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Reservoir layering controlled by the taphonomy and taphofacies of coquinas

from the early Aptian Campos Basin, Brazil

Conference Paper · December 2017

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2720168 Reservoir layering controlled by the taphonomy and
taphofacies of coquinas from the early Aptian Campos Basin,
Brazil
1 2
Moises Calazans Muniz and Dan W. J. Bosence ;
1 Petrobras, Av. Republica do Chile, 330 -17th Floor, ZIP:20.031.170 – Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
2 Royal Holloway University of London, Egham, Surrey, TW20 0EX, UK
*Corresponding author (mcalazans@petrobras.com.br)

Abstract
Major hydrocarbon producing reservoir units occur in mollusk-rich, coquinoid limestones of
the Coqueiros Formation, early Aptian of the Campos Basin. These brackish-water lake
deposits of the South Atlantic continental rift basins are diverse and complex. For this reason,
a more detailed approach than the conventional textural limestone classification is needed to
understand the paleoenvironment, sedimentology and the pore systems of these coquinas.
Taphonomy and taphofacies analysis has been used to further our understanding of the
complex biofabrics in these limestones from the original lacustrine bivalve communities
through their transport, fragmentation, and abrasion to eventual deposition. The shells that
survive these various taphonomic filters build the final biofabrics and control the nature of the
pore system. Subsequent micritisation and encrusting can significantly increase the
preservation potential of shells but also affect the porosity development within these reservoir
rocks.
The biofabrics of the Coqueiros Fm have been studied from 9 wells (400m of core) and one
FMI log (400m of continuous log) and ten taphofacies are recognized. The taphofacies reflect
biological and hydraulic processes that have acted on the shells in the lake margin
environment including fair weather wave concentration, storm concentration, and deeper lake
condensed concentration. These represent a taphonomic grade from more or less in situ shell
assemblages in rudstones to floatstones through to fragmented and abraded rudstones and
grainstones. The taphofacies approach enables a bed by bed classification of the coquina
cores in successions that would otherwise all be classified as molluskan rudstone. The
taphofacies classification provides evidence for high frequency, meter-scale cycles and
bedding-parallel layering within these limestone reservoirs. In addition they provide input into
facies models that are used to explain the geometric arrangement and characterization of
these complex coquina deposits. The taphofacies also explain the variations in porosity and
permeability and layering within the coquina reservoirs. The porosity ranges from 0 to 25%
(average 11%) and the permeability ranges from <1 mD up to more than 1 Darcy. Such
variability in reservoir quality reflects the great heterogeneity in facies and diagenesis.

Introduction
Shelly lacustrine limestones, in the subsurface, pre-salt of the Campos Basin of the South
Atlantic, Coqueiros Formation of the Lagoa Feia Gp (Aptian), are very thick accumulations (<
500 m) of predominantly bivalve shells. These shell-rich non-marine carbonate rocks, that are
important hydrocarbon reservoirs, are not common in the geological record. Traditionally
these carbonate rocks have been described as coquinas (e.g. Dias et al. 1988), as
calcirudites (Carvalho et al., 2000) and as bivalve rudstones (e.g. Thompson et al., 2015;
Muniz and Bosence, in review). Coquina sedimentary deposits are the product of various
physico-chemical and biological processes acting on these skeletal elements. The final
biofabric concentrations leave taphonomic signatures with clues of the post-mortem
processes that these shells have undergone. Taphonomy is defined as the science of fossil
preservation (Martin, 1999) and was firstly coined by Efremov (1940). Many authors have
published on the origin, preservation and concentration of shelly limestones (Einsele and
Seilacher, 1982; Kidwell and Bosence, 1991; Kidwell, 1993; Behrensmayer et al. 2000; Holts
and Simões, 2005). Brett and Bird (1986) and Brett and Speyer (1986) proposed the concept
of “taphofacies”, as a parallel term to lithofacies, to characterize the preservational
(biostratinomic) features of different rock fabrics and how these relate to depositional
environment. Brandt (1989) introduced the concept of “taphonomic grade” to describe the
amount of reworking that fossil assemblages undergo from well preserved in-situ (or
autochthonous) preservation through to transported, disarticulated, fragmented and abraded
(or allochthonous) assemblages. Taphofacies can be considered then to have different

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taphonomic grades, and this can be assessed on a bed-by-bed scale. Subsequently, Fürsich
and Oschmann (1993) presented a scheme of taphonomic concentration in an effort to
explain the possible pathways of the taphonomic signatures and their final skeletal
concentrations. They focused on the main taphonomic processes, their durations and their
products. Their taphonomic model explains the relationships between processes of biogenic
production, the agents of skeletal transport and the sites of bioclastic deposition for the
marine realm whereby the concentration of skeletal elements is generated by fair-weather
and storm waves, tidal currents and by density flows and taphofacies distribution is displayed
with respect to water depth and hydraulic energy level. However, similar schemes have not
been erected for lacustrine settings.
In this paper we propose a scheme of how to recognize taphofacies within lacustrine
coquinas and how to organize such taphofacies into a taphonomic grade based on their
varying degrees of transportation, disarticulation, fragmentation and abrasion as in situ
(autochthonous) bivalve communities are progressively reworked in high-energy lake margin
environments (allochthonous). Having established a number of taphofacies that relate to lake
margin processes these are then used to recognize shallowing and deepening trends which
when combined with the identification of different bed surfaces enables the recognition of
high-frequency cycles of deposition within the coquinas. When all these rock fabrics are
integrated into a robust model it is possible to predict the path of diagenesis and the quality of
carbonate reservoir based on the taphonomic grade and the preservation of primary porosity.

Paleoecology and paleoenvironment (Aptian of Campos Basin)

The Aptian-age carbonates of the Coqueiros Formation were deposited during the late syn-rift
tectonic phase of basin evolution, within a series of lakes in a semi-arid climate (Muniz 2013).
The main fauna are non-marine mollusks; bivalves, gastropods and also ostracods. The
bivalves are the most abundant skeletons organisms in the early Aptian deposits. After long-
term environmental change, the mollusks disappeared and the microbialites of the overlying
mid-Aptian Macabu Fm. accumulated (Muniz and Bosence 2015).

Taphofacies classification
An original taphonomic classification is presented here based on the analysis of 400m of
logged core, focusing on the degree of hydraulic reworking and transport of bivalve skeletons
and their preservation. Ten taphofacies have been identified (Figure 1), which are grouped
into autochthonous (TF-1), parautochthonous (TF-2a, TF-2b) and allochthonous fabrics (TF-3
to TF6). Taphofacies resulting from mixed terrigenous and intrabasinal carbonate rocks are
also included (TF-7 and TF-8). These taphofacies can subsequently be applied to the
stratigraphic and reservoir studies: facies model, stacking patterns, cyclicity analysis and
stratigraphic analysis, diagenesis and reservoir quality (RQ).

Figure 1 – Classification of taphofacies of bivalve shells rudstones and floatstones of the Coqueiros
Formation (brown color - matrix and blue - porosity / cement). Carbonate taphofacies: Autochthonous:
TF-1 - Articulated shells in position of life; Parautochthonous: TF-2a - Articulated and broken transported
shells, TF-2b - Articulated shells with minor transport. Allochthonous: TF-3a - Disarticulated and broken
shells with minor transport of whole shells; TF-3b Disarticulated shells imbricated whole shells, TF-4 -
Disarticulated, whole and broken shells, TF-5 – Broken, abraded and rounded shells and TF-6 - Broken,
comminuted and abraded shells. Mixed clastic-carbonate taphofacies: TF-7 - Polymictic conglomerate
with abraded shells; TF-8 Coarse bioclastic sandstones with tractive structures.

2
Facies and taphofacies for the coquinas
The facies model proposed here is an attempt to summarize the facies distribution along a
hypothetical transect of water depth gradient, through shallow subaerial and subaqueous
sites to the deeper water areas basinward. This model, therefore, is constructed based on
well data analysis of facies and in particular the vertical association of facies using Walther’s
Law (in Walker, 1992). Figure 2 shows the schematic facies model for carbonate rocks of the
Coqueiros Fm. of the Lagoa Feia Group based on the analysis of 400m of core log (for detail
see Muniz 2013, Muniz and Bosence in review). Four main depositional environments are
defined, and interpreted: deep subaqueous, intermediate subaqueous, shallow subaqueous
and emergent (Figure 2).

Figure 2 - Schematic facies model for the Barremian / Aptian coquinas succession, Lagoa Feia Group,
based on core logging, illustrating the effect of the hydraulic gradient on texture and maturity of
carbonate sediments. Deep subaqueous (below and above SWB), Intermediate subaqueous, Shallow
subaqueous and Emergent. CG = Clast supported conglomerate. BK= Exposure breccia, Rc= clean
Rudstone, Rm= muddy Rudstone, MD= Mud, WK= Wackestone and SH=Shale. Deeper waters are
matrix rich and poorer reservoir quality,. shallower subaqueous sites are cleaner and have better
reservoir quality facies.

In the present research, it is observed that primary bivalve production is concentrated just
above SWB (Figure 2), below this zone the ostracod-rich facies is abundant (Muniz 2013) and
the thickness of tempestite beds tends to decrease basinward (Figures 2 and 3H). On the
other hand the concentration of shelly sediments generated by storms is thicker above SWB,
due to amalgamation of storm events and wave- winnowing (Figures 3 B-D). The zone
between the FWWB and SWB has the maximum biogenic productivity and concentration of
sediments by the storm waves. But the greatest thicknesses of detrital coquinas, forming units
many metres thick (Muniz 2013), are seeing to be concentrated above FWWB zone (Figure
2). In this scenario, some facies are formed and preserved in situ (autochthonous – TF-1-
Figure 3F) or undergo a small amount of transport (parautochthonous – TF-2a - TF-2b –
Figure 3E). However, many others undergo reworking and transport by hydraulic processes
forming the final biofabric deposits (allochthonous TF-3 - TF6 – Figures 3D, 3C and 3B). In

3
this model fair weather wave base (FWWB) and storm wave base (SWB) and lake level
fluctuation exert a significant control on the occurrence of facies and taphofacies and their
stacking patterns. Cleaner and porous coquinas generally are associated with shallower sites.
Exposure related breccias characterize the emergent depositional environment (Figure 2).

Figure 3 – Core photographs (all the same scale) of thumbnails in figure 2 illustrating detail of
facies and taphofacies within Coqueiros Fm. A) Emergent - BK - Exposure breccia; B)
Shallow subaqueous - TF-6 - Rc - clean Rudstone; C) TF-4- TF-5 - Rc - clean Rudstone; D)
Intermediate subaqueous, TF-3 - Rm - muddy Rudstone; E) Deep subaqueous (below and
above SWB), TF-2, TF-2a – muddy Rudstone / Floatstone; F) TF -1 - muddy Rudstone /
Floatstone; G) - Ostracod rich packstone; H) - Marl / Shale rich with a 5 cm bed of shelly
tempestite.

Taphofacies in high frequency cycles

Coarsening and fining-upward trends and repeated facies succession shifts have been
identified (Muniz 2013), based on core logging analyses (facies and taphofacies). These
trends of textures and facies are bounded by erosive and / or exposure surfaces (Figure 3A)
that are recorded in the logs and these repeated trends are interpreted as sedimentary
cycles. A high frequency cycle analysis (parasequence, sensu Spencer and Tucker 2007), the
stacking pattern of the facies and taphofacies succession, the trends of reservoir quality (RQ)
within the cycle can be seeing in figure 4.

4
Figure 4 - Stratigraphic analysis - stacking pattern of a high frequency shallowing-up cycle in
the coquina succession, well 7 core 4 (Muniz 2013).

Diagenesis and Reservoir Quality (RQ)

The Coqueiros Formation mainly comprises skeletal grains: bivalves, ostracods and
gastropods (in order of decreasing abundance).. Secondarily, non-skeletal allochems such as
peloids, and ooids occur, together with oncoids and microbial intraclasts contribute to the
coarse-grained fabric of these rocks. Stevensite minerals and intraclasts occur locally, mostly
near the base of Coqueiros Formation.

All the petrographic observations indicate that the bivalves (identified taxa and non-identified
clasts) in the Campos Basin cores had an unstable original mineralogy. The shells are either
neomorphically recrystallized, or have been dissolved and replaced with calcite cement
(Figures 5 C - D). The same is the case for the gastropods (Figure 5 B). For this reason, they
are considered to have been originally aragonite in composition. Conversely, the ostracod
valves still show their original fine prismatic structure and are assumed to be originally calcitic
in composition.

The diagenetic processes and their products recognized in the Lagoa Feia carbonates are:
micritisation, early cementation, neomorphism, dissolution, late cementation, recrystallization,
substitution (silicification and dolomitization), mechanical compaction, pressure dissolution
(dissolution seams and stylolites), fractures and late dissolution. These are described and
illustrated in Muniz (2013).

5
Figure 5 Photomicrographs of the coquinas facies and taphofacies of the Coqueiros
Formation. Locations of samples indicated in log in Figure 4. A) Emergent - BK - Exposure
breccia; B) Shallow subaqueous - TF-6 - Rc - clean Rudstone with inter- and intra-particle
porosity; C) TF-4- TF-5 - Rc - clean Rudstone with calcite fringe and interparticle porosity; D)
Intermediate subaqueous, TF-3 - Rm - muddy Rudstone, shells with encrustation and
microboring, mouldic and interparticle porosity partial peloidal matrix; E) Deep subaqueous
(below and above SWB), TF-2, TF-2a – muddy Rudstone / Floatstone, articulated shells with
minimum transport in matrix; F) TF -1 - muddy Rudstone / Floatstone with micrite matrix, with
articulated shell in life position; G) Ostracod-rich packstone; H) Ostracod and pyrite rich shale;
I) Marl with ostracod fragments.

Within the taphonomic grades, illustrated in Figure 1, it is shown that primary interparticle
porosity increases from the autochthonous (Figure 5F) and parautochthonous facies (Figure
5E) through to the allochthonous facies (Figures 5D, 5C and 5B). The former deposits are
generally associated with considerable mud content and matrix supported textures with low
visible porosities and expected low permeabilities. The porosities are restricted to shelter
porosity, micro-porosity and fractures. On the other hand, the allochthonous taphofacies (TF-
3 to TF-6) experienced higher energy transport; shells are disarticulated, and commonly
broken. These form cleaner facies with traction structures and preserve greater primary
porosity, deposited in moderate to high hydraulic energy conditions generally above wave
base (Figure 2). These deposits vary in their degree of reworking and in the size of the
skeletal grains, amounts of matrix, micrite envelopes and encrustations (Figures 3D and 3C).
The grain boundaries are preserved following dissolution and mouldic porosity can be
common (Figures 3B-C, 5D).

The porosities of the coquinas range from 0 to 25% (average 11%) and the permeabilities
range from .01 mD up to more than 1 Darcy (Figure 6). Such variability in reservoir quality
suggests a great heterogeneity in facies and diagenesis which leads to 4 flow units within the
coquina reservoirs (Bizotto, 2014). The flow units have been assigned to facies by Bizotto
(2014) that, whilst similar to some of the facies within the scheme presented here (Figure 2),
cannot be tied to our taphofacies scheme. Flow unit (FU) 1 comprises moderately to poorly
sorted packstones, floatstones and well cemented rudstones, FU 2 poorly to moderately

6
sorted rudstones with well cemented grainstone matrix, FU3 poorly sorted rudstones, densely
packed micritic matrix, and FU4 well sorted grainstones and rudstones with minor
cementation. When these lithological characteristics of the flow units are compared with the
taphofacies it is suggested that the matrix rich autochthonous taphofacies (TF-1 - TF-2) would
equate to FU1 and 2 whilst the cleaner Allochthonous taphofacies (TF3 - TF-6) equate to FU
2-4 but with a strong diagenetic overprint (Figure 6).

Figure 6 – Permeability x Porosity cross plot illustrating the petrophysical characteristics of

the 4 Flow Units within the coquinas (FU). The black triangles represent the medium values
for each FU (data from Bizotto 2014).

As the coquinas are stacked in meter-scale cycles (Figure 4) and the taphofacies are
consistently arranged within the cycles with interpreted lower RQ in lower levels of the cycles
and higher RQ in the mid and upper parts to the cycles, there is a strong bedding-parallel
heterogeneity to these reservoir rocks in addition to the flow units recognized by Bizotto
(2014)

Conclusions

Taphonomy is a powerful tool in which to elucidate the complexity of the biostratinomy,

sedimentology and diagenetic history in the lacustrine skeletal deposits. Firstly, the nature of
the post-mortem accumulation and preservation of the shelly fossils provides more
paleoenvironmental information than the sedimentary facies alone. The post-mortem

7
modification of shelly fossils, provide insights into paleo-hydraulic processes that affect the
accumulation and preservation of skeletons, and the subsequent diagenesis. The taphofacies
classification has been grouped into autochthonous, parautochthonous and allochthonous
groups. The autochthonous (TF-1a) and parautochthonous (TF-2a and TF-2b) taphofacies
represent biofabrics deposited in deep subaqueous environments, below SWB, low hydraulic
energy conditions with articulated shells in position of life or with a minor reworking and
transport. The allochthonous taphofacies (TF-3 to TF-6), represent biofabrics deposited in
shallower subaqueous environments, above SWB, in high hydraulic energy conditions with
disarticulated and broken shells, with a maximum reworking and transport. The taphofacies
also record the variation in porosity, and permeability and consequently the reservoir quality
within these rocks, which, when stacked into meter-scale cycles, imparts a bedding parallel
heterogeneity to the reservoirs.

Acknowledgements

We thank Petrobras for providing the subsurface data and cores from the Southern Campos
Basin, and for the permission to publish this work.

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