCANISM
Hot spot volcanism is unique because it does not occur at the boundaries of Earth ’s tectonic plates, where all other volcanism
occurs. Instead it occurs in usually non-hot centres, inside tectonic plates, known as mantle plumes. Hot mantle plumes are
areas where magma collects and rises from the mantle to the surface.
A volcano above a hot spot does not erupt forever. Attached to the tectonic plate below, the volcano moves and will be cut off
from the hot spot. The volcano, without any source of heat, cools down. The cooling causes the volcano ’s rock to become
denser. Over time, the dense rock sinks and erodes. A new active volcano develops above the hot spot, creating a continuous
of volcanism.