e:> Pergamon Wal. Sci. Tech. Vol. 31. No. 34, pp. 103-111, 1995.

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DAF TREATMENT OF A RESERVOIR

WATER SUPPLY: COMPARISON WITH
IN-LINE DIRECT FILTRATION AND
CONTROL OF ORGANIC MATTER

P. D. Schmidt*, J. E. Tobiason*, 1. K. Edzwald* and

H. Dunn**
* Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts,
Amherst, MA 01003. USA
** South Central Connecticut Regional Water Authority, New Haven, CT 06511. USA

ABSTRACT
The goal of this paper is to compare the performance of an in-line direct filtration (no flocculation) process
with a dissolved air flotation (OAF) and filtration process for drinking water treatment. Both processes were
studied at the pilot scale and included biologically active dual media (GAC/sand) rapid filters. Specific
attention is given to the fate of organic matter. Organic matter was analyzed by measurements of dissolved
organic carbon (DOC), assimilable organic carbon (AOC). disinfection by-product formation potential
(OBPFP) and ultraviolet absorbance at 254 nm (UV254). In general. flotation removed a large fraction of
organic matter with additional removal provided by biologically acti ve filters. Most of the work occurred
with ozonation of the raw water (pre-ozone). Ozone increased the biologically assimilable fraction of the
water; filtration decreased this fraction to acceptable levels. Overall. effects of ozone on other organics are
relatively small.

KEYWORDS

Assimilable organic carbon; direct filtration; disinfection by-products; dissolved air flotation; dissolved
organic carbon; ozonation.

INTRODUCTION

The work reported in this paper is part of a larger pilot project evaluating several upgrades of the West River
Treatment Plant (WRTP), which is owned and operated by the South Central Connecticut Regional Water
Authority (SCCRWA). The WRTP is a 0.456 m3/s (l0.4 mgd) in-line direct filtration treatment plant that
currently utilizes potassium permanganate as a pre-oxidant. ferric chloride and cationic polymer for
coagulation, rapid anthracite/sand filters and chlorine as a disinfectant. Water for the WRTP comes from
three impoundments of the West River. The relatively high quality of water is typical of New England
surface supplies. Raw water characteristics for the period study are shown in Table 1.

Dissolved air flotation (DAF) is becoming an increasingly popular approach to solid-liquid separation in
drinking water treatment in the United States. DAF was studied as a method of plant expansion where solids
removal by DAF would allow for an increased filter hydraulic loading at the WRTP and therefore increased
103
104 P. D. SCHMIDT et at.

plant capacity. In conjunction with studies of OAF, the use of ozone followed by biological filtration was
studied in several process configurations. Train I involved ozonation of WRTP filtered water followed by
GAC contractors. Train 2 involved ozonation of raw water (pre-ozone) and direct filtration (OAF) with dual
media GAC/sand filters. Train 3 included OAF, with either pre-ozonation or ozonation after DAF
(intermediate-ozone), and GAC/sand rapid filtration. This paper is focused on the DAF train (3) and
comparisons to the DF train (2). Detailed description of the pilot plant are presented in the methods and
materials section below.

Table 1. Raw Water Characteristics at West River (1992)

Characteristic Range Average Characteristic Range Average

pH 6.5-7.3 6.9 Alkalinity (mg/L as CaC03) 17-10 11

Turbidity 0.6-11.6 1.2 Hardness (mg/L as CaC03) 20-30 24
DOC (mg/L) 2.2-3.3 2.7 Color (Pt-Co units) 50-18 27
UV 254 (cm-l ) 0.07-0.20 0.11

The organic parameters of interest are DOC, AOC, which is related to the biodegradable portion of the
organic matter, and two classes of chlorinated disinfection by products (DBPs): the trihalomethanes (THMs)
and haloacetic acids (HAAs). The THMs and HAAs were measured as formation potentials. The proposed
Disinfection/Disinfection By-Product (DIDBP) rule currently being considered for enactment by USEPA
will set Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs) of 80 ug/L for total Trihalomethanes (TTHMs) and 60 ug/l,
for the sum of five haloacetic acids (HAAs) by 1996. A future stage two of the proposed DIDBP rule may
lower the MCLSs to 40 ug/L TTHMS and 30 ug/L HAAs by the year 2000 (Pontius, 1993).

EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

Figure I shows a schematic .of the OF and DAF pilot plant configurations. For both pilot trains the coagulant
types and dosages were the same as used in the full-scale treatment plant. The 2.8 LIs (45 gpm) DAF train
was comprised of coagulant addition to an in-line static mixer, two flocculation bays providing 16 minutes
total detention time, a flotation unit, and a dual media filter. Ozone was applied either before coagulant
addition, after flotation, or not at all during different times of the study. The OAF unit was continuously
operated at an 8-9 percent recycle ratio, a saturator pressure of 520 kPa (75 psig), and a hydraulic loading of
II m/hr (4.4 gpm/ft2 ). The 0.31 Us (5.0 gpm) in-line direct filtration train was comprised of ozone
application, coagulant addition in a rapid mix tank, and a dual media rapid filter. The rapid mix tank
consisted of four bays in series and had a total detention time of five minutes. The dual media pilot plant
filters consisted of 51 cm (20 inches) of granular activated carbon (GAC) over 25 cm (10 inches) of silica
sand. The filters had been continuously operated for six months prior to the DAF/DF comparison and
demonstrated biological activation.

Samples for DOC and UV254 analyses were filtered through a pre-washed glass fiber filter (Whatman
GF/C). DOC samples were then acidified, sparged with nitrogen and analyzed using the UV-persulfate
oxidation method with a Dohrmann DC 80 instrument. AOC was determined using a modification of the van
der Kooij et al. (1982) method developed by Kaplan (Standard Methods, 1990). The method involves
simultaneous inoculation and growth of two bacterial strains, P 17 and NOX. For this work, bacterial growth
(CFU) was converted to equivalent carbon concentrations based on published yield values for growth on an
acetate substrate (van der Kooij et al., 1989). Samples for HAA and THM formation potentials were dosed
with 20 mglL chlorine, buffered at pH 7 and stored for three days before chlorine quenching. Five HAAs
were measured: monochloroacetic (MCAA), dichloroacetic (DCSS), trichloroacetic (TCAA),
monobromoacetic (MBAA), and dibromoacetic (DBAA) acid. Of these only MCAA, DCAA, and TCAA
were produced in significant concentration throughout the study. DBP concentrations were determined using
gas chromotography following appropriate sample extraction and derivitization procedures (Koch et al.,
1988; Hwang et al., 1990; Glaze et al., 1989).
 DAF treatment of a reservoir water supply 105

Raw
Water
1
/
.~_J
1
[Bypass] Caustic
rrzz::»
1]
::: \
.:: (
••• .
::. !
FeCl3
Cationic Polymer
---
'"i r-
1
•• .J Rapid Mix ....:
Ozone Filtration
Train #2: In-Line Direct Filtration

Water
., •••
Raw / 1 • ••
•• I'
_~,

---,
[Bypass]
r----·'
i1j.:. r~_
• ••
.:. J
~, ,_!
,:tatu>n ~'D·:·
1
FeCl3.. Cationic Polymer
~ustic

-.-!
Static
Mixer Flocculation
::;::.::..
::::.,....
::0......

.
.;" ii Sludge
:S

{)-._.
/ 1

1
[Bypass)
t .---.--<,
•• •
• • •

• ••
.:. ~
1
•

I
'I
....i
Ozone Air Saturator Ozone Filtration
Train #3: Dissolved Air Flotation
Fig. 1. Schematic of direct filtration and dissolved air flotation pilot plants at West River.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Extensive sampling for organics and DBPs were performed on selected occasions. Pre-ozonation occurred
throughout the study for the DF train. condition for the DAF train are as follows: no ozone: 411-5/29,
intermediate-ozone: 6/22, and pre-ozone: 7/2-10/22. For comparisons between trains, summary graphs were
prepared based on averages for the last three sample events. These dates were chosen for two reasons: pre-
ozone was applied on both the DAF and DF trains and raw quality was similar for the three samples

3.5
OAF Flocculated
3.0

2.5
\
-.
A
~ Raw Water
:J
1: 2.0
........
s:
J_~:2;~:"~'o""
""0
:.c... 1.5
:J
I-
p"
1.0

0.5 - - -~ 0 OAF Filtered • ~- -. 'T~OAF

o OF Filtered"" EFFluent
9. !,~~nt Filtered '"
0.0
f 1 I 1
L() L()
N o00 '"'"
<, <, "- <,
t-- co o
o'"'" o o
Fig. 2. Turbidity for various sampling day during 1992.
106 P. D. SCHMIDT et al.

General Perlonnaoce

While the focus of this paper is the removal of organic matter through OAF, it is noteworthy that the OAF
plant performed well as assessed by traditional measures. Flexibility of performance, good particle removal,
and increased filter run times (compared to OF) were observed.

Turbidity results for several sample dates for the pilot trains and for the full scale plant are shown in Figure
2. For the OAF pilot train, the raw water turbidity of approximately 1.1 ntu increased to 2.5-3.5 ntu by
coagulation and flocculation. Flotation typically produced clarified turbidities of 0.6-0.9 ntu, with a 1992
average of 0.74.

Filtration following flotation produced water with an average turbidity of 0.05 ntu and consistently less than
0.1 ntu. Overall, filtered water turbidity for the OAF train was 0.01-0.03 ntu higher than the direct filtration
train and the full scale plant. Possible explanations for this difference are: 1) the pilot plants were often run
on the low side of optimum coagulant conditions and the eight percent recycle of air saturated water may
have had a dilution effect; 2) given good flotation performance and therefore fewer particles applied to the
filters, filter ripening may have taken longer on the OAF train; and 3) slight deviations from optimum steady
state may have occurred during the summer due to OAF runs with varying operation (flocculation times,
filter hydraulic loading rates, location of ozone, etc.) while OF was run in a constant mode at 7.3 m/hr (3.0
gpmlft2).

OAF offered an advantage over direct filtration in that ozone could be applied following flotation. This
configuration allows for lower ozone demand than for pre-ozonation and less possibility for the creation of
ozone by-products. Intermediate ozonation was stopped after one month because filtered water turbidity
suddenly increased. The problem coincided with a substantial increase in raw water manganese. Ozone after
flotation can cause oxidation and subsequent precipitation of manganese. Without further chemical addition,
removal of the precipitate by filtration will be poor. Ozone applied prior to coagulant addition alleviated the
problem. Time was not allowed to study different methods of manganese oxidation prior to treatment by
OAF in conjunction with intermediate ozonation.

0.12

0.10
,.....
I 0.08
E
0
......",

~ 0.06
!O
N
> Plant Filtered OAF Filtered
::J 0.04
-, /_-<>--------------0
0.02
;::::::-:!~~-;--~:;~:::-----
0.00
1 1 1 1 1 1
!O O'l~ co ~ !O
N NO 0
<, .................. .................. <,
~ !OlD r-, co 0
o 00 0 0

Fig. 3. UV 254 for various sampling days during 1992.

 OAF treatment of a reservoir water supply 107

Dissolyed Orl:anic CarbQn

Coagulation of dissol ved natural organic matter (NOM) can involve metal complexation reaction s with
NOM, direct precipitation of metal-NOM particles , and adsorption of complexed NOM onto precip itated
metal hydroxides. These chemical and physical effects are primarily a function of coagulation and
flocculation conditions, and should be relatively independent of the solids separation proce ss employed
(Edzwald and Malley, 1989; Edzwald and Wingler, 1990). UV254, a comm on surrogate measure of DOC ,
was measured for each sample date and on a daily basis (Figure 3). Pre-ozonation reduces raw water UV254
by 20 to 30 percent. The DAF and DF pilot plants achieved average overall UV254 remo vals of 84 and 88
percent respectively. The difference between DAF and DF is primarily attributed to differences in OZQne
application Qn the two trains. Tre atment through both pilot trains was more effective than the fun sca le plant,
which removed 67 percent of the UV254. Pre-ozonation and biodegradation in the GAC/sand filters are the
most likely causes of the more effective UV254 removal in the pilot trains.

1.0
u
0 0.9
Cl
... 0.8
....eCD 0.7
~
~
0 .6
o 0.5
0::
....0 0.4
c 0.3
....0
(J 0.2
...c
l.L..
0.1
0 .0 CD l.L.. CD '0
'0 '0
C
0
-c
Cl ...CDCD c
0 ...CDCD ...
CD

0
N
... .... N
0 .... ....
CD

....
CD
....« L:
... L: u;
...CD
a-
CD
a-
....c
o
DAF Pilot DF Pilot a-
Fig. 4. Fraction of raw water dissolved organic carbon average: 7n-IO/15, pre ozone on both pilot plan ts.

The DOC results shown in Figure 4 follow similar trends as observed for the UV 254. However, removals
across treatment are greater for UV 254 than DOC (84% vs 49% for the DAF train). Greater rem oval of UV
254 as compared to DOC is expected because UV measures the more hydrophobic organic matter that tends
to be easily removed by coagulation, On average, flotation following coagulation removed 45-50 percent of
the raw water DOC, which is very similar to the West River treatment plant performance. GAC/ sand
filtration following flotation rem oved an additional 5-10 percent of the raw water DOC . The parallel DAF
and DF trains performed very similarly with respect to DOC removal. Biodegradation is the most likely
cause of the additional DOC removal by the DAF train filter. This conclusion is consistent with prev ious
work at West River where DOC levels in GAC/sand filtered waters were lower than levels for
anthracite/sand filters (Reckhow et al., 1992, Tobiason et al., 1993).

Examination Qf the DOC values in Table 2 shQWS that pre-ozonation of the raw water did not significantly
change the amount of DOC. AlSQ, pre-ozonation showed no major effect on removal of DOC by flotation Qr
filtration. For the one sample when ozone was applied to the water after flotation (06/04/93), ozonation
increased the level of DOC with no further removal by filtrati on.
108 P. D. SCHMIDT et al.

Table 2. Summary of DOC and AOC (P17 & NOX) On Various Sample Dates

DOC (rnglL) AOC: P17INOX (Jlg/L C as acetate)

Sample OS/29 06/04 07/08 08/14 10/15 04/25 06/04 07/08 08/14 10/15

Raw Water 2.2 2.6 2.7 3.3 2.7 61/8 59/8 90/36 90/8 119/31
DAF Pilot Plant
Pre Ozone off off 2.5 3.2 2.9 off off 141/44 176/31 139/48
After DAF 1.4 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 6/8 2/34 41/38 21/37 55/39
Int Ozone off 1.4 off off off off off off off
Filtered 1.1 1.4 1.3 1.8 1.4 14/6 10/19 49/15 47/10 46/29
DF Pilot Plant
Pre Ozone 2.1 2.5 2.5 3.3 3.1 37/65 100/61 90/60 124/52
Filtered 1.0 1.2 1.1 2.0 1.4 4/16 14/18 61/13 100/26
West River Plant
Filtered 1.1 1.4 1.5 2.1 1.7 22/8 59/8 132/49 42/13 142/26

Assimilable Oreanic Carbon

Ozonation of raw water for water treatment typically causes the NOM to become more biodegradable.
Bacterial regrowth in the distribution system may occur if the water is not biologically stabilized.
Measurements of AOC (using strains Pl7 and NOX) were used to assess the level of easily biodegradable
NOM in the water samples.

Pl7 is a Pseudomonas fluorescens strain used to asses "total" AOC concentrations and NOX is a Spirillum
species which grows on carboxylic acids, particularly oxalate, a compound produced during ozonation that
is not degraded by Pl7 (van der Kooij, 1990). Note that while the values below are referred to as 'PIT and
'NOX', they are AOC as measured by the Pl7 and NOX strains.
250
........ 225

I~
Q)
+-
0 200
NOX
+-
Q) P17
o 17 5
«
Ul
0
15 0
u 125
--I
<, 100
01
::t 75
'-'
u 50
0
« 25
0
-L.
Q)

0
3:
Q)
C
0
N
0
t....
«
Cl
L.
Il)
"U
Q)

-
L.
Q)
Q)
c
0
N
0
"U
Q)

-
L.
Q)
"U
Q)

-
L.
Q)

~
0
0::
Q)
L.
a..
+-
'+-
-c
DA F P ilo t
u,
Q)
L.
o,
u,

DF P ilo t
-
u,

c
0
n,

Fig. 5. Assimilable Organic Carbon (jlglL C as Acetate). Average: 7/8-10/15, pre ozone on both pilot plants.
 DAF treatment of a reservoir water supply 109

As can be seen in Figure 5, ozonation of the raw water increased the total AOC to one and a half times that
in raw water. Unexpectedly, Pl7 decreased an average of 74 percent (of the ozonated value) across flotation
and then increased 5 percent through filtration. The NOX changed little through flotation and decreased by
an average of 56 percent (of the ozonated value) through filtration. The removal across flotation appeared to
affect overall performance as the DAF train consistently achieved lower AOC values than the OF train.
Examination of Table 2 shows that when ozone was not applied to the OAF train an unusually large fraction
of the raw water AOC was removed. Previous work at West River studying direct filtration with pre-
ozonation attributed AOC removal to biological degradation in the GAe filters (Reckhow et al., 1992,
Tobiason et al., 1993). Other sources also attribute AOe removal to biological activation of filters (van der
Kooij, D., 1990, van der Kooij et al., 1982, Huck, 1990).

The large reduction of AOC by flotation is not readily explained because the organic matter that is most
likely to be associated with AOe is not likely to be readily removed by coagulation processes. No values of
AOe for OAF processes were found in the literature. A review paper of biodegradable organic matter in
drinking water by Huck (1990) cites several examples of major AOe reductions by sedimentation but the
results are inconclusive. Further research in this area is needed. One explanation is degradation of AOe in
the flocculation and flotation chambers. The return of microorganisms to the flotation unit by recycle flow
could contribute to biological removal. Other possible explanations are: I) volatilization of some organics;
2) inhibition of the bioassay microorganisms due to interactions with particles remaining after flotation.

Disinfection by-Products

Overall, removal of THM precursors as measured by THMFP followed similar trends as observed for DOC
(Figure 6 vs Figure 4). Although pre-ozonation caused a 20-30 percent reduction in THMFP, results for
dates when pre-ozone was not employed (Table 3) shows similar removals as for dates when ozone was
applied.

0..
u, 1.0
:::l;
I 0 .9
I-
'-
0 .8
Q)
-+-
0
0.7
~ 0.6
~
0 0 .5

-
~

0.4
0
c 0.3
0
-+- 0 .2
0
0
'-
0 .1
u,
0 .0 Q) u, Q)
"0 "0
C -c Q)
....
c Q)
....
0 0 0
N Q) N Q)
0 .... -+-
0 -+-

Q)
....
0.. -
<
Q)
-+- ~ Q)
....
0..
~ u,
-+-
C
0
DAF Pilo t DF Pilo t 0..

Fig. 6. Fraction of raw water total trihalomethane formation potential.

Average: 7/8-10/15, pre ozone on both pilot plants.
110 P. D. SCHMIDT et al,

Table 3. Summary ofTHMFP and HAAFP on Variou s Sample Dates

THMFP (,.g/L) HAAFP: TCAAIDCAA (,.g/L)

Sample 04/25 06/04 07/08 08/14 10/15 04/25 06/04 07/08 08/14 10/15

Raw Water 126 189 215 160 180 120/72 119/74 154/114134/109 202/93
DAF Pilot Plant
Pre Ozone off off 140 128 147 off off 131/91 110/106 186/94
After DAF 53 104 91 68 107 41/38 43/28 68/66 40/68 56/67
Int Ozone off 28 off off off off 35/31 off off off
Filtered 37 43 52 36 57 27/25 19/24 28/31 20/45 21/31
DF Pilot Plant
Pre Ozone 84 142 130 134 150 78/70 81/68 121/89 115/111 185/92
Filtered 35 42 41 45 58 19/27 15/20 20/25 21/44 25/37
West River Plant
Filtered 48 65 73 68 85 29/32 32/30 41/41 36/58 27/45

These observations are consistent with previous work at West River (Reckhow et al., 1992, Tobiason et al.,
1993), where pre-ozonation reduced THMFP by 30-35 percent and had little effect on overall removal. The
data suggest that pre-ozonati on oxidizes THM precursors which are also readily rem oved by coagulation.

As compared to DOC, a larger reduction of THMFP occurs across flotati on (52% vs 41%) and for complete
treatment (73% vs 49%). The DF and DAF pilot trains performed very similarly; both performed
significantly better than the full scale plant (74% removal vs 59 % removal). Th is difference may be
attributed to the increased DOC removal occurring in the DF and DAF trains with GAC/sand filters.

300

2 50
DIIl
MCAA
~ TCAA
.......
....J ~ OCAA
<, 200
Cl
::t.
.......,
n, 15 0
u,
<
-c
:I: 100

50

0 ...
-
CIl
ou
...ellell

- -
0
~ ...
ell .-
u, u,

-
l.L.
~
0
CIl
s;
o,
0+-
< ...ell
o, c
~
0
OAF Pi lo t OF Pilot o,

Fig . 7. Mon ocbloro, tn chloro. dicbloro acetic acid formation potential s (u g/L),
Average : 7/8·10/15, pre ozone on both pilot plan ts.

Figure 7 shows average HAAFPs for monochloroacetic, dichloroacetic, and trichloroacetic acids for sample
days when pre-ozone was utilized. Table 3 gives measured values of HAAFPs. Reduction in HAA
precursors showed similar trend s as for the THM data. however, pre- ozone oxidized a sm aller percentage of
 DAF treatment of a reservoir water supply III

HAA precursors than THM precursors (11% vs 24%). Note also that TCAAFP is removed to a greater extent
than DCAAFP.

CONCLUSIONS

The dissolved air flotation process removed a large fraction of organic matter, which is consistent with good
coagulation practices. Additional removal of DOC and DBP precursors was accomplished through
biologically active rapid GAClsand filters. DAF appeared to remove an unusually large percentage of the
biologically available fraction of the natural organic matter as measured by AOC, with some increases in
AOC through filtration. The AOC observations require further research.

When compared to the direct filtration process, dissolved air flotation followed by filtration performed very
similarly. Particle removal by DAF seemed to have little effect on filter performance from a finished water
quality point of view. Both the DF and DAF pilot trains removed more organics. as measured by DOC and
DBP formation potentials, than the full scale plant. with the difference primarily attributed to biological
oxidation.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

The authors would like to thank the SCCRW A for its financial and operational support. Special thanks go to
N. Vinod, R. McEnroe, Y. Xie, Q. Zhu, J. Weiner, J. Ayers and C. Walsh who collected samples and
performed analysis for the results presented here.

REFERENCES

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to the U.S. EPA. EPA/60012-89-Q32. Drinking Water Divisiion, RREL.
Edzwald, J. K. and Wingler, B. J. (1990). Chemical and physical aspects of dissolved air flotation for the removal of algae. Jour.
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Huck, P. M. (1990). Measurement of biodegradable organic matter and bacterial growth potential in drinking water . Jour. AWWA.
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Kaplan. L. AI. and Bott, T. L. (1988). Measurement of assimiable organic carbon in water distribution systems by a simplified
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in-line direct filtration. Wat. Sci. Tech.• 27(11) ,81-90.
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A. (Ed.), Springer-Verlag, pp. 57-87.
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the concentration of easily assimilable organic carbon in water. Ozone Sci. Engrg., 11(3),297.
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drinking water. Jour. AWWA, 74(10). 540-545.