Psychology of Learning and Development 12MB

Psychology of Learning & Development
Block-1 Understanding the Development of the Learner [4]

Unit-1 Concept and Principles of Growth and Development
Unit-2 Physical, Socio-Emotional and Moral Development
Unit-3 Cognitive and Language Development
Unit-4 Factors Influencing Development of Personality
Block-2 Understanding the Learner as a Unique Individual [4]

Unit 5 Individual Differences :Cognitive Domain
Unit 6 Individual Differences :Affective Domain
Unit 7 Gender Issues
Unit 8 Factors Producing Individual Differences
Block-3 Understanding the Learning Process [4]

Unit-9 The Nature of the Learning Process
Unit-10 Approaches to Learning
Unit-11 Domains of Learning
Unit-12 Factors Influencing Learning
Block-4 Facilitating Learning and Development [4]

Unit-13 Personal Adjustment and Emotional Maturity
Unit-14 Social Adjustment
Unit-15 Children with Special Needs
Unit-16 Guiding Students

UNIT 1 CONCEPT AND PRINCIPLES OF
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Human Development
1.3.1 The Concept
1.3.2 Need and Importance of Studying Principles of Growth and Developnent
1.4 Stages of Development
1.4.1 Infancy
1.4.2 Early Childhood
1.4.3 Later Childhood
1.4.4 Adolescence
1.4.5 Young Adulthood
1.4.6 Mature Adulthood
1.4.7 Aged Adulthood
1.S Principles of Development
1S . 1 Continuity
1S.2 Sequentiality
1 .5.3 General~tyto Specificity
1.5.4 D~fferentiality
1.6 Role of the Teacher in Facilitating Growth and Development
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Unit-end Exercises
1.9 Suggested Readings
1.10 Answers to Check Your Progress
1 . INTRODUCTION
Humanbeings keep changing. During their lives, they change in size, appearance and
psychological make up. The way they change differs from individual to individual. But the
fundamental underlying patterns of growth and developement remain more or less the same
and take place in an orderly way. Each individual, with his unique heredity and the way he is
nurtured, determines the way he traverses the broad highway of his life at his rate of progress.
Hc will attain the sire, shape, capacities and developmental status in a way which is peculiar to
him at each shge of life.
Growth is sometimes used to designate all the quantitative changes brought about in the
structure and functions of the human anatomy and physiology. The term development means a
progressive series of qualitative changes that occur as a result of maturity and experience. Thus
a1 each stage certain developmental processes bring changes in the individual in different
aspccts of life: physical, social, psychological and emotional. The speed of change varies from
onc individual to another but it follows a definite and predictable pattern. Every individual has
to go through the various stages of childhood, adolescence, adulthood, and old age. Both
growth and developemnt, at every stage, follow certain principles.
This is the first unit of this course. In this unit we shall chscuss the concept and principles of
human growth and developement, why their systematic study is needed and how the teacher
can facililate growth and development during adolescence. We shall also discuss, in brief,
various slages of development. You will also study the role of the teacher in facilitating the
growth and development of school-going children. You Lan observe the growth of your
students over a period of a few years.
Lndcrsf~ndmgthe Devdo)>ment
of thr lwrncr 1.2 OBJECTIVES
This unit is meant to help you learn the concept, the broad principles and the stages of growth
and development.
Afkr going through this unit, you should be able to :
a differentiate between growth and development;
a describe the stages of human growth and development;
a describe the characteristics of each stage of human growth and development;
a explain the principles of growth and development;
a discuss the educational implications of the principles of growth and development;
a explain the role of the teacher in the facilitation of growth and development during
adolescence.
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1.3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Can you recall events from your early childhood, say the second or third year? You might have
a few vague and blurred memories about your childhood. The experiences of that period form
the basis of the type of person you are today. How humanbeings grow, change and adjust
themselves to their environment is the focus of development and behaviour as also the
concepts, principles and theories of growth of development.
The humadbeing is never static. From conception to death he undergoes changes. There are
progressive changes in response to environmend conditions. His body organs and psychological
functions show the curves of capacity and achievement as well as slow erosion and decay.
Cognitive abilities development and then degenerate; basic metabolism reaches a peak and then
declines, the endocrine function flourishesand then fades.There is a rise and Eall of physical energy
in terms of both the force and speed of action with age. In fact no organ or function of humanbeings
has yet been found which is indc~endentof age determinants. At the time of conception a child has
genetic pollentialitics that are partly predictable and partly unpredctable. These genetic
potentialities are determined by the nature of his biological inheritance. Still there is room for a
mmendou$ range in the ways he uses the genetic potentialities, depending upon the environment
which may help or hinder the development of those potentialities.
1.3.1 The Concept

The terms growth and development are often used interchangeably. Actually they are
conceptually different. Neither growth nor development takes place all by itself. Growth refers
to quantitaGve changes in size which include physical changes in height, weight, size, internal
organs, etc. As an individual develops, old features like baby fat, hair and tccth, etc., disappear
and new features like facial hair etc.. are acquired. When maturity comes, the second set of
teeth, primary and secondary sex characteristics, etc., appear. Similar changes occur in all
aspects of the personality.
During infancy and chidhood, the body steadily becomes larger, taller and heavier . To
designate this change the term growth is used. Growth involves changes in body proportions as
well as in overall stature and weight. The term growth thus indicates an incrcase in bodily
dimensions. But the rate of growth differs from one part of the body to the other.
Development, by comuast, refers to qualitative changes taking place simultaneously with
quantitative changes of growth. It may be defined as a ptogwssive series of ordedy, coherent
changes. The term progressive signifies that changes are directional, that they lead forward
rather than backward. Ordely and coherent suggest that there is a definite relationship
between the changes taking place and those that precede or will follow them. Development
represents changes in an organism from its origin to its death, but more particularly the
progressive changes which take place from origin to maturity.
Thus, dcvelopment may be explained as the series of overall changes in an individual dut*LOthe
emergence of modified structures and functions that are the outcome of the interactions and
exchanges between the organism and its environment.
Concept and Prl~iciplesof
Check Your Progress 1 Growth and Developmerlt
Notes : a) Give your answer as instruc~edin each question.
b) Comparc your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
i) Indicate 'G' for 'growth' and 'D' for 'development' for each of the following
statements.
a) A six month old bady shows signs of teething.
b) A thrcc month old bady begins to trun over and lie on its stomach.
c) An infant begins to focus its eyes on an object dangling before it.
d) A thirteen.year old boy begins to have hair on his face.
li) Write 'T' for 'true' and 'F' for 'false' for the following statements.
a) A child talking full sentences is part of development.
b) The difference in height between two children is due to the diffcrent rates of their
development.
iii) Observe two children of the same sex who are at least five years different in age. Note
five points of growth and five points of develoment for each of them. Discuss your
answer with your academic counsellor.
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1.3.2 Need and Importance of Studying Principles of Growth and

Development
A knowledge of development patterns, what these are like and what causes variations in the
dcvclopment of children, is essential for both scientific and practical reasons. A knowledge of
the pattern of human development, will help you know, for example, what to expect of
children. It will also help you know approximately at what age behavioural changes take
place, and when these patterns are generally replaced by more mature pattcms. This is
significant since, if too much is cxpected from children, thcy develop a feeling of inadequacy.
On the othcr hand if too little is expected of them, they do not have an incentive to realise their
potcntial.
Knowing exactly what to expect from children enables developmemt psychologists, teachers
and parents to set guidelines in the form of hcight-weight scales, age-weight scalcs, age-hcight
scalcs, mental age scales, and social or emotional development scales. Deviations Crom normal
developmcnt might be investigatcd in causal tcrms and appropriatc intcrvcntion might be
planncd to ucat those who vary considerably in personal, social and emotional adjustment or
development.
A knowledge of dcvclopmcnt patterns helps tcachcrs and parents guide the child's learning
propcrly. A child must be hclped to acquire skills of walking whcn he is of an age appropriate
Lor this skill. Not providing learning opportunities at the appropriate time would delay the
norrnal dcvclopmcnt of the child. In social development children are expected to adjust
socially to thcir age-mates. If they are deprived of the necessary learning opportunity, thcy will
not bc rcady to acquirc thc neccssary skills characteristic or latcr childhood. When the
development pattern is normal, one period prepares children for, and leads them effectively
into, thc ncxt.
Understanding the Development A knowledge of dcvclopmcnt patterns helps teachers and parcnts prepxe the child
of the Learner
psychologically for the physical and bchavioural changes that would occur as they grow up. In
fact, in this matter, the role of the school is crucial.
1.4 STAGES OF DEVELOPRJENT

Any development process proceeds through some stages and each development stagc diffcrs
from thc other. Ebch stage of development has its characteristic;. Psychologists, for the sake of
convenience, have separated human life span into stagcs or periods and identified specific
changes that may be expected during each stage. The transition from one stagc to ~c next is.
gradual rather than suddcn. Thc agc groups assigned to each stage of thc developmcnt are
gereral as shown in Table 1.0.
Table 1.0 : Stages of Development
Age groups Stage of development Schooling stage

Birth to 2 years Infancy
2 years to 6 years Early childhood Prc-primary
6 years to 12 years Later childhood Primary
12 years to 18 years Adolescence Secondary and senior
secondary
18 years to 40 years Young adulthood
40 years to 65 years Mature adulthood
over 65 years Aged adullhood
Each stage of dcvelopment is characterised by a set of unique, cohcrcnt and distinguishing

features.
Each period in life has its own problems cf adjustment. Throughout the life span people,
develop techniques of handling each of their difficulties. Somc of these techniques are suilable
and others are not. Similarly, a method may be suitable for one age period and not for anothcr.
Thc focus should be on stressing continuity, no sudden changes, no abrupt reversibility,
development being an ongoing process, etc.
1.4.1 Infancy
Development is an ongoing process. It starts from the birth of the child and gocs up to death.
At birth, the proportions of the body are very different from those of the adult. Infants, during
the first two weeks, are called neonates. They usually have wrinkled, blotchy red s k i and a
large hcad. Thcy slecp for about 18 to 22 hours a day, wake up when hungry and sleep again as
soon as they are fed. Crying neonatcs can bc made comfortable with humming in low tones and
rocking-gently.Within a few days they begin rccognising thcir mother's voice. They dcvclop a
relationship wi~hparents. As the nconatcs move towards infancy, their need for affection
develops. Accepted and loved babies dcvelop a sense of trust too. They investigate their
cnvironment. The ninth and tcnth months sce jmlousy aroused in the baby and bctwccn the
tcnlh and twclfh months anger, love, sympalhy and friendliness are distinguishable. From
three months onwards they star1 babbling.
By the sixth month the slow and awkward grasping of early months gives way to
well-coordinated movements.
The baby begins centering its attention on its own body. By the age of nine months a normal
baby can creep. When they begin to crawl thcir curiosity becomes heightened.
Motor ability develops from the head down to the toes. Thc neonate's head is closer to eventual
adult size than is the rest of the body. Also, the infant has more motor control of the head than
of the muscles lowcr down the body. The progression of motor control follows this pattern
first the hcad, then shoulders. arms and abdomen and finally the legs and feet. The growdl and
motor ability develop from the c e n ~ daxis of the body outwards. Trunk and shoulder
movements occur earlier than separate arm movements. Control over the hands and fingers Concept and Prindples of
Growth and Development
comes last. The baby's first actions an:global and undifferentialed. Slowly, the infant's ability
to make specific respnses emerges. Refined activity of the fingers and thumb usilally doesn't
occur until the baby is about a year old. Motor development is thus heavily influenced by
biological maturity. Practice is certainly necessary for full development of the biological
potential. In activities like walking, early practice is a key ingredient in maintenance and
furlhcr development.
Newborn babies have been shown to be capable of discriminating between sweet and sour
tastes. Taste is the most highly developed of all the senses at birth. A response to different
smclls has been observed within two hours of birth. Some babies respond to sound almost
immediately after birth, whereas others may take a few days to gain this sense. This difference
is a result of the time it may take for the amniotic fluid to drain out the newborn's hearing
mcchanisrn. However, neonates not only show the ability to respond to sound, but can even
tliscriminate among certain sounds. Even when threc days old, neonates show a marked
prcferencc for the mother's voice over the voices of others. Vision develops more slowly than
many of the other senses. Responses to light and darkness are functional. Within two days of
birth and by thc time they are tcn days old infants can follow moving objects with their eyes.
Neonates can focus their eyes to a distance of eight to ten inches. The nursing newborn can
cerlainly see the mother's face. By six months of age infants can discriminate between colours,
bclwcen such shapes as circles and triangles and between the faces of parents and strangers.
Some infants as young as one month old can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar faces.
Six-month-old infants have the ability to perceive depth and thus to avoid situations in which
they might fall. An innate link between the visual and motor systems tends to emerge when the
infant is about six months of agc.
By about one year of age, babies can associate the sounds they make with specific objects and .
thus they begin to utter their first words such as dada, mama or bye-byc. The baby at 12 months
is ablc to produce approximatcly 30 to 50 words and by 18 months is typically producing at
l a s t 400 words.
During the first two years babies play alonc. They cxplorc their surroundings, handle toys and
start uttering some word combinations. From birth, infants demonstate their uniqueness and
thcir variability. They havc differences in their personalities and tempenmcnt. Howevcr, the
basis of newborn individuality is not cntirely understood. Reswchcrs agrce gcncrally that
babics have different personality styles and these differences increase over the first few months
of life. Parents have a profound influencc in shaping their children's personality.
7'hc child'sdevelopment of manual skills proceeds through a scries of ordcrly stagcs Iiom thc
cerltc of the body towards the periphery. On the whole large-muscle contol precedes
finc-muscle conlrol. Right or left-handedness develops gradually rathcr than appearing in an
immcdiale manner. Over the first year of life infants typically undcrgo a patterned sequence of
changes in their mcthod of focusing on or organising visual cvcnts.
Check Your Progress 2

Notes : a) Tick mark (4)
the right answcr.
b) Compare your answer with thosc given at the cnd of thcunit.
i) What is a neonate?
a) A newborn baby
b) An irrilablc baby
c) An unloved baby.
d) ,4n abnormal baby.
ii) What are the main chmcteristics of a baby under the agc of two or three years?
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Understanding Ule Devdopment 1.4.2 Early Childhood
of the Learner
Early childhood is generally referred to as the preschool period. During the period between two
and six years, children enlarge the scope of their bchaviour. They refine their previously
learned skills and evolve new ones for relating themselves with other people. Thus the child
progressively develops as a social being in his own right.
By the time a child is three years old, positive emotions likes love and affection are shown.
Mimicking social practices while playing games are also displayed. Their love for dolls and
stuffed animals and showering affection on them is common. Their emotions get an outlet
through play. Their need for socialisation grows.
In the pre-school period mental/intellectual development is characterised by the rapid
expansion of cognitive abilities. Children become more curious and eager to seek information,
keep it in order and use it. Whereas sensory motor processes largely dominate deve:opment
during infancy, a significant transition occurs (after two years of age) towards more abstract.
processes of reasoning, drawing inferences and problcm-solving. By the time children are six
years old they have developed a set of cognitive skills.
Language, development takes place during this period. Language development begins with
howling, babbling and iteration. According to Piaget, language emerges only at the end of the
sensory motor period of intellectual development. Chomsky bclieves that the language
acquisition device is an inborn mental structure that enables children to induce grammatical
rules and to form their own language from those rules. The inborn language acquisition device
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directs the children's ability to learn.
A major development task for a child during the first six years of life is to acquire a gender
identification. Besides biological factors, social factors also influence the gender behaviour of
children. The environment is the most powcrful factor in shaping the gender identity among
children. The cognitive development theory claims that children first come to categorise
themselves as male or female and then attempt to acquire those patterns of behaviour that fit
their gender category.
1.4.3 Later Childhood

During this period (6-12 years of age), physical growth is initially slow. There is vast
intellectual, moral and social development. Around seven years of age major advances in
intellectual development take place. During the later childhood period, the memory and the
problcm-solving ability improves and children become aware of their achievements. They
become capable of comparing themselves with others with respect to intellectual, athletic and '
social skills.
The generally sclcct playmates of their own sex and play togethcr in groups. This period is
often referred to as gangage. By the time the children reach puberty, they restrict their
friendship to a few friends one or two close companions.
They develop an understanding of the meaning of rules. Their moral development takes place
as they accept the rules and standards of their friends and teachers.
This is the primary school stage. An important feature of this stage is the children's ability to
learn about themselves and their environment. They develop their intellectual capabilities q
through information processing. Piaget calls it the period of concrete operations. He refers to
it as concrete because children are bound by immediate physical reality-they develop the
power to reason simultaneouslyby the whole and by the part at this stage. Children acquire the
ability to order objects in a series according to some abstract dimension, such as size, weight,
brightness or smell.
The primary school years are a time of rapid growth in children's knowledge of the social
world and of the requirements for social interaction. They assess the status of the people they
encounter from their behaviour (walking, eating, reading, playing), their emotional state
(happy, sad, angry), their roles (teacher, parents) and their social context (religious place,
school, home). In other words, children form a perception of and about people. They describe
people largely in terms of external, readily available characteristics.
Children conlinue to grow in the strength,speed and coordination needed for motor skills. They
climb trecs, walls, etc. They develop precision in athletic ability. Being active and participating
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in games helps them develop a concept of themselves. They get feedback regarding their Concept and Principles of
Growth and Development
desirability, worth and status from other people.
The function and role of schools become important for children's growth and development :
physical, in~ellectualand motor. Schools teach specific cognitive skills, primarily the 3 Rs. and
general skills associated with effective participation in the classroom setting.
Peer group interaction plays an important role in shaping the children's personality. At this
stage, they entcr the school context peer group interaction. They compare themselves and play
dominant or submissive roles in the group.
1.4.4 Adolescence
The period of transition from childhood to adulthoc-0 is called adolescence. Adolescence is
very crucial stage of development. All types of chang~s: biological, physical, social, cognitive,
etc., take place during the adolescence stage. The major changes that take place at this stage of
development are discussed below.
Pttysical development :The physical changcs an adolescent undergoes are as follows :

Growth spurt : During the wrly adolescent years, most children experience the adolescent
growth spurt, a rapid increase in height and weight. Usually, this spurt occurs in girls two years
earlicr than in boys. The spurt usually lasts about two years and du~ingthis time gir!s sain 6 to
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7 inches and boys 8 to 9 inches in height. By the age of seventeen in girls and eightcen in boys,
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I the majority of them have reachcd 98 per cent of their final height.
1 Puberty : During adolescence changes in growth and development are truly rcvolutionary.
After a life time of inferiority, they suddenly catch up wilh adults in physical size and strength.
Accompanying these changes is the rapid dcvelopment of the reproductive organs that signals
sexual maturity. Sexual and reproductive maturity becomes evident at this stage of
development.
Adolescents are often extremely sensitive and perceptive about their own physical appearance
and that of their friends. The discrepancies bctween heir less than pcrfcct sclf-images and the
glossy ideals that they are supposcd to emulate can bc a real source of anxiety.
Sexual identity and relationships: Directly related to biological changcs is sexual identity.
This includcs the expression of scxual needs and feclings and the acceptance or rcjcction of sex
roles. With the attainment of pubcrty and adolescence, all the biological changes of physical
maturity bring a new interest in sexuality. This accentuates the problem of integrating the
sexual drive with other aspects of the personality. Early adolescents don't usually have to deal
with problems of sexual intimacy at a very sophisticated level. Early adolescents necd to bc
likcd and have a sense of self-esteem. They fecl strong pressures to conform to the peer group.
In early adolescence, most relationships with the opposite sex take place in groups. It is known
as the trial period for adolescents to collect the ideas and experiences with which to form the
basic attitudes about sex roles and sexual behaviour. They can examine their own and others
stereotyped images of the opposite sex. Adolescents tend to select friends who are from a
s~rllilarsocial class, interests, moral values and social maturity.
Identity is composed of the weight an individual gives to the question "who am I?" ldentity is
a person's sense of placement within the world, the meaning that one atlaches to oneself in the
broader context of life. In their everyday lives individuals interact with one anolhcr not so
much on the basis of what they actually are as of what conceptions they have of themselves and
of othcrs. Accordingly, their identity leaves its signature on everything thcy do. Identities are
not fixed. They undergo continual shaping and reshaping over thc course of the life span.
Adolesccnce poses identity tasks that seem play an important part in successful transition to
adulthood.
Cognitive development : Important cognitive developments occur during this time. An
expansion in capacity and style of thought broadens adolescenls awareness, imagination,
judgement and insight. These enhanced abilities also lead to a rapid accumulation of
knowledge that opens up a range of issues and problems that can complicate and enrich the
adolescent's life.
Adolescents also show an increasing ability to plan and think ahcad. Cognitive skills continue
Understanding the Development to expand ti-iioughout the adolescenceperiod. The development of thiiing ability also takcs place
of the Learner
during adolescence. Adolescents learn to examine objects, events or phenomena and consciously
develop their thinking ability. For example, they may silently warn themselves net to jump to
conclusionswilhout convincing proof, they also k o m e extremely introspectiveand self-absorbed.
At the same time, they begin to challenge everything, to reject old boundaries and categories. In so
doing, they question old attitudes and become more creative and thinkers.

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unil.
List h e main points of physical development in adolescents.
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1.4.5 Young Adulthood

There is no fixed age when adolescence is complete. The responsibilities of adulthood include
important decisions like choosing a career, a life p a l e r , etc. Young adulthood begins with
setting goals and aspirations.
Sheehy (1976) and Gould (1975) observe that individuals in their twenties are ambitious and
striving. Sheehy labels this stage as "the tying twenties". They describe the early thirties as
the time of re-assessing. Childless couples begin to think of raising children. Women who have
been at home so far may begin a career. By the late thirties adults settle down and become more
satisfied, Sheehy labels this contentment as rooting. The early twenties are marked by
immaturities but by the completion of young adulthood a mature person is expected to emerge.
1.4.6 Mature Adulthood

After settling down in thirties and having lived through with rooting phase, the individual starts
feeling sense of uprooting and dissatisfaction during the forties. A physical decline in the form
of wrinkles, thickening waistlines, and greying and thinning hair start appearing. The changes
are often termed middle life transition, middle-age revolt, mid-career crisis or middle-age
slump. These terms point U, the loss of youth and the coming of old age. In women hormonal
changes of menopause (endiqg of menstruation) generate anxiety and depression.
1.4.7 Aged Adulthood

Aging is a process which causes loss of vitality. Aged adults are more concerned about their ,
health and death. Their visit to doctors is more frequent.
Retirement has the worst impact on aged adults. They gradually lose their sense of
meaningfulness in life. Some develop interests in social service and spend their time in
financial planning, reading, traveling, visiting religious places and enjoying nature.
Check'YourProgress 4
Notes : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
n ~ stage do most children learn to accept the rules ar~dstandards of morality'?
i) ~ k i which
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Concept and Rlndplm of
Gnpvtb and Development
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iii) Outline three cominon problems encountered during young adulthood.
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1.5 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

Human development involves change. This change occurs at various stages of development
and the development pattern at each stage has predictable characteristics. You might have
observed that development is a product of maturity and learning. Maturity is mtre or less
1 automatic, unfolding biological potential. It is an irreversible sequence and entails biological
changes. Such changes are relatively independent of environmental factors as long as
I environmental factors remain normal. There is a more or less permanent change in human
1 bchaviour from the individual's experience in the environment Learning occurs a c r y the
entire life span. It differs from maturity. However, learning depends on the process of maturing
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I i.e. individual readiness (mental and physical) for certain activities.
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As human development is based on certain principles, we shall discuss them in this section.
1.5.1 Continuity
Development is a continuous process from conception to death. In the early years of life,
development consists of changes that lead the child to maturity not only of body size and
functioning, but also of behaviour. Even after maturity has been attained, development does not
end. Changes continue which lead to the period of life known as senescence or old age. These
changes continue until death ends the life cycle.
Development depends on the growth and maturity of individuals who interact with the
environment. Indeed many studies have shown that development demonstrates some stage --
like properties and some consistency across doqains : cognitive, affective and psycho motor^
1.5.2 Sequentiality
Most psychologists agree h t development is sequential or orderly. Every species, whether
* animal or human, follows a pauern of development peculiar to it. This pattern in general is the
same for all individuals. In prenatal development there is a genetic sequence, appearing at
fixed intervals with certain characteristics.
Social and behavioural scientists increasingly have come to see development as a relationship
bctwwn organism and environmeni in a transaction or collaboration. Individuals work with
and affect their environment, and in turn the environment works with and affects them.
Thc directional sequence of development during both prenatal and postnatal stages may either
be (i) from head to foot, or (ii) from the central axis to the extremities of the M y .
All children follow a development pattern with one stage leading to the next. Infants stand
before they walk; draw circles before they make squares. Even though development is
continuous, there is evidence that at different ages certain characteristics stand out more
conspicuously than others.
Since development is continuous;what happens at one stage influences the following stages.
1.5.3 Generality to Specificity

Development proceeds from general to specific. In all areas of development, general activitj
always precedes specific activity. For example, the foetus moves its whole body but is
Understanding t b e ~ v d o P m ~ t incapable of makiag specific responses. In early postnatal life, infants wave their arms
of the Learner
randomly. They can make such specific responses as reaching out for an object near them. In
language, from genetic sounds emerge words and then specific sentences with meaning.
With respect to emotional behaviour infants approach strange and unusual objects with some
sort of a general fear response. Later, their fears become more specific and elicit different kinds
of behaviour, such as crying, turning away and hiding or pretending to be not afraid.
1.5.4 Dlfferentiality
The tempo of development is not even. Individuals differ in the rate of growth and
development. Boys and girls have different development rates. Each part of the body has its
own particular rate of growth. Development does not occur at an even pace. There are
periods of great intensity and equilibrium and there are periods of imbalance. Development
achieves a plateau and this may occur at any level or between levels. Developmental
changes do not always go forward in a straight line. While the development of different
physical and mental traits is continuous, it is never uniform. Since the body has to attain its
adult proportions, inequalities in rates occur. The feet, hands and nose, for example, reach
maximum development early in adolescence, while the lower part of the face and the
shoulders develop more slowly. Mental abilities like verbal, numerical, spatial, etc.,
develop at different ages. Creative imagination develops'rapidly in childhood and reaches
its peak in early adolecsence. Reasoning develops slowly. Rote memory and memory for
concrete objects and facts develop more quickly than memory for the abstract. The point
that you 3ould remember here is that all these changes in individuals are not uniform.
These changes occur at different rates.
1.6 ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN FACLLITATING

GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
What we know about the child is vast and impressive. However, what we do not know is even
more vast and overwhelming. Every new insight opens up new questions. Therefore, you need
to update your knowledge of the problems of children in the context of the media explosion, of
economic smvings and resultant social, cultural and value changes so that you are able to make
a reliable diagnosis and apply the knowledge of child psychology to better their adjustment
with themselves and with the world around them.
You, as a teacher, should know what to expect from the child (student), and what he needs
physically, socially and emotionally. You need not know your student only in a formal
teacher-taught relationship when he (the student) is found to be a member of a drug sub-culture
group or is heading in a socially undesirable direction. The routine teacher-taught relationship
would not benefit him unless he is dealt with empathatically as a social being, as an individual
self, and as a biological organism.
You should accept and make your students accept the reality of physical and biological changes
so that the transition takes a smooth course without causing any psychological disadvantage.
You need to create such challenging conditions which may lead to the effective coordination of
physical, mcntal and other functions in order to ensure adequate adujstment to probable life
situations. Yet another task that you should ensure is to secure effective and desirable
responses, and prevent or eliminate ineffective or undesirable ones. One way is to arrange
conditions in a way that make desirable responses satisfying and not annoying. Punishment
should be administered judiciously lest it generates negative reactions.
Positive training in self-direction and self-control should be given to students. Some of the'
following points can be kept in mind while guiding them :
Control and guidance must come from the student himself under the teacher's
supervision.
Student should not be punished lest it interferes with his developing leadership.
Harsh, strict and unsympathetic control, and prescription of every detail of conduct
leaving no place for self-control and self-direction are not conducive to students mental
health and adjustment to life's events.
e Proper guidance, rational shifts of treatment, and principles of autonomy should be
judiciously applied to ensure smooth passage through the turbulent period of student$.
16
It is around the adolescence stage that students reach the higher levels of their school Concept and Prlndpler of
Growth nnd Development
education. You need to receive adequate knowledge and skills with due preparedness in order
to handle their emotional and social needs. You need to appreciate the fact that students at this
srage are prone to revolt against established norms, rules, and authority. You should keep
yourself ready to provide explanations and rationale for the beliefs and values which your
students would question. Students at this time need proper guidance to decide on the right
course of action. They need supportive judgments to do things which provide them
self-confidence and self- assurance.
Thc range of individual differences in mental ability among adolescents is wide. You need to
use some plan of classification to secure homogeneous groups in respect of significant abilities
and achievements so that curricular and instructional needs can be suitably met.
Studies have indicated that in certain tasks a student's performance would imporove when
othcrs (teachers) are around. This phenomenon is called social facilitation. However, this is
not a universal phenomenon. Still other studies have shown that when a student is first trying
to lcarn something new, the presence of others is detrimental. In such a situation the teacher has
to assess the situation (considering the class as a social unit) and the personality traits of his
students and accordingly he should facilitate their growth and development.
1.7 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied the concept of human growth and development. The stages of
development and the characteristics of each stage have also been discussed. The principles of
development, their importance and need to study them scientifically have been discussed. As
you have seen, adolescence is a period of transition between childhood and adulthood.
Accompanying it are a number of problems. During this period, adolescents are considered
ncither as children nor as adults. Their status remains ambiguous. They are prone to rebel
against authority. What bearing thesc characteristics of adolescents have upon the instructional
process and for dealing with their particular problems have also been discussed. What you, as
a tcachcr, can do to attcnd to these problems and how you can help the development of a
balanccd personality of your students havc also been dealt with in order to crcare a better
understanding of students needs and problems.
1.8 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. Trace those events from your own childhood and adolescence stages that reflect the
characteristics of these periods.
2. "Adolcscence is a period of storm and stress". Discuss with convincing arguments.
3. Teachers can do a lot to help adolescents develops a balanced personality. How? Discuss
your experiences in this regard.
1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Craig J Grace (1983) : Human Development, Prentice Hall, INC, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey.
Levinson, D.J., Darrow, C.N., Klein, E.B., Levinson, M.H. & Mckee, B. (1978) : The Seasons
of a Man's Lijk, New York, Knopg.
Sanden Vandcr W. James (1989) : Human Development, Refred A Knopg, INC. New York.
Shcchy, G. (1974) : Parsages :Predictable Crisis ofAdult Life, New York, Dutton.
Sprinthall, C., Richard and Sprinthall A. Norman (1990) : Educational Psychology,
A Dcvelopmental Approach. McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York.
Wolrnan, B.B. (Ed), (1982) : tiandbook of Developmental Psychology, Prentice Hall :
Englcwood,Cliffs, N.J.
Understanding Ule Development
of the Learner 1 . 1 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. i) Growth means quantitative changes in size which includes physical changes.
Development means a qualitative change at physical as well as mental levels.
ii) Points of comparison are
Ageltime in the life span
Physical
Mental
Quantitative
Qualitative
2. i) a
ii) Babies have some unique features such as
Weight : Approximately 2 kg
- Appearance : Wrinkled and blotcky skin, large heads
Interaction with : Recognise their mother's voice, slow awakward
environment grasping movement, crawing, uttering some
combinations of words.
3. The characteristics of an adolescent are as follows :
Growth spurt : A rapid increase in height and weight.
Puberty : Rapid development of the reproductive organs that
signals sexual maturity.
Body images i) Critically appraising their body and self-image.
and adjustment .ii) Extremely sensitive and perceptive about their own
physical appearance.
Identity . . Adolescence poses identity tasks that seem to play an
important part in a successful transition to adulthood.
4. i) Later childhood.
Psychological i) Independent behaviour, strong feelings of insecurity.
development ii) Three main needs of early childhood are
Parental attention
Need for socialization
Displaying love and
affection through games
iii) The common problems could be
heightened emotionality
revolt against authority
feelings of insecurity
identity crisis
UNIT 2 PHYSICAL, SOCIO-EMOTIONAL
AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Objectives
2.3 Physical Development
2.3.1 Upper Primary School Children
2.3.2 Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students
2.4 Socio-Emotional Development
2.5 Moral Development
2.6 Role of Teacher in Facilitating Development of Children
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In thc previous unit we discussed the concept of human growth and development We discussed
various stages of human development. Human development is predictable to some extent and
as such is based on certain principles that are discussed in Unit 1 in brief.
Wc also discussed the role of the teacher in facilitating the growth and development of
students. Physical, socio-emotional and moral development are important factors that
learning. The discussion in Unit 1 was mainly related to the individual's experience of growth
and development within the physical parameters. Now, we discuss more about how these
changes affect the socio-emotional and moral development of a student.
This unit focuses on the various aspects of the development of students studying at the upper
primary, secondary and senior secondary levels, i. e., in the age-group 10 years to 17 years. By
and large, students in the upper primary levels have fewer problems compared to students who
are at the adolescence stage. This is due to many factors which will be explained in this unit.
Briefly, the unit's emphasis is on various aspects of the physical, socio-emotional and moral
development of students in the age group of 10 years to 17 years. The problems faced by such
students will also be discussed in brief. The educational implications of physical,
socio-emotional and moral development have been highlighted to make you aware of the need
to facilitate students development in the desired direction at a satisfactory rate.
2.2 OBJECTIVES
Afer going through this unit, you should be able to :
discuss the need and importance of studying the physical, socio-emotional and moral
development of students;
differentiatebetween the physical characteristics of boys and girls, especially of early and
late maturers;
e identify and discuss the problems of adolescents (secondary school students) in India; and
e explain the characteristics and implications of various types of development for the
teaching-learning process.
Understanding the Development
of the Learner 2.3 PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Physical growth and development describe the physical as well as psychomotor changes in an
individual. You have studied physical development of children at various stages in Unit 1. In
this section we shall further elaborate on the physical development of children studying at the
uppcr primary and secondary school levels.
Children entering the first grade are in a transitional period that marks the end of early
childhood -a time of rapid growth and development in all areas. Thereafter a phase of
gradual development starts, when children reach the upper primary grades. This is the stage
when they cross childhood and enter the pre-adolescence age.
To learn the implications of physical growth and development for the teaching-learning
prccess, children have been categorised into two groups : upper primary school children (10-13
years) and secondrylsenior secondary school children (13-17 years). We shall discuss each age
group in the following sub-sections.

Children in the lower elementary period, i.e. from 5 to 819 years, show relatively slow physical
development. A typical child in the primary grades reflects certain physical characteristics. For
instance, the girls tend to be slightly shorter and lighter than the boys until around the age of
nine, when the height and weight tcn to be approximately cqual for boys and girls.
Upper primary students are, on the average, healthier than those younger to them. They tend to
have better resistance to fatigue and disease. Their motor-coordination is better than that of
seven or eight years old children.
During the latter part of the fourtll grade, however, many girls bcgin a sudden growth that tends
to continue till puberty. The arms and legs grow rapidly though there is not a proportionate
growth in the Uunk size. The result is a gangly or all-arms-and-legs appearance.
Bone growth occurs before the growth of associated muscles and cartilages. Children at this
growth stage temporarily lose the efficiency of motor-coordination and strength. They appear
to be clumsy and sometimes confused as compared to seven and eight years old children.
Girls of this age-group experience pre-puberty developments like breast budding and traces of
public hair. In addition to muscles and cartilages, the limbs grow in early maturing females and
they tend to regain thcir strength and efficiency of motor-coordination. Because of this most
girls on the completion of their fifth gradc look taller, heavier and stronger than boys.
Since boys remain twelve to eighteen months behind the girls in physical development, even
thc early maturing boys do not start thcir growth spurt until the age of eleven. By the start of
the twelfth/thirteenth year, most girls attain the peak of their growth spurt, while all including
early maturing boys continue the slow and steady growth level of late childhood. The girls
usually start their menstrual periods by the age of thirteen. For boys, the end of pre-adolescence
and the onset of early adolescencc as idenlified by thc first ejaculation, occurs around the age
of thirteen which may extcnd up to the age of sixteen in some cases.
2.3.2 Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students r

The adolescence pcriod of devclopment begins with puberty. Early adolcscence is a time of
rapid physical and intellcctual dcvclopment. Middle adolescence is a more stable period of
adjustment to and integration oT thc behaviour patterns of early adolescence. Later adolescence
is marked by preparations for the responsibilities, choices and opportunities of adulthood. The
major changes during adolcscence are discussed below :
i) Variability in onset and rate of puberty : Directly relatcd physical developmenilchange
that adolescents must face is the consciousness of sexual identity. This includes the expression
of sexual needs and feelings and the acceptance or rejection of sex roles. Pubcrty is a series of
physiological changes that make the organism capable of reproduction. Nearly every organ and
system of the body is affcctcd by these changes. The pre-puberty child and post-puberty
adolescent changes in outward apparance because of the changes in the stature and proportion
and the development of priinary and secondary sex characteristics.
Although the sequencc of evcnts at puberty is generally the same for each person, the timing
and the rate of weight gain vary widely. The averare girl typically begins pubertal changes Physical, soeio-emotional
and Moral Development
around eleven years, one and a half to two years before the average boy. In each sex, however.
the normal range of getting sexual maturity is approximately six years. Llke the onset, the rate
of change also varies widely. Some prsons take only one and a half to two years to go through
the pubertal changes to reach reproductive maturity, while others may require six years to pass
through the same stage.
These dillerences mean that some individuals may mature before others or the same age who
may have just entered puberty. The children make comparison among themselves. The
tcndency to hold maturity in high rcgard can be a problem for the less matured students. On the
other hand, the early maturcrs are also likely to experience temporary discomfort because they
stand out From the less matured majority.
ii) Reactions to puberty :One of the most importani challenges adolescents have to face is to
adapt to the changes in their bodies. Coordinatii .l and physical activity must be adjusted
rapidily as height, weight and skills change. The new developments in body must be integrated
into the existing self-image. Ncw habits have to be developed. As adolescents become more
like adults in appearance, they are expected U, behave more like adults. regardless or their
crnotlonal, intellectual or social maturity.
C
The purpose of puberty is to make people able to reproduce. Thus the adolesccnt is faced with
a ncw potential that includes increased intcrest in sexual activity, erotic fantasy and
experimentation. Masturbation becomes a regular activity for many adolesce6ts md some
J
adolcsccnts even indulge in sexual acts. The sexual activity necessitates facing the possibility
of conflict with parents, pregenancy, sexually transmitted diseases, etc.
iii) Early and late maturing : Researchers have long been interested in the possible
d~rferencesbetween the children who cntcr puberty early and those who enter it late. Peskin
(1967) demonstrated hat early maturers have a harder time at puberty. Youth who mature
earlier experience more anxiety and have more temper tantrums, more' conflict with their
parcnts, and lower self-esteem at puberty than ~hoscwho mature later. But by the time the early
matures are in high school, long post puberty and having accommodated its changes, they are
more at ease, popular, and maturc than are late maturers. The late maturers are still
experiencing pubertal changes.
If early maturity is an asset for teenage boys, it is a real liability for teenage girls. They
dcvclops breasts. 'They have fewer changes to discuss with peers the physical and emotional
chlrnges they are undergoing.
Peskin's data suggest that the early maturcr may need more help in understanding pubertal
changes, while the late maturer may need more help coping with being relatively immature and
less able to compete in situations where maturity and size are important.
One clcar conclusion that can be drawn from research on puberty is that this period is a
relatively difficult one for most children. Neither they nor their pcers nor adults find
puberty eayy to cope with. Both self-esteem and pecr-esteem decline temporarily during
puberty.

Note : Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit
i) Which of the following statements about adolescents are true ? Tick mark (4)the corrcct
statements.
a) Girls typically start thcir pubcrul growth spurt more than a ycar before boys.
b) Although the age at which individual children bcgin to mature varies, the time
required for pubertal changes is quite uniform.
c) During adolescencc people bcgin lecling the need lor both intimacy and sexual
gratification.
ii) Fill in the blank :
The perception that peoplc have about thcir own abilities, sucnghs and weaknesses is
called their .................... .
Undemtading the Dovdopment
of the ~eprner 2.4 SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Children are not like machines with gradually developing abilities. The developmentof various
aspects like physical, social, emotional, intellectual, etc., are simultaneous. Therefore, their
developmeqt is inter-dependent and also inter-related with the development of cognitive skills.
self-concepts, ways of interacting with others, social attitudes and values. Like cognitive
developmeat, social development proceeds in stages. Let us discuss some of the issues related
to the wio-emotional development students studying at the upper primary and
secondary/senior secondary school levels.

A child's social development during the primary grades is shaped by three major influences.
First are the parents and the family, the second is the peer group and the third is the school
experience.
During this stage children start trying to prove that they are really grown up. This is often.
-
described as the "I can - do - it - myself' stage. Children's powers of concentration grow, they
can spend more time on chosen tasks and often take pleasure in completing them. This stage
also includes the growth of independent action, cooperation with groups, performing in
socially acceptable ways, and a concern for fairplay.
By the sixth grade, students often form groups that include both boys and girls. Whatever the
composition of peer groups, they serve important purposes to shape their social behaviour. The
children compare their abilities and skills with those of other children. Members of peer groups
also exchange notes with one another about their different worlds. Children leam to sort out
and form their own attitudes and values. For both boys and girls in the upper primary grades,
the membership of groups tends to promote feelings of self-worth. Not being accepted by the
group can bring serious emotional problems.
Herein lies the major cause of the pre-adolescent's changing relationship with parents. It is just
that their friends are more important than ever and will continue to be throughout adolescence.
This behaviow may be a result of their change in physical and cognitive structures. They want
their parents to treat them differently, even though many parents are unwilling to see them
differently. Nine to twelve years old children still depend heavily on their families and
generally affirm that they love their parents. They also a f f m that though they feel their parents
love them, they do not think they understand them.
Thornburg (1979) suggests that parents (and teachers) of pre-adolescents should remember two
facts
When these changes occur, pre-teens break up the well-defined, predictable behaviours
I
and attitudes of childhood. They grow up and change the ways they do things, ways to
which their parents have become accustomed.
When changes occur, pre-teens need additional guidance. Parents must remember that
many of their children's ways of acting are as new and as unpredictable to the children I
thanselves as they are a them. Therefore, parental direction and reassurance are
important to their normal growth.
School also affects the social development of children. Through school, children's public r
selves and social skills develop. The middle childhood years often bring changes in the .
relationship between children and their mchers. In the primary school years, children easily
accept and depend on their teachers. During the upper primary years their relationship with
teachers becomes more complex. Sometimes they discuss/share with their teachers their
personal problems about which they may not tell their parents. Some pre-adolescents even
choose teachers as role models. At the same time, however, some pre-teens behave with
teachers in ways they would never have thought of several years earlier, and some openly
challenge teachers.
Television as a socialising agent :Television is an important socialising agent that influences .
childran's behaviour and hence their development. Children leam both aggressive and
pro-social behaviour from television. They also acquire knowledge about social relationships
and w i a l behaviow h m television programmes. You will study the role of media in Unit 12 /
Block 3.
Emotional development : It is common to have emotional problems related to the Physicai, SoCl*emotlonnl
and Moral Develo~ment
dcvclopment of upper primary children. Though pre-adolescents are generally happy and
optimistic, they also may have many fears, such as :
not being accepted into a peer group
not having a best friend
being punished by their parents
not doing well at school
getting hurt
Other emotions in this age group include anger and fear of being unable to control it, guilt,
frustration, and jealousy. Pre-adolescents need help in realising that these emotions are a
natural part of their growth. Many children, for insknce, have fears that seem unrealistic to
adults. They should be encouraged to discuss those fears. Feelings of guilt often drise when
there is a conflict between children's actions (based on the values of the peer group) and their
parents values.
Angcr is another common emotion displayed by children at lhis age. It is displayed with more
intcnsity than many other emotions. Just as parents often tell their children that they should not
haveany &us, they have often to tell them they should not get angry. Unfortunately, this is an
urlrealistic eXpecWonl%madults, including parents.
Other emotional characteristics of upper primary children are :
Thcy are impatient and want to get things done in a hurry.
They have conflicting desires. They want freedom, yet fear the loss of security.
They exhibit a wide range of behaviours and their moods can swing from one extreme to
the other.
Thcy need to feel successful and desire attention and recognition for their personal efforts
and achievements.
They seek adults approval and acceptance.
They ahuery sensitive to criticism of their personal shortcomings.
Thcy am anxious, doubtful and confused about their physical and intellectual
development as well as their social relationships. For instance, boys and girls whose
physical spurts erne early or late are geatly concerned and self-conscious.
Harlocks also discusses the characteristics of this age group as follows :
Emotions are intense : Young children respond with equal intensity to a trival event and
to a serious situation. Even the pre-adolescent reacts with intense emotions to what
appears to an adult, to be a trivial frustration.
Emotions appear frequently :children display their emotions frequently. As they grow
older and discover that disapproval or punishment often follows an emotional outbrust, .
they lcarn to adjust to emotion arousing situations. They then curb their emotional
outbrusts or react in a more acceptable way.
Emotions are transitory : Young children's rapid shifts fiom laughter to tears, from
anger to smiles, or from jealousy to affection are attributable to three factors: clearing the
system of pent up emotions by unreserved expressions; lack of complete understanding
of the situation because of intellectual immaturity and limited experience: and short
attention span, which makes it possible for the child to be diverted easily. As children
grow older, their emotions become moR persistent.
Responses reflect individuality : In all newborns, the pattern of response is similar.
Gradually, as the influences of learning and environment are felt, the behaviour
accompanying the different emotions becomes individualised. One child will run out of
the room when frightened, another will cry and still another will hide behind a piece of
furniture or a person.
Emotions change in strength : Emotions that are very strong at certain ages wane in
strength as the child grows older, while others, former y weak, become stronger. These
variations are due partly to changes in the strength of drives, partly to the child's
intellectual development, and partly to changes in inter ,,tsand values.
Understanding the Development e Emotions can be detected by behaviour symptoms : Children may not show their
of the Learner
emotional reactions directly. They show them indirectly by restlessness, day-beaming,
crying, speech difficulties and nervous mannerisms such as nail-biting and thumb
sucking.

One of the first signs of early adolescence is the apperance of reflectivity, or the tendency to
think about what is going on in one's own mind and to study oneself. Adolescents begin to look
more closely at themselves and to define themselves differently. They start to realise that there
are ditkences betweent what they think and feel and how they behave. They are also prone to
be dissatisfied with themselves. They critically examine their personal characteristics, compare
themselves to others, and try to change the way they are.
Adolescents may also ponder whether other people see and think about the world in the same
way as they themselves do. They become more aware of their distinctiveness and uniqueness
from other people. They learn that other people cannot know fully what they think and feel. The
issues of "who" and "what" really dominate their personality development.
Identity : The physical and intellectual changes during adolescence disrupt their sense of
continuity and personal wholeness. The cognitive ability to relate the past to the present, and to
think about the future, presents the young adolescents with the problem of understanding the
continuity of experience across time and projecting that continuity into the future. To
accompi:sh this, adolescents usually depend on several activities. The important activities are
as follob. s :
i) They pay great attention on how other people view them. They have sensitive antennas,
tuned to receive subtle messages about themselves from other people. They listen
carefully to their peers. parents, teachers and other adults for any hrformation that
indicates how these people view them. Information obtained is chewedover, compared to
other views, and inserted into their self-concept if it can be made coonpadble with the
information already there.
ii) They search the past and often want to know about their ance&m,familytree, their own
infancy and childhood experiences. Some learn basic genetics, and are concerned about
the sources of their physical and psychological characteristics. All these contribute to
their understanding of continuing across time and of their potential fhure.
iii) They experiment with roles. They attempt to find out what kind of persons they are and
for this they adopt different ways. They adopt the characteristics of other people to see if
the characteristics fit in them. They take on and quickly cast off the traits of peers,
teachers and other acquaintances. They also watch carefully as to how other people
respond to their experiments in order to see if they can fit them into their relationships
with others. For example, you might have observed your students talking about the
behaviour of a popular film star thereby gaining popularity among his peers. Similarly.
you may find some studerits adopting the role model's most attractive behaviour patterns
to be accepted by their role model.
iv) They act on their feelings and express their beliefs and opinions accordingly. They place.
a high value on being honest and behave in the ways that are m e to oneself. Some of
them become distressed if they think they are not presenting their real feelings or if they
are not being consistent in their behaviour. Gradually most of them come to realise that
feelings, beliefs and people can change, and that consistency is less important than
accurate representation of oneself.
Erikson calls the experience of not having a sense of one's identity as identity diffusion. This
is the unpleasant awareness of continual change in onsclf and of the difference between one's
self-concept and how others see one to escape this troubling situation. Some adolescents adopt
a sense of identity prematurely. Such a choice, which Erikson calls identity foreclosure, gives
a person a self-concept around which feelings and behaviour are organised. The choices arc
usually supported by the reactions of parents and other people, because they find it helpful to
know how to relate to the adolescent. Often adolescents choose a role that they know will be
socially desirable. Sometimes,however, their behaviour may draw disapproval, even though it
may have been forecast by anxious parents.
~hysicnl,SocicwsnotbnnI
Adolescents do experiments and remain flexible if they successfully find their own identity. By and Mord Development
trying out various ways and then testing and modifying them, they can pick those
characteristics that are most comfortable, and drop the others. To do this, the dolescent must
have the self-confidenceto vary behaviour through experiment, and to dropcharac&erisbcs that
don't fit, even if the characteristics are supported by others. It helps to have a stable and
accepting set of parents, teachers and peers who will respond to the adolescent learner's
experimentation in search of this hue identity.
Adolescents need time and freedom to experiment. Erikson prescribes for the adolescent a
psychosocial moratorium, a period when the adolescent is not forced to make lasting
commitments and when adults refrain from harbouring lasting expectations from hisher
identity.
Autonomy : Another important personality development during the adolescence years is an
increase in demands for autonomy, for self-determination. As adolescents' awareness of their
increassing similarity to adults grows, and as their ability to analyse and plan their
responsibilities improves, it becomes increasingly difficult for them to accept adult directions.
Adolescents know that they will have to take responsibility for their actions as adults, and they
need to practice that responsibility in more and mon: arcnas.
Those adults who work with adolescents sometimes give more advice than is necessary or than
the adolescents can allow. Sensitivity to the need of adolescents to maintain their autonomy is
a valuable characteristic for teachers to keep in mind while dealing with them. hoper guidance
I
can be given, sometimes even firmly, without stopping them from exercising their choice. By
allowing choices, you, as a teacher, can help them develop both responsibility and
indcpendence. By expecting them to gradually take on more responsibility and to face the
consequences of their choices, you can help prepare them for adulthood.
Conformity :At the time when adolescents seek autonomy from their parents and other adults,
thcy often seek to conform to their group. Adolescents are desperate to be accepted by their
pecrs. To gain peers' acceptance they copy one another's style of dress, language and
bchaviour. They may form a group that excludes all those who do not wear similarclothcs, use
s~milarlanguage, hold similar opinions and engage in similar activities.
Interpersonal development :Peers are the focus of adolescence, much tothe dismay of their
parenrs and teachers. Friendship, popularity, conflict with peers, dating and sexual
relationshipsall take a tremendous amount of the adolescent's time and energy. The actions and
opinions of peers may loom large as adolescents try to establish their own identity. Adolescents
with similar interests and values form groups. Thc friendships made in adolescence may
endure through life, on at least in nostalgia (sentimentality).
Intimacy : In early adolescence, two new needs arise. First is the need for intimacy. for a
relalionship, with a person to share their feelings and thoughts. The second and comparatively
less important need is for sexual gratification.
The skills of intimacy are not easily learned, and their practice occupies a large portion of the
- interactions among adolescents. Intimacy isifirst felt and needed by adolescents. They feel that
therc should be someone with whom they can share their feelings and emotions. They attempt
to have intimacy first with peers, usually drawn from the same sex, classmates, etc.
7i)communicate intimacy requires learning to talk about one's feelings and thoughts in ways
I
that can be understood by other persons. Such communication requires trust in the partner's
goodwill and tolerance.
Lcarning to develop intimate communication with peers of the other sex is one of the major
interpersonal attributes of the adolescence stage. Intimacy with the same sex is easier to
a th~evcbecause they go through similar changes and are more familiar. The other sex is lcss
hmdiar for most adolescents. Intimacy with peers of the other sex is made more complicated
by thc fact that such intimacy often involves concern for others' needs.
Adolcsccnts who manage to develop relationships with the other sex without a major mishap
are those who can separate their needs for intimacy and for sexual gratification. They give
priority to developing friendships with pcers of both sexes. They do not confuse sexual
intimacies with intimacy that does not include sex. Adolescents seem to know that mature adult
rclationships are those in which intimacy is maintained and lasting sexual gratification is
achicved with an intimate relationship.
Understanding the Development Peer relations :There may be gradual changes in peer interactions around the time of puberty.
of the Learner
The playmaks, chosen mainly on the basis of proximity, begin to split up into pairs. Friends
spend mope time talking than doing things. Young people seek privacy from adults and peers.
Friendshios may shift rapidly as adolescents seek other friends at similar stages of
development. Friendships are tested repeatedly. Exclusivity is sought - "We have to be the
best of friends" - to protect the adolescents who want to share inner feelings. But, inevitably,
confidences are broken, secrets are shared and the best of friends become untrustworthy'
enemies. Concern, trustworthiness and loyalty characterise these early efforts at intimacy.
For example, as a teacher you might have observed the students of a particular age group
coming to you to sort out interpersonal problems, or displaying preference only to sit, play and
study with a specific friend.
Dating: Dating provides one of the most thrilling pastimes in adolescence and some of the
most outstanding memories in later y e m of life. Dating provides adolescents with the
opportunity to improve their interpersonal and social skills and to try out roles that characterise
the m a i d relationship without having to commit themselves to h e responsibility of marriage.
In addition to providing friendship, affection, and at times love, dating may be the means by
which adolescents prove or maintain status in society. Dating also prepares the way for
eventual mate selection. Cooperation with peers of the opposite sex is enhanced to some extent
as a result of dating. At the same time, some adolescents have also used dating as a means of
sexual experimentation.
Although dating has proved to be quite beneficial in orienting the adolescent towards mamage
and helping him or her to develop more intimate relatioships with the opposite sex. Some
adolescents have been hurt or even exploited by their dating partner. Then, too, some dates are
so superficial and circumscribed that couples never transcend the pattern of their respective
lives. Many youngsters embark on their first rcal date with some apprehension and shyness but
usually this wears off in time.
Dating includes a vast range of activities beyond formal arrangements for calling or going out
to the movies or a party or dance. Some youngsters date by means of long private telephone
conversations long before they start to get together in public. Often, by prior understanding or
an unspoken arrangement, boys and girls meet or seemingly just happen to meet in the halls or
library at school, on the street, a community fair, a school dance, or elsewhere.
Emotional disorders : Emotional disorders frequently arise during adolescence. Such
disorders range from simple depression to being over anxious about health to suicidal thoughts
or attempts (Masterson, 1967). Many adolescents who engage in delinquent, bizarre, or
self-abusive bcl~aviourdo so as a call for help during a difficult period. Some adolescents use
drugs, alcohol, or sex as a response to emotional disorders.
You, as a teacher, should be sensitive to the fact that adolescence is a difficult time for many
students and that emotional disturbances are common. By saying so we mean that emotional
disorders shpuld be detected and resolved, hopeless or unaccount?bly angry bchaviour is a clue
to understand that the adolescent needs help. Such students should be given special attention by
school counselIors or other experts.
Drug and alcohol abuse :Drug and alcohol abuse among adolescents has increased in recent
years. It is pertinent to mention here that you may. sooner or later, encounter studcnts who
come to schaol drunk.
Pregnancy : Pregnancy and child birth are increasing anlcng ell groups of female adolcxents,
particularly iri the girls of lower income groups. Eady child bednrg makes it dificult for adolescent
girls to continue their schooling. It is a primary cause +)fthe continuation of the cycle of poverly.

Notes : a) Tlck mark (4the right answer(s).
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
d thz following teaching stralegties to help' students develop
i) Teachers should use which i
a sense of industry?
a) Mainlain a classroom environment that can be described as "unidimensional".
b) Avoid applying labels to students such as "good", "bad, or "above average".
"below average".
Physkal, Socbo-emetlonal
c) Praise only ability, not effort. and Mord Development
d) Demonstrate to students that there are many paths to success.
e) All of the avove can be used.
ii) Teachers who want ot help adolescents develop a healthy sense of identity should do
which of the following?
a) State expectations from the students clearly and also set out the consequences of
achieving or falling to meet the expectations.
b) Expose students to various career opportunities.
c) Give students responsibilities.
d) Accept that adolescents will sometimes confront parents, teachers and other
authority figures.
e) Teachers should do all of the above.
2.5 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

You might be telling your childrenlstudents about socially desired behaviour, such as : "Obey
your elders;", "Be honest". "Greet your visitors", "Don't tell a lie", "Speak politely". "Don't
hurt animals". "Pray to God", "You are a girl, don't do this" and similar preaching. By telling
such things you recognise the importance/need of rules in a society. In other words, you want
to make them aware of socially desired behaviour.
Generally, students at the middle and secondary school stage get confused when they find that
people sometimes break the rules and that the rules that apply to some are not always applied
to others. For example, we tell children not to tear pages from their exercise books. But many
a time we take out one or two blank pages from their exercise books. Similarly we teach them
not to tcll a lie. But at school and in the community as well, they observe many peoble telling
a lie for petty things. Such experiences probably change the children's concept of rules.
In this unit, considering the age-groups we are catering to, Kohlberg's theory of moral
development is worthy of mention. Kohlberg (1969, 1981 and 1984) refined, extended and
revised Piaget's basic theory of the development of moral values. Before talking about
Kohlberg's theory of moral development, let us give an idea about Piaget's views of moral
dcvclopment.
Piaget's v i e w s ~ nmoral development

Piagct (1932) used the interview method to find out the various stages of moral development
of the child. According to him, there are four stages :
Anomy - the first five years,
Hctcronomy - Authority (5 - 8 years),
Hcteronomy - Reciprocity (9 - 13 ycars), and
Autonomy - Adolescence (13 - 18 years).
Let us discuss each stage of moral development in brief:
i) Anomy (first five years) :Piagct called the first stage anomy, the stage without the law.
At this stage the behaviour of the child is neither mom1 nor immoral but is non-moral or
amoral. That is, his behaviour is not guided by moral standards. The regulators of
bchaviour are pain ahd pleasure.
ii) Heteronomy-Authority :This stage of moral development may be called the discipline
of artificial consequences imposed by adults. Moral develoqment at this stage is
controlled by external authority. Rewards and punishments regulatc moraldevelopment.
iii) Heteronomy-Reciprocity (9-13 years) : At this stage, there is the morality of
coopention With peers or equals. This stage is regulated by reciprocity which implies,
"We shMd not do to others what will be offensive to us." Conformity with the group
bccomcs imperative at this stage.
UndcrsZand ing Autonomy-Adolescence (13-18 years) :Piagct calls this stage the equity stage also. As
of the 1,earncr
iv)
Piagct puts it, while reciprocity demands strict equality, aulonomy demands equity, taking
into account such factors as motive, circumstances, etc. The individual at this stage is
lully responsible for his behaviour.
A word ol caution is necessary here. The different levels of moral development associated with
dillercnt age levels should not be looked upon as fixed stages lor all children.
Like Piagcl, Kohlberg focussed on thc dcvelopmcnt of moral judgcmcnt in children rather than
their actions. He trcals the child as a moral philosopher.
Kohlberg investigated how children (and adults) reason about rules that govern thcir behaviour
in certain situations. He did not study children's game playing which is what Piaget did. He
rather sccured lheir responses Lo a scrics o l structured situations or moral dilemmas. His mosl
favoured situation is presented bclow:
In Ewope a woman was near death from cancer. One drug might save her, a form of
radium that the druggist in the surne town had recently discovered. The druggist was
charging $2,000, ten times what the drug cost him to make. The sick woman's husband,
Ileinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together
about half of what it cost. He told the druggist that his wife was dying and asked hirn to
sell it cheaper or let hirn pay later. But the druggist said. "No". The husband aor
desperate and broke into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. Should the husband
have done that ? Why? (Kohlberg, 1969 p. 379).
On thc basis of thc responses hc received from children, he concluded that people pass through
a scrics of six slages of moral judgcmcnt or reasoning.
Kohlberg's stages of moral reasoning :When people are confronted wilh moral dilemmas, it
is thcir reasoning that is importanl, and not thcir final decision, Kohloberg thcroized that people
progrcss through thrce levels (comprising six stages) as they dcvelop abilities of moral
reasoning, They are:
Kohlberg's stages of moral growth

i) Prc-conventional lcvel : This level of moral reasoning includes the rules set down by
othcrs and the children follow them. Thcre are two stages ol this level:
Stage one - punishmcnt and obedience orientation : At thc first stage physical
conscqucnccs ol an action determine whcthcr it is good or bad.
m Stage two - instrumental relativist oricntation : What's right satislies one's own necds
and occasionally the ntxds ol othcrs. Elcmenls ol fairness and reciprocity are prcsenl, but
they arc mostly interpreted in a "you scratch my back, I scratch yours" fashion.
ii) Conventional level : At this level thc individual adopts rules, and somelimes
subordinates his own necds to the needs o l the group. The expectations of the family, the
group, or Lhc nation from adolescents arc sccn to be valuable in their own right, rcgardlcss
of imrncdiate and obvious consequences.
-
Stage three good boy-good girl oricntalion : Good bchaviour is what pleases others
and is approved by them. One earns approval by being nice.
e Stage four - law and order orientation : Law and ordcr orientation mcans performing
one's own duty properly, showing rcspect for authority, and maintaining the given social ,
ordcr for its own sake.
iii) Post-conventional level : People dclinc thcir own valucs in tcrms of cthical principles
thcy have choscn to lollow.
Stage five - social conlract oricntation : What's right is defined in terms of both the
gencral individual rights and in terms of the standards that havc bcen agreed upon by thc
I
whole society. In contrast to the stage lour, laws are no1 lro;r~n,theycan be changed lor
the good of society.
- In Stage six - universal ethical principle orientation : What's right is defined by the
decision of the conscience according to self-choscn cthical principles. Thcse principles
are absmcl and ethical (such as the golden rule), not specific moral prescriptions.
I
AL he prc-conventional lcvcl of monl reasoning, children simply obey aulhorily figures to
avoid bcing punished. For example, if a piece of chocolate/biscuit falls from the child's hand
28
and h e molhcr has seen it, the child usually will not eat it. Children's needs and desircs becomc Phyrksl, Sucbawlhnd
and Moral Devdopmcnt
important at thi\ slage, yet they arc aware or take carc of the interesls of other people. In a
nutshell, thcy consider the interests of others when they make moral judgements. But they slill
Itx)k out for ways to satisfy their needs.
Fig. 2.1: Kohlberg's stages of moral growth. Source : Adaptcd from Kohlberg, 1969
Morality is defined in terms of cooperation with peers. This is the stage at which children have
an unquestioning belief in the Golden Rule (Hogan & Emfer, 1978). Because of thc decrease
in egocenuisism that accompanies concrete operations, children are cognitively capable of
putting themselves in someones else's shoes. Thus they consider the feelings of others while
making moral decisions. No longer do they simply do what will not get them punished. (stage 1) or
what tnakes thcm feel good (stage 2).
Socicty's rules and laws rcplace those of lhc pccr group. A dcsire for spccial approval by
parcnty no longcr dacrmines moral judgements. Laws are followed without question, and
brcahng thc law can never be justified. Most adolescents are probably at this stage.
,
I At this shgc, thc children realise that the laws and values of a society are somcwhat arbitrary
and spccific to that society (Hogan and Emfer, 1978). Laws are seen as necessary to preserve
thc social order and to ensure the basic rights of life and liberty.
In stagc 6 onc's ethical principles are self-chosen based on abstract concepts such as justice,
cqual~ryand the value of human rights. Laws that violate these principles can and should bc
disohcycd bccause justice is above the law.
I,imit;~tionsof Kohlberg's theory of moral development :One of the major limitations of
this Lhcory is its focus on reasoning rather than on actual behaviour. It is a common observation
that ch~ldrcnof various ages exhibit undesirable behaviour while copying from peers answer
books on tallying answers (generally objective type of questions) during examinations while
thc invigilator is not around or hclshe encouragcs those children who behaved honestly in
cvcry cnsc, and discourages those very fcw who behaved dishonestly. It shows that children's
moral reasoning and moral behaviour may bc quite weak. Childrcn may havc learned to say
ccrciin thrngs about moral decisions at various ages but what they do is different.
Understonding theDevd0pment Indian philosophers and educationisls also believe that values should be a part of an individual,
of the Learner
his reasonipg or decision-making,so that what heishe does (should be) is in harmony with his
, (thoughts) values.
- -
2.6 ROLE OF TEACHER IN FACILITATING

DEVELOPMENT OF CHILDREN
The teacher or the school has a major role in facilitating the overall development of childrcn
once they are enrolled in the school. The purpose of discussing various levels and types of
developmant in this course is to make you aware of the underlying principles of child
development in the school environment. The knowledge thus gained will help you undcrstand
the educational implications of the physical, social, emotional and moral development of
children, While designing curricular and co-curricular activities of the school, you are expected
to consider certain points which contribute towards the smooth development of childrcn's
personality. Some of the important points are discussed in the following paragraphs.
Educational implications of physical development : It should. by now, be obvious that the

physical health of children is indispcnsable for their success and efficiency in all fields of lifc.
This aspect of development should, thcrcfore, be paid the attention it ~ C S ~ Nby~ all S those
dealing with the education and welfare of the children.
The school must have a regular programme of health education. Ample and adequate facilities
for liberal participation in sports and games and other physical exercises appropriate to the
level of growth should be provided. Practical information concerning physical growth,
personal hygiene, food habits, etc., should be imparted to children in an interesting manncr.
You will agree that brief, interesting and easily understandable tasks, introducing them to
various development stages, is bound to help them form a correct picture in their own minds'
regarding their own changing selves and their roles in life. This may also scrve as safeguard
against the possibility of their developing irrational worries regarding abrupt development
taking place in their bodies. m u , as a teacher, can accomplish this task properly if you possess
a sound knowledge of the physical development of children.
With the increased rate of physical change consequent upon the transition from one phase of
development to another, their behaviour and attitudes are also bound to change. You should,
therefore, realise that varying treatment, suitable to the physical growth level, is needed by
children. The upper primary, secondary and senior secondary students are very tendcr
physically. They need as much affection and tender treatment in the classroom as possible.
Developing children must not be rashly stuffed with bookish learning. Their educational
programmes should include a combination of varied activities in and out of the classroom.
Adolescents need sympathetic undcrstanding and friendliness. They are clumsy, awkward,
aggressive and often violent. Intelligent guidance of their maturing physical energies can direct
their vigour and enthusiasm to healthy and useful channels. In short, a differential treatment
adequate to Lhe developmental stage of children is needcd from your hands. A rigid and
uniform treatment for all levels of children's growth are obviously bound to be ineffective as
well as disastrous.
The all-round and healthy development of children is exceedingly dependent upon hcalthy
physical growth. Children who enjoy a feeling that they are physically fit are bound to be
favourably affected by this internal picturing of themselves. They are most likely to devclop
,,
confidence and a will to improve further. They live gracefully and enjoy life. Convcrscly,
children suffering from a feeling that thcre is something wrong somewhere in thcir bodies have
less of a chance to approach life confidcntly and to make any substantial achievement. Thc
physical condition of one is largely responsible for the devclopment of a number of habits,
attitudes, views, etc., among children and adults. You as a teacher should, therefore, endeavour
to promote a sense of well-being in the childrcn by developing an interest among them in thc .
physical culture programmes of the school. You should also promote the development of
positive and healthy feelings in childrcn, regarding the present state of their physical health. A
strongly optimistic approach towards their physical well-being is bound to have a dcsirablc
effect on their general health as well as on social, cultural, emotional and intellectual growth.
Taking cake of physical health of the children at the school leave is the primary function of the
physical Health instructor and the gymnastics and sports teacher.
Physical, Soci*ernotiunal
Check Your Progress 3 and Moral Development
b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of this unit.
Why is physical education necessary in schools?
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..................................................................................................................................................
b
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Educational implications of social development :~tmight have become evident by now that
the social growth of children is a significant process which cannot be ignored by the teachers
and thc parents. Children's social development affects their entire life, including their
scholastic achievement. The school should, therefore, endeavour to provide adequate and
ample opportunities favourable to the social growth of the children. It should aim at creating
such a healthy atmosphere in and outside the classroom that children feel' it convenient,
pleasant and desirable to develop satisfying social relations with all those with whom thcy
come in contact.
The general attitude of a class teacher must aim to promote a feeling of security in the minds
of children, Each student should be helped to develop healthy and desirable relations with
classmates. He should be stimulated to participate in group activities in and out of the
classroom. The aim of education is to develop in the student useful knowledge, skills, habits
and attitudes that are fundamental to successlul and effective social living. The teacher should,
therefore, lake care that he imparts knowledge in an interesting and stimulating manner so that
the students do not develop the feeling of being inferior to others. Merely bookish stuff is not
enough. Whenever possible you should endeavour to bring out the social and cultuml
implications of the various subjects taught in the classroom. Similarly, the training of a student
in a skill in a particular field is also socially very essential. Each student must be motivatcd to
take interest in a practical scientilic, mechanical or technical subject. Such an early practical
bias eventually enables him to develop a taste for mastering useful shlls in a particular
practical subject. Such a mastery and the allied technical skills are not only economically
paying but also socially very helpful. It also aids a student in making and maintaining desirable
social rclations throughout adult life.
School is the best place for a student to acquire socially desirable habits and attitudes. Different
children react dilferently to the same classroom situation. Individual atkntion is needed in
guiding children effectively. The aggressive children must be taught the art of submission. The
shy children need opportunities lor self-assertion. The delinquent child needs to be introduced
to thc desirability of respecting the law. Unless these opportunities are forthcoming the child
has little chance to develop into a socially healthy adult.
Adequate provision of wider socio-cultural activities is as fundamental duty o l the school as
the imparting bf bookish instruction. Children must be stimulated to develop a keen interest in
hobbles and in indoor and outdoor recreation. Group play and other organised recreational
activit~esplay a vital role in the child's developmcnl. It is mostly through these recreational
activities that the child makes contacls with other children, student learns40 abide by the rules
of the game. He receives training in the art of getting along with others cheerfully. The
expericnccd teacher uses his own discretion in selecting the kinds of cultural and recreational
programmes which are best suited to the developmental level of children he tmches.
The organisation of clubs, camps, groups and societies is also very helpful in maintaining the
social health of children. The establishment of small literary and social groups, screening of
educational films, drama, clubs, boy scout groups, girl guide groups, camp fires, etc., provide
extremely wholcsome social diet for school children. Participation in such groups at Lhc school
!eve1 has an extremely desirable effect on the development of a child's character and
pcr~onality.
You should never leave the activities of these organisations entirely in the hands of children
themselves. Judicious guidance, advice and direction of the programmes by the teacher is
always hclplul in getting the maximum social gain out of these group activities. Nevertheless,
cndcrsbndingthe Development sufficicnt libcrty and frcedom should bc entrusted to children to mange hcse group
of thc 1,e;rrncr
organisations. Besides yielding them irnrnensc pleasure, h i s will satisfy heir dcsire to dircct
their own affairs.

Note : Comparc your answer with hose given at the end of the unit.
Which is h c best place for a studcnl w acquire socially dcsirable habits and attitudcs'?
Tick mark (4)h e corrcct statements.
a) School b) Hornc
c) Playground d) Groups
e) Clubs 0 camps
Educational implications of emoticinal development : There may bc several situations in the
homc and the school which make a child unhappy and dislurbcd. Usually childrcn exprcss
many emotions like anger, lear, jcalousy, affcction, joy, plcasurc, ctc. Positive c~nolionshclp
the child develop a positive oullook about lifc. It is also truc ha1 the expcricnce of positive
emotions in lile is not always possible for evcryonc. One docs comc across a numbcr o l boh
p l c a m t and unplcasant situations. This means hat a child should lcarn to acccpl unpleasant
cmotional cxpericnces in such a way as he docs not show unduc conccrn and disturbancc. Hc
must I c x n to adjust himsclf to such cxpericnces, situations, cvcnls, idcas and pcrsons h a t
causc ~nnoyance.The home and h e school should create such situations in which plcasanl
expcricnces predominalc. The lollowing methods are ofcred to help childrcn maintain
crnolior~albalancc.
Fatigue : Tircd childrcn are dilficull to handle. Therefore, elorts may bc made not lo causc
unduc fatiguc to hem.
Poor health : Childrcn in poor hcalh arc irrilablc. Hcnce h c hcalh of childrcn should be
propcrl y lookcd alter.
Association with emotional people : Childrcn imitalc thc bchaviour of their elders parcnls,
~eachcrsand olhcr adults and pecr groups. S u i ~ b l examples
c of cmotional stability should bc
prescnlcd by Lhc eldcrs.
Thwarted desires : Thc rnorc rcstriclions arc imposcd on h e child, thc morc rcvolling he
bccorncs. This rncans that a suilablc disciplinary mechanism should bc evolvcd.
Unpreparedness : Achild shows clnotional outbursls when hc is laccd wih a slrangc situnlion
or lor which hc is not prcparcd. Propcr training to lace such situations nccds to bc given
gradually.
Expression of feelings :Childrcn should bc hclpcd to cxprcss ~hcircrnolions in a natural way.
Thcy should bc hclped to dcvclop a rcalistic undcrstanding of silualions that arousc
unplcasantncss.
Self-control : Childrcn should bc hclpcd 10 lcam how 10 conlrol thcir leclings which may
olfcnd olhcrs. Thcy should bc gradually dircctcd to cxcrcise more of self-control.
Counselling : Couhsclling may bc usclul in cascs of a highly dislurbcd crnotional stalc oC the
mind.
-
Check Your Prc%ress5
Notes : a) Wrilc your answcr in Lhc spacc givcn bclow.
b) Co~nparcyour answcr wi~hthc onc given at the cnd o l Lhc unit.
Which mclhod do you hink is bcsl lor hclping childrcn in mainbining emotional balance?
...................................................................................................................................................
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Educational implications of n~oraldevelopment : Schools should havc an activity-oricnted

programme for Lhc moral devclopmcnl of childrcn. The school plays a very important rolc in
Lhe moral development of the students. Through the organisation of various cumcular arid
co-curricular activities, the teacher can foster among students various moral qualities. In
Physical, Sucio-emotional
and Moral Development I
tcaching of different subjects like languages and social studies, etc., the teacher may stress
moral qualities like love, sacrifice, self-control, truthfulness, uprightness, eu;.
A list of some suggested activities for the moral development of students is given below:
Organising group projects, camps, social service programmes and games
Organising school panchayats
Addressing daily morning school assembly
Celebrating festivals including national days
Showing appropriate films, stage dramas and plays
Highlighting the teachings of saints and seers
Encouraging them to clean the school campus, playgrounds, public places etc.,
Looking after the school garden
Organising girl guide and boy scout groups
Celebra~ingfestivals of different communities religions
Organisiag dnr2Gnnal excursions and trips
Domesticating and rearing animal pets
Visiting backward and slum areas and rendering some son of service to the people living
in such areas
Arranging community and school get-togethers
Organising a comprehensive programme of guidance and counselling for bringing about
moral changes.

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given bclow.
b) Compare your answer wilh the one given at the end of the unit.
Which moral qualities a teacher uses in tcaching languages and social studies?
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2.7 LET US SUM UP

Thc major influences on a child's social development during the uppcr.prirnary grades are
parents, thc family, the peer group and the school where the child develops social skills. Girls
and boys tend to value different attitudes and behaviour. Boys become more aggressive and
develop skills in sports. Attractiveness and popularity becomes more important for girls.
Puberty is a series of physiological changes that make individuals able to reproduce. One of the
most important challenges adolescents face during this period is to accommodate the changes
in their physical self. Early maturers may need help in coping with their physical maturity.
Some of the signs 01adolescents socio-emotional development are reilectivity and thinking
about whcther others see the world in the same way as they do. To create a sense of identity,
adolesccnts pay a great deal of attention to how others view them, search their past, experiment
with rules, act on feelings and express beliefs and opinions. Identity foreclosure occurs when
an adolescent chooses a role prematurely.
L rtderstmding the Detelopment Kohlberg's theory or moral development is based on children's responses to moral dilemmas.
of the Learner The three main stages of moral dcvclopmcnt arc :
Pre-conventional level : whcn children simply obey aulhority figurcs to avoid bcing
punished,
Conventional levcl : whcn childrcn consider the Scelings of others in making moral
decisions, and
Post-conventional lcvcl : when children realise that values are somcwhat arbiuary and
relativc to cach socicly.
Adults can help children advancc w the next stagc of moral development by allowing them to
freely explore problems. At Lhc same timc they can challcnge their (childrcn) reasoning by
introducing conccpls from the next highcr stage.
1. Select any Len adolescents studying at secondary/senior secondary schools. Interview

them on the various problcms pertaining to their physical, socio-emotional or moral
dcvelopmcnt. Preparc a rcport.
2. Select any siluation relatcd to moral dcvclopmcnt. Explain that situation to a group of
school students and collcct their responses. Try to classify those responses in different
stages according to Kohlbcg's lhcory of moral reasoning.

Dutt, N. K (1974) : Psychological Foundations of Education, Doaba House, Delhi
Shah, A.B (Ed.) (1978) : Social Context of Education : Essays in honour of Prof. J. P. Naik,
Allied Publishers, Bombay
Thornburgy D. Hcrshcl (1984) : Introduction of Educational Psychology, West Publishing

Company, New York.
2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. 1) a)
ii) Self-concept
2. i) b) & d)
ii) e)
3. Physical education is necessary for dcvcloping physical growth, pcrsonal hygiene and
good food habits among childrcn.
4. a) School
5. Counselling
6. Love, sacrifice, self-conuol, uuthfulncss and uprightness.
UNIT 3 COGNITIVE AND LANGUAGE
DEVELOPMENT
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Cognitive Development : The Concept
3.4 Piaget's Concept of Cognitive Development
3.4.1 Underlying Mental Process
3.4.2 Stages of Cognitive Development and Accomplishments
3.4.3 Methodology of Studying Cognitive Developments
3.4.4 Factors Facilitating Cognitive Devebpment
3.5 Divergent Thinking
3.5.1 Concep of Divergent Thinking
3.5.2 Dimensions of Creativity
3.5.3 Identification of a Creative Child
3.5.4 Implication for Classroom Teachers
3.6 Language Development
3.6.1 Specific Nature and Characteristics of Language Development
3.6.2 Functions of Language
3.6.3 Inter-personal Communication
3.6.4 Problems of Language Developnent
3.6.5 lmplications for Teachers
3.7 Implications for Classroom Teachers
3.7.1 Organisation of Teaching-Learning Environment
3.7.2 Problems Related to Cognitive Development
3.7.3Identification of and Providing Remedies of Cognitive Development Problems
3.8 Let Us Sum Up
3.1 1 Answers to Check Your Progress
3.1 INTRODUCTION -- -
In Unit 2 you have gained insights into various developmental aspects viz., physical, social,
emotional and moral. As a teacher you are aware that those aspects are crucial indicators of a
child's growth and development. In this unit you will study the development of certain
intellectual processes viz. cognition, creativity and language.
A discussion on cognitive development will help you understand children's comprehension,
underlying mechanisms and methods to facilitate the development of cognition. Divergent
thinking deals with the dimensions of creativity and its processes, and the characteristics of
creative children.
Similarly language development of children will acquaint you with the specific nature and
characteristics of language, inter-personal communication and implications of language
development for teachers teaching at the secondary school level. Besides, we discuss the
implications of cognitive development for teachers so that they facilitate cognitive
development of their students.
C~~dcrstanding the Development
of the Learner 3.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you will be able to :
discuss the concept and factors facilitating cognitive development;
discuss the various stages of cognitive development and related accomplishments at each
stage;
define divergent thinking and its demensions;
discuss various dimensions of the creativity process;
0 describe the nature, characteristicsand problems of language developmcnt;
discuss d i f k n t types of inter-personal communication mechanisms; and
discuss the organisation of a teaching-learning environment in accordance with the
cognitive needs of children.
3.3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT :THE CONCEPT

Development, as you have studied in Unit 2, is the process of quantitative and qualitative
growth of Ihe child and the emergence and differentiation of capabilities over time. It is the
function of maturity as well as inwrdction with the environment.
Cognition means to perceive, comprehend, conceive or simply to know. Cognitive
development would then mean the growth and capability of knowing, comprehending, or
understanding over time, facilitatcd both by maturity and interaction with the environment.
Cognition involves the ability to construct mental images involving thought, reasoning,
memory and language. Mental images are constructed by an individual as the surroundings (the
world around) are observed, understood and internalised as a mental process. Thus every
individual has a unique model based on a unique process of observation. This is how a leaner
learns about the world around himher.
According to Burner, cognitive developmcnt occurs in three phases-enactive (doing), ikonic
(object modcls of pictures) and symbolic (signs and symbols). For instance, for a young child
cognising what an apple means would be touching or holding or tasting it (enactive mode),
later as he grows up seeing pictures of it or a model of it (lkonic model), and still later gradually
dcciphering the word "apple" (symbolic mode).
3.4 PIAGET'S CONCEPT OF COGNITIVE

DEVELOPMENT
Jean Piaget offers a rich framework for conceptualising the development of the child's thinking
and cognition during the span of his growing/development to an adult. To him, cognitive
development means how knowldge is acquired and developed through successive stages and
at various age levels. Hence his theory of cognition is sometimes callcd genetic epistemology.
It focuses attention on the interaction between his biological inheritance and his environment
for cognitive development.
3.4.1 Underlying Mental Process

In order to progress further into Piaget's cognitive development processes, we could cognisize
or understand the fact that all cognition takes place due to two processes :
Assimilation which means taking in or absorbing stimulilinformation from the
environment, and
0 Accommodation which means making room for or adjusting to incoming
stimuli/information.
These twin processes together facilitate adaptation. Adaptation is an ongoing process which
helps the individual internalise or store in all that one comprehends. This then, forms schemes
or mental representations or maps of the world.
All learning is adaptive as an infant learns to cry when hungry, or an adult learns to speak a
nalive language in a foreign land. All these have adaptive value. In Unit 10, Section 10.5.3, you Cognitive and Language
Development
will read about the schema, equilibration, assimilation, adaptation and accommodation.

bj Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unil.
i) Fill in the blanks:
a) Cognition means ...................................................................................
b) Accommodation which means ...............................................................
c) Cognitive development is a product of interaction between ....................................
and .............................................
ii) Cognitive development according to Burner occurs in three phases. List them.
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3.4.2 Stages of Cognitive Development and Accomplishmer~ts

You will read the stages of cognitive development in detail in Unit 10, Sub-section 10.5.3.The
table below shows the major accomplishments at each stage of development
Stage-age Type of thinking Major accomplishments

Sensori-motor stage Sensori-motor Pre-verbal
(0 - 2 years) Repetition of movements
Triba-r behaviour.
Emergence of goal
directed behaviour.
Object permanence.
Animism.
Pre-operational stage Transductive Egocentrism.
(2 - 7 years) thought Imitation.
Intuitive thought Perceptual reasoning.
Imaginary play.
Centration.
Inconsistent casual reasoning.
Concrete operations Inductive thought Decentration Diminished
stage (7 - 11 years) ego-ccnuism, Explanation
Conserves, Seriates etc.
Makes,
Transformations.
Classifies.
Fantasizes, etc.
Formal operations stage Deductive thought Applies logic.
(1 1 onwards) Infers.
Verbal hypothesis.
Idealistic thinking.
Collaboration with others.
Proportionality probabilistic
and cornbinamrial reasoning.
Casual relations.
Early in life (0 - 2 years) the child learns by touching and scnsing. You must have observed
lillle babies holding the objects of their attention and putting it in their mouth. This is a stage
called sensori-motor stage. As the child grows he develops some amount of rcasoning. He tends
i to imitate in order to learn, though he himself is the centre of all attention. This is the
I pre-operational stage.
Understanding the Development At the concrete operational stage the child learns enough to make transformations in what he
of the Learner
observes. His imagination power moves to propel him to the formal operational stage. At this
stage he can apply logic to hypothesize to build relationships and to infer fromthe relationship.
3.4.3 Methodology of Studying Cognitive Development

Piaget's method of studying cognition is a one-to-one verbal interactive, inquiry-oriented
method, popularly known as the clinical method. Certain mental-operation tasks, in
accordance with age and stage of development with supporting material, are prepared. For
example, a typical Piaget task on probabilistic reasoning for a 14-year-old student is given
below:
Purpose of the task : To assess the child's comprehension of probability.
Materials : 96 one-inch wooden blocks of 4 different colours (36 red, 36 blue, 20 yellow and
4 green), a paper bag, a box.
Procedure : Separate blocks into four colour groups, divide each colour group into half. Give
one half to the child and instruct him to put them in the paper bag or box. Keep the other half
in front of the child as a reference set.
The teacher says, "I will pull out two blocks out of the bag without looking at them. Could you
guess the colour that will come out?"
The procedure is continued till all the blocks are pulled out and the teacher keeps asking, "Why
do you think'it will be red?" and so on in order to assess the reasoning of the child. Note the
justifications given and also note the strategy the child uses for predicting. Intermittently, the
teacher uses counter-suggestions such as, "I think the next two would be yellow and blue (low
probability colours), what do you think? Transfer of tasks related to probabilistic reasoning we
taken up If the teacher is sure that the existence of cognition is based on logic and one could
further as$ess its wider application through transfer.
Criteria for assessment

In order to assess a specific level of reasoning, the student should be able to :
make the correct judgement
logically justify that judgement
successfully resist a counter-suggestion,
provide a successful performance on a related task (Strauss, 1972).
3.4.4 Factors Facilitat~ngCognitive Development

Factors facilitating cognition are internal readiness, environmental experiences, social
experience and equilibration.
For Piaget andother cognitivists such as Wadsworth, Flavell, Sullivan,etc., the important thing
is interactions and equilibration. The key to cognitive development as it relates to educational
practice is the activity of the students, their apions on objects, events and other people. While
interaction refers to internal organismic readiness, environmental experience is obtained
through physical experiences or repetition reinforcement, manipulation of things in the
environment and logic-mathematical experiences. Social interaction relates to cognition
through interactive modes with people where one learns about relationships, concepts, namely
cooperation, competition, cultural mores and practices, etc. Language IS the medium of social
experiences (verbal and non-verbal). Equilibration refers to a self-regulatory process and
assimilation and adaptation where a balance is struck and a new cognition takes place or a new
schema comes into being.

i) List four factors that facilitate cognitive development.
"...
.............................................................................................................................................
. .
..
............................................................................................................................................ Cognitive ahd L.awuagc
LiQvelopmMt
...........................................................................................................................................
) ............................................................................................................................................
............................................................................................................................................
ii) Fill in the blanks:
a) A fifteen years old student is said to be at the ..........................stage of thinking.
b) ...........................................
t e of reasoning characterisesa fourteen years old
child.
c) Some of the mental operation tasks are .......................................................and
..................................
d) ............................................. method is one to one, and an interactive process.
3.5 DIVERGENT THINKING

Divergent thinking or lateral thinking is the essence of cognitive development. In Section 3.4
you have read about the concept of cognitive development. Take this example: what is the
opposite of the word bright? Dark is an acceptable answer. Now consider another situation.
what is the opposite of a cupboard? Or what ideas come to your mind when you think of
sunset? The answers to these questions are not straight jacketed. They may be unlimited, with
varying degrees of acceptability. This is the essence of divergent or lateral thinking which
means to think in unusual, novel and unique ways.
3.5.1 Concept of Divergent Thinking

In divergent thinking. we think in different directions, sometimes searching what, and
sometimes seeking variety. Lateral thinking is another expression used for divergent thinking.
it means an original line of enquiry. Creativity or divergent thinking can be identified with
openness in expressing feelings, receptivity to ideas, concern for others, desire to grow as a
person and actualise one's potentials.
Hence creativity is the playful exploration of thoughts by a person who is open, curious and
imaginative.
3.5.2 Dimensions of Creativity

Creativity is related to divergent thinking. Therefore,creativity is a multi-dimensional concept.
We discuss here the main dimensions of the creative behaviour of a student. This will help you
understandcreativity better by developing an insight into the nature of creativity and divergent
thinking. You will study about creativity in Section 5.6 of Unit 5 of Block 2 also.
A child with the following characteristic dimensions gives more evidence of divergent or
crcative thinking than others :
I) Fluency : Ability to manage successfully when a number of ideas are sought.
It is the total number of relevant responses given by an individual to
a given stimulus.
Example : In how many ways can you use a brick, a chair, a toothbrush, etc.?
In how many ways can you earn money?
Scoring : Count the number of ideas produced in each case; their total is your
fluency score.
ii) Flexibility : The ability to shift your f m e of reference and thlnk of varying
alternatives. It is the capacity of an individual to use different
approaches in responding to a stimulus.
Example : List five different factors you would bear in mind when you opt for
a career.
Scoring : Each new multiple criterion gets a score. The more the alternative
criteria, the more the flexibility score.
L,nderslanding the Development ui) Originality : The production of novel, unsual ideas which are also useful,
of the Learner
relevant and apt. It is the capacity of an individual to give original
responses to a stimulus.
Example : Form a figure using these lines o r m e the words rough, smooth.
fault, and vault and make a poem.
Scoring : The idea which is novel, unique and relevant gets a score.
iv) Elaboration : The ability to generate various alternatives (details) that implement
or spell out an idea.
Example : Sarah put her foot on the 10 foot long snake.
Scoring : Varied details that have facilitated or elaborated get a score.
3.5.3 Identification of a Creative Child

To some extent every child has the capacity of creative behaviour but some have specific
creativity in some areas such as science, artistic contribution, etc. It is, however, a difficult task
to identify a creative child. For this, you have to identify the characteristics of creativity or
divergent thinking. The following are the major characteristics you may like to look for in your
students :
original thought, expression, action and behaviour
ask uncomfortable questions at times
persistdargues for his or her point of view
proposes alternatives to solutions
displays a high degree of risk-taking behaviour
self-concept is high, tends to be more anxious and possesses a greater degree of need for
achievement
more tolerant of ambiguity, and
curiousity/independent judgement and exhibits more automony.
3.5.4 Implication for Classroom Teachers

The teacher can provide certain conditions which will increase the fluency, flexibility,
originality and exploration of the students thinkingkhaviour. The following are the important
conditions which can foster students' creativity.
Pose open-cndcd, divergent questions with the focus on alternativeresponses and novclty,
and not on right or wrong.
Excessive discipline, reliance on text books, emphasis on rote learning or criticising
students for wrong answers reduce their creative potential.
Encourage childrcn to experiment, innovate, discover, hypothesise or imagine possible
solutions to any pressing issue.
Develop a spirit of inquiry, tolerate uncertainty; help to speculate, cultivate a deliberate
pace of thinking, etc.
Adopt a multi-disciplinary approach to teaching.
a Create a supportive environment.
Appreciate students' creative efforts.
Assign/suggest activities of an inter-disciplinary nature.
Use teaching aids that stimulate imagination.
Resist from premature evaluation.
Cognitive and Language
Development
i) What is divergent thinking ?
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ii) List four dimensions of creativity.
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iii) Identify the characteristics of students who you think have a creative mind.
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LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
It is assumed that every living being has its language. But all of them cannot communicate like
humanbeings. The language of humanbeings has certain characteristics which give a definite
meaning to their communication. We can talk about the past, the present and the future with the
help of language.
Language development and its usage both verbal and non-verbal is universal and central to
human existance. Language functions as a means of communication, as a means of reflecting
on and reorganising experience, and as a way to receive and transform the accurnulatcd
knowledge and values of the community.
3.6.1 Specific Nature and Characteristics of Language Development

All cxcept those who are severely impaired develop their language in similar ways, though at
varying rates. In such cases the maturity of the child plays an important role.
Details of language and how it is used is influenced to a large extent by experience (the role of
the environment). Much of language is learned through socialisation. Bernsteium (1971)
differentiates varying language development and communication systems between children
belonging to positional families where communication is closed and children are seen and not
heard so much, and those belonging to personcentred families who have more open
communication and their language develops with ease.
According to Chomsky (1968). language development is the result of the progressive gain of
maturity - the unfolding of the child's genetic capability for language. Chomsky's (1976)
model of language development attributed an innate understanding of fundamental rules,
which get activated by the language the child hears and accounts for the speed and regularity
of development.
Weil (1985) presents a universal sequence of developing language. His finding is that
infrequent use of certain language items emerge in the sequence in a delayed manner. For
example, Mother-Ma-Amma is uuered early in the sequence than Master, etc.
Underbmding the Devdopmcnt Imitation and contingent conversation seems to develop children linguistically and cognitively
of the Learner
as well (Wood, 1980; Tissard and Huges, 1984).
Characteristics of language development :The following are the characteristics of language
development :
a Semanticity : The quality of language in which words are used as symbols for objects,
events or ideas.
a Syntax :The rules in a language for placing words in proper order to form meaningful
sentences.
a Productivity : The capacity to combine words into original sentences.
a Displacement : The quality of language that makes one communicate information about
objects and events in another time and place. Language makes possible the efficient
transmission of large amounts of complex knowledge from one person to another, and
from one generation to another. Displacement permits parents to warn children of their
own mistakes. Displacement allows children to tell their parents what the) did in school.
3.6.2 Functions of Language

Language performs a number of functions based on the purpose of its use. Language with a
functional plsrpose is illustrated by Michael Halliday as follows :
Instrumental :Language performs'an instrumental function the way an individual satisfies the
need by asking for something (May I drink some water?).
Regulatory : It performs a regulatory function controlling another's behaviour (e.g. Teacher
asks the student, "Stay quiet, please").
Interactional : It performs an interactional function-used for maintaining interpersonal (eg.
wishing a friend a happy birthday).
Personal : Language performs a personal function - where one talks about oneself (e.g. I am
feeling very elated today).
Heuristic : It performs a heuristic function to find out about the world in~general(e.g. Is there a
drug to cure AIDS?)
Imaginative : It performs an imaginative function where one talks about one's imagination (e.g.
write an essay on the topic "you are on the clouds").
Informational : It also performs an informational function - to seek and give varied types of
information (e.g. What is the current rate of population growth in our country ?).
Language and culture

Language helps children learn habits, trdditions, religions and customs of their culture. It is a
carrier of one's culture. Every culture defines what to say, when and to whom, just as it dictates
pronunciation, syntax and vocabulary. In culture where politeness is valued, for example,
children learn polite forms of expression at a very early age. Sometimes children have to cope
with the demands of two different cultures at the same time. Children whose sole language has
been the mother tongue are at a great disadvantage in those public schools which do not
recognise the mother tongue as a legitimate dialect and teach classes in the standard language.
These children may have difficulties in school. At home their speech is monitored by their
parents for the proper expression of respect and familarity. but at school it is monitored by their
teachers for its analytical and problem solving qualities.
3.6.3 Interpersonal Communication

In the preceding sub-section, you read that one of the functions of language is to maintain
interaction with people. This would mean an interface of one to one, or one to many, as
between a teacher and students or a teacher with parents, etc. Interpersonal communication is
the basis for developing interpersonal relationships. They may involve mutual exchange of
information based on mutual contact either directly through speech or indirectly through the
written medium. Various Schools of Psychology have explained interpersonal communication
with different emphasis.
The following conversation between the teacher and the student illustrates interpersonal Cognitive and Language
, Development
communication.
Student : What is the time ?
complementary transaction
Teacher : It is 9 a.m.
Student : What is the time?
crossed transaction
Teacher : Can't you read it?
Student : What is the time? 1
Teacher : Look ! Who is aksing
for the time? f ulterior transaction
As indicated, interpersonal communication breaks down when there is too much of crossed or
ultcrior type of transaction. For positive/healthy interpersonal communication, the teacher
nwds to use and also facilitate. in the student the development of complementary transactions.
3.6.4 Problems of Language Development

Children develop language skills through socialisation. School is a socialising agency where
children learn their language. But all children are not in equal their language ability. Some
children face problems in this regard. The main problems of language development faced by
children are presented as follows :
Lack of initial listening and speaking opportunities.
Inability to express through the spcken or written medium.
Blocks due to genetic impairment of emotional problems of an impoverished
environment.
Ambiguities in comprehension such as phonological, lexical or deep structural ambiguities,
etc.
Inadequate cognition of word meanings.
Poor concept development.
Over emphasis on writing prematurely.
3.6.5 implications for Teachers

The eMective teacher should be aware of the problems faced by students in the classroom. He
shauld create a homely environment in his class where students feel free to express and share
theic feelings, opinions and viewpoints with their teacher. Such an environment will facilite the
acquisition of language competency.
Language is learned and developed in a social context for functional purposes.
'e For older children, one should provide ample scope to develop listening, speaking,
reading and writing skills.
One should create settings where language may be used for various purposes.
One should be cognisant of multilingual interferences,identify them and provide remedies.
One should encourage students creative efforts.
One should de-emphasise excessive writing or rote repetition, provide a relaxed
environment for free expression of ideas, thoughts and feelings, provide structural and
semi-structural setting to express verbal and non-verbal ideas, organise debates, class
discussions and displays, etc.
One should help students develop early reading habits and enable them to do book
reviews.
Uldcrstilnding the Development
of the Learner
a) List the four charactelistics of language development.
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
.............................................................................................................................................
b) Whal are the functions of language development? Wrile two functions in detail.
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3.7 IMPLICATIONS FOR CLASSROOM TEACHERS

In Wpreceding section, we have discussed cognitive development in detail. You, as a Leacher,
shquld now be able to discuss how to apply this knowledge in your classroom. The following
points shall help you implement what you have leaned already.
Logical thought precedes language. Language is an expression or vehicle of thought.
Hence a teacher nceds to listen and interpret students' thinking coherently and facilitate
apt articulalion.
e Learning is an active process because knowledge is constructed.with learner's support.
e Social interactions mong students are vital. Hcnce more group activities, debates,
deliberations, etc., are to be organised.
8 The teacher's emphasis should be on the developmental process such as classification,
hypothesising, predicting. etc.. and not on rote mastering of content.
3.7.1 Organisation of Teaching-Learning Environment

The responsibilily of children's failure 10 learn lies with the ~eacherand not with the contenl.
Curriculum orgainsation and planning is based on appropriateness to the studying of cognitive
development and its accomplishments. To make the curriculum rclcvant to the learner the
Leacher necds to consider the inlegration of various aspects of cognitive development. The
learning malerial should be selected in order to project varied meaning to the material, e.g.,
scales, measuring tapes, containers, chemicals, floatindsinking objects, etc.
3.7.2 Problem Related to Cognitive Development

Cognitive development may be adversely affected or retarded due to the following factors :
e Deficiency in the learner characteristics (genetic or poor environmcnlal stimulation). This
may be expressed in the ability to comprehend, poor skills, lack of persistence, etc.
e Cognitive problems would arise due to poor attention, assimilation. observalion,
inference, discovery, lack of opportunity for relational work, etc.
The nature of the matcrial used in tcrms of their physical structure and composition,
inappropriateness, conceptual difficulty, sequencing, etc., may pose problems.
The nature of the student may lack in imitation, recall, recognition, problem solving and
crealivily.
3.7.3 Identification of and Providing Remedies of Cognitive Development

Problem
The identification of problems related to cognitive development needs careful observation on
the repeated performance of the students' verbal and non-verbal output. The behaviour of oldcr
ch~ldrcnin seeking interaction verbally would enable a teacher to exactly identify the nature of Cognitive and Language
the problem of their cognitive development Typically a teacher could ask, "Why do you say Development
so? How do you justify that? If you do this, then what do you think will happcn?" On the basis
of diagnosis, you can suggest remedial measures. You can
provide ample scope for questioning,justifying and reasoning
give adequate verbal and non-verbal cues to facilitatecognition
support cognition by giving a number of examples and transfer of learning tasks
. facilitate peer and social interactions

encourage minor' cognitive efforts.
3.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit you have studied the concept of cognition and the contribution of Piaget to
understanding cognition and cognitive development. The age/stage cognitive development
processes with their underlined mental abilities and accomplishment are critical indicators for
teacher-practitioners. The complex nature of cognitive development and 'application of the
Piagetian concept to educational practice have been delineated with examples.
Creativity in terms of dwergent and lateral thinking has been discussed. Varied creative
dimensions such as fluency, flixibility, originality, elaboration, etc., have been discussed with
examples. Some characteristics which are manifest in a creative child such as curiosity,
persistence, original thinking, etc., are indicators of creative potential. The reasons why a child
gets blocked in creative processes are also presented.
We have also discussed the issues related to language development. Language is a means of
communication and a preserver and transmitter of culture. It serves various functions, such as
personal, regulatory, heuristic, imaginalive,etc. Interpersonalcommunication with reference to
the types of transactions has been explained with the help of illustrative examples. Lastly, the
problems of language development and implications of language development for teachers
havc also been covered.

1. Construct a cognitive development task for a 14-year-old child on the classification
concept of metallic and non-metallic materials. Some materials you may use (choose your
own criteria) are erasers, pieces of chalk, wooden blocks, bottle caps, iron fdlings, plastic
lids, paper clips, mica, limestone, etc.
2. Devise exercises to develop the following creativity dimensions in y6ur class children.
Establish a scoring criteria fluency, originality, flexibility, originality which reflect the
characteristics of these periods.

Elliott, A.J. (1981) : ChildLanguage, Cambridge University Press.
Joyce, Bruce and Weil, Marsha (1985) :Model of Teaching, Prentice Hall of India Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Khandwala, P. (1984) :N Eye, A. H . Wheeler & Co. Pvt. Ltd.
Piaget J. (1958) : The Growfh of Logical Thinking From Childhood ro Adolescence, Basic
Books, New York.
Sprinthall, C. Richard and Sprinthall, A. Norman (1990) : Educational Psychology : A
Development Approach, McGraw Hill Publishing Company, New York.
Weils, C. G. (1982) :Language Learning and Education, Centre for Shdy of Language and
Communication,University of Bristol, U.S.A.
Understanding the Development
of the Learner 3.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. i) a) Enactive (doing)
b) Ikonic (object, models or pictures)
c) Symbolic (signs and symbols)
ii) a) to perceive, apprehend, comprehend, conceive or simply to know.
b) making room for or adjusting to incoming stimuli/infromation.
c) maturation and environment.
2. i) a) internal readiness
b) environmental experiences
c) social experience
d) equilibration
ii) a) Formal operation stage.
b) probabilistic
c) age and stage of development
d) inquiry-oriented method
3. i) Divergent thinking can be identified with .openness in expressing feelings,
receptivity to ideas, concern for others, desire to grow as a person and actualise
one's potential.
ii) a) Fluency
b) Flexibility
c) Originality
d) Elaboration
iii) 8 Original thought, expression, action and behaviour;
e asks uncomfortable question at times ;
persisrslargues for his or her point of view;
proposes alternatives to solutions;
displays a high degree or risk-taking behaviour;
self-concept is high, tend? to be more anxious and possesses a greater degree of
the need for achievement;
m more tolerant of ambiguity; and
curiositylindependentjudgement and exhibits more autonomy.
4. a) semanticity, syntax, productivity, displacement.
b) instrumental regulatory, interactional, personal, heuristic, imaginative,
informational.
Personal : Language performs personal functions where one talks about oneself.
Heuristic : It performs heuristic function to find out about the world in general.
UNIT 4 FACTORS INFLUENCING
DEVELOPMENT OF PERSONALITY
Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Concept and Nature of~personality
4.3.1 Concept of Personality
4.3.2 Nature of Personality
4.4 Approaches to Personality
- 4.4.1 BiePhysical Approaches
4.4.2 Bio-Social Approaches
4.4.3 Psychoanalytical Approaches
4.4.4 Psycho-SocialApproaches
4.4.5 Social Learning Approaches
4.4.6 Personological Aproaches
4.4.7 Spiritual Approaches
4.4.8 Some Concepts of Significance
4.5 Factors Influencing Development of Personality
4.5.1 Heredity
4.5.2 Environmental Factors
4.6 Impact of Mass Media on Personality
4.7 Role of Teacher in Development of Adolescent Personality
4.8 Let Us Sum Up
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Education aims at the development of the human personality. In the earlier units of this course
you have studied various aspects of human development : physical, socio-emotional. moral,
cognitive and linguistic. All these contribute to the formation of the individual personality.
Thc present unit share; with you information regarding the na&'and concept of personality
as well as a discussion of the factors influencing its development. We also discuss the various
approaches to understand personality development. Your role as a teacher in the development
of learner personality, especially during the period of adolescence, has been highlighted in this
unlt.
'hfter going through this unit, you should be able to :

r explain the concept and nature of personality;
r describe various approaches to understand personality;
r describe and illustrate various factors affecting the development of personality;
r discuss the impact of the mass media on personality, especially during adolescence; and
r discuss your role as a teacher in facilitaing the development of children's personality.
4.3 CONCEPT AND NATURE OF PERSONALITY

Personality is not a simple amalgamated view of various aspects. The process of its
Understanding the Development and'define the humanbeing and hisher personality timc a long history h t h in Indian and
of the Learner
western traditions of philosophy. The psychological explanations suggest a host of biological
and socio-cultural factors which contribute to personality development
4.3.1 Concept of Personality

The term "personality" is derived from the Latin word "persona" which means a mask worn by
an actor while he plays a particular character on the stage. It suggests that the personality
should mean the characteristicpattern or style of behaviour of the person as is revealed through
his external and intemal properties. The external properties of a person include his dress,
speech, bodily actions, postures, habits and expressions. The internal properties are his
motives, emotions, precepts, intentions, etc.
Personality is an all-inclusive concept. It is the sum total of an individual's properties as a
distinct and unique humanbeing. The extemal properties are directly observed while the
intemal are only inferred from the pattern of overt responses. Thus, the image of an individual's
personality is only created from observations and/or inferences regarding his response patterns.
T3e concnept of personality is a derived concept In other words, the concept of personality is
derived from the pattern of response characteristic of the individual. The derivation is possible
in three ways :
The first is subjective, popular derivation based on subjective impressions formed by the
individual's response pattern. It results in popular evaluative expressions like charming.
dominating, weak or bold personality.
The second kind of conceptualisation of personality is based on an objective description of the
overt responses of the individual. This view is held by behavioural psychologists and is best
amenable to empirical research. However, it poses the difficulty that an overt response may
occur in different individuals for different meanings. It seems to evade in-depth interpretations.
The third way is the organismic view which conceives personality as the inner pattern of a
person's characterisiics. An off-quoted definition of personality calls it "dynamic organisation
within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his unique adjustment to
his environment" (Allport, 1961). It means that
I
personality "resides" within the individual
a these systems are woven into an organisation
the organisation of personality is not static but dynamic
the organisational pattern delemines the kind and degree of adjustment of the individual
to his environment, and
a this adjustment-pattern is unique to the individual person.
Comprehensively conceived. Allport's definition of personality is therefore widely accepted.
4.3.2 Nature of Personality

Four fundamental qualities of personality have been identified from the organismic concept.
These are consistency, the development of personality structure, potentiality for change and
integration. Let us discuss each quality in brief.
Consistency :Consistency or stability is the hallmark of personality. A person is recognisat ~e
from situation to situation by the consistent characteristics that are reflected in his bchavi ~ur.
Not that he behaves exactly the same way in every situation but his styles of actioh can
certainly be identified.
Development of personality structure : Personality development is a natural quality of a
growing organism. The path is from simple to increasingly complex. According to Heniz
Werner, at birth the menal organization of the infant spreads slowly. Through his interactions
with the environment, the parts of the mental structure become progressively crystallized and
differentiated from each other. The analytical stage is followed synthesis or integration when
the differentiated parts become functionally organised. From a diffused mass through
progressive differentiation to an integrated whole is, then. the course of development of
personality structure.
Potentiality for change :Potentiality for change is another characteristic of personality. The
--
48
-
earlier psychoanalytical view did hold personality as a rigid structure. However, modem Factors ~nfluencing
Development of Personality
psychological, humanistic theories have demonstrated not only the human capacity for
reorganisation but also the conditions that foster change.
Integration or organisation is the quality of the human personality, i.e., it occurs to
humanbeings naturally and normally. It is the normal development outcome of personality
structure. Disorganisation, i.e.. the isolation of the functions of the individual parts from the
tolal system is a pathological condition (Goldstein) of a psychological disorder.

b) Compare your answer with the one given at the end of the unit.
Briefly define the concept of personality.
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4.4 APPROACHES TO PERSONALITY

The field of personality has been approached in a wide variety of ways. Certainly, any theory
of personality would require to e x p h both, its structure and its dynamics. But explanations
can be categorised on the focus, whether the chief target is structure or dynamics. In this
manner, the following approaches are identified in understanding personality.
i) Explanation of structure
Biephysical approach
Bio-social apporoach
ii) Explanation of the dynamics
Psychoanalytical
Psychosocial
Social learning
Personological
Spiritual
Some concepts of significance
Within each of these approaches, different theorists have forwarded different explanations
(built inm systems which would require, for their understanding, readings of detailed texts).
For our purpose, it would be sufficient tq be cognizant of major propsitons regarding
personality and its development. Let us discuss each approach in detail.
4.4.1 Bio-Physical Approaches

The bio-physical approaches to personality assume that an individual's personality is
determined by his biological and constitutional characteristics. This is done by popular
wisdom. Popular wisdom relates joviality with fat people and impulsive anger with the lean
and thin. Three propositions can be gathered from the literature as stated below :
HippocratudGalen's proposition : Personality is determined by "humours" (secretions of
glands) blood (red, sanguine), phlegm, yellow (choleric) bile and black (melmhclic) bile.
Kretschmer's proposition :Personality can be explained by reference to the body-buld ~f the
individual : short and thick (ppknik), slender and weak (aesthenic) and balanced physiqu~
(athletic).
Sheldon's proposition :Personality is determined by the nature of embryonic development
which results in and is identified by overdevelopment of the stomach (endomorph), or of the
muscles (mesomorph) or of the head (ectomorph).
Obviously all the propositions above relegate the psychic systems within the individual.
Undermnding Ihe Developme11t 4.4.2 Bio-Social Approache
of the Learner
Bio-social approaches assume that personality is formed by the interplay between the individual's
biological di~psitionsand the socialcultural farces impinging upon him. However, with their eyes
set upon the derivation of structure, they studied personal chanckristics and/or personality ratings
of b e samples of persons and subjected the data to statistical analysis.
Two prominent names in this category are Eyesenck and Cattell. Interested in a classificatory
structure, Eyesenck derived a 2 x 2 structure formed by two polarities. Interested in an
elaborate description of structure, Cattell dcrivcd a set of 16 factors, called "source-traits".
Their propesitions can be stated as below.
Eyesenck's proposition :The ~lrdividual'spersonality can be explained by his position on two
independent polarities, namely, extroversion - inhoversion and neuroticism - stability, which
generate by their inkraclion the four types in the bio-physical Hippocrams - Galen's proposition
as figured below.
UNSTABLE
moody touchy
anxiolls restless
rigid I aggressive
sobber 1 excitable
pessimistic
reserved
unsociable
i i
3
changeable
impulsive
optimistic
quiet melancholic[ choleric aclive
INTROVERED ......-.. -..,-.,. ..... ,. -...-............-. .... EXTROVERTED
passive phlegmatic 1 sanguine sociable
thoughtful
peaceful
conmUed
ID I
outgoing
easygoing
lively
reliable
even-tcq&
calm
' I
carefree
leadership
STABLE
(From Eyesenck (1965), Fact and Fiction in Psychology, 'Ifinnondsworth, Penquin, p. 54).
Catell's proposition : The individual's personality structure ean be explained by a
psychograph or profile showing his positions on bipolar "source-traits" or "pmary factors"
(16 in adults, 14 in adolescents, 12 in children), each shaped by the interplay of heredity and
environment differently, and described as below :
--
Low Score Description Factor High Score Description
Reserved, detached, critical Outgoing, warmhearted
Less intelligent, concrete thinking More intelligent, abstract thinking
Affected by feelings, easily upset Emotionally stable, faces reality
Humble, mild, accommodating Assertive, aggressive, stubborn
Sobcr, prudent, serious Happy-go-lucky, impulsive, lively
Expedient, disregards rules Conscientious, perserving
Shy, restrained, timid Venturesome, socially bold
Tough-minded, self-reliant Tender-minded,clinging
Trusting, adaptable Suspicious, self-opinionated
Practical, careful Imaginative
Forthright, natural Shrewd, calculating
Self-assured,confident Apprehensive, self-repraaching
Conservative Experimenting, liberdl
Group-dependent Self-sufficient
Undisciplined self-conflict Cnntrolled, socially precise
Relaxed, tranquil Tense. frustrated
t
I
I Factors Innuenchg
From the 16 PF Questionnaire,
(O 1956-1967by the Institute for Personalily and Ability Testing, Champaign, Ill.... USA)
An individual's psychographs or 16 PF profiles constructed on different occasions may vary

for reasons of change in mental state or social role.
4.4.3 Psychoanalytical Approaches

The psychoanalytical approach was posited by Freud to diagnose and treat the root psychic
causes of palhological behaviours of psychic patients.
For diagnosis, Freud looked at the pas! history of the patient, and genented a lot of theory
which may be stated in the prapositions as follows.
i) An in&vidua17spersonality can be studied by digging up the long-forgotten memories of

childhood, especially pertaining to breast-weaning, toilet-training and relationships with
the parent of the opposite sex and the p a n t of the same sex.
ii) Personality-formation can be explained by reference to the battle between the natural "id"
of pleasure-seeking impulses and the individual's "superego" formed by internalisation
of the external social-moral demands.
iii) An individual's personality is determined by the furnishing of his "ego" (reality-self)
trying to resolve the conflicts between the id and the super-ego by using a variety of
techniques called "defence-mechanisms".
4.4.4 Psycho-Social Approaches

Psycho-social approaches are an outgrowth of the psychoanalytical approach. Adler, for
example, started as a co-worker with Freud but came w differ with him asserting that human
life is not a battle between the id and super-ego but a conscious struggle to achieve superiority
which can be facilitatedby social factors. Later, Eriion forwarded his theory of psycho-social
development through the entire life-span, including the (first) five stages analysed by Freud.
thcir propositions are presented below.
Adler's propositions : An individual's personality can be explained by reference to the
conscious struggle of his "creative power" of the instinct of self-realization to "compensate"
for his inferiority in one area by gaining superiority in other areas or ways.
Personality-formation of an individual can be supported by developmental guidance.
Erikson's propositions :The development of personality can be explained by reference to a
series of crises emerging in the eight developmental stages of life, each preparing for the next
in anhcipation, as described below :
Stage Crisis Characteristics

1. Oral-sensory Basic rrust vs. Infant totally dependent -mother's inconsistency
mistrust generates suspicion and doubt through the rest of
life.
2. Muscular-anal Autonomy vs. Toilet training and control, and through it
shame, doubt asserting individuality. Success results in
automony, failure in shame and doubt about its
own abilities, persisting lam.
3. Locomotor- Initiative vs. guilt Urge to possess opposite-sex parent and rival
genital same-sexparent. Channeling of sexual needs into
socially accepted behaviours results in initiative;
failure in guilt, which persist.
4. Latency Industry vs. Qpical primary school years, testing the
inferiority competence of the child. Success leads to
success; fzilure to inferiority.
5. Puberty and Identity vs. role Return of sexual interest, heterosexuality.
adolescence confusion Concern for future roles and status, Clarity helps
form identity; otherwjse confusion persists and
frustrates.
--- 51
U~lderslanding thc Dcvelopmcnt
(11' the Learner 6. Young Intimacy vs. lf, and whcn, idcnlily is found, one seeks KI
adullhood isolalion "find" somu~neclse w sharc inlimacies; failure
7. Adulthood Gcncralivily vs. Rcproduclion and produclive membership of

stagnalion socicly. 1,alcr cornplaccncy scls in and stagnation
occurs.
8 Malurily Ego-inlcgrily vs. Rcflccling upon Lhc lifc lived, inlcgraling cvcn
dcspair dcah inlo ~ h apaucrn;
l bilurc lcads to despair and
Pu ti l i LV.
4.4.5 Social Learning Approaches

Social lcaming approachcs arc anlilhclical to the psycho-analytical and psycho-social
approaches. Thc social learning approach of pcrbonality is rtmlcd in ~ h bchaviourislic
c sti~nulus
rcsponsc (S-K) psychology and asscrls lhal man, like any olhcr animal, Icarns, lo makc
rcsponscs LO stimuli prcscnl or conslruclcd in thc cnvironmcnl. Thcsc ~hcorislsdisregard lhc
inlcrprcta~ionsbascd on "psychc" bccausc such inlcrprckllons are no1 empirical bul Pabricalcd
only. Two propos~lionsof his lypc are prcscnlcd bclow lor ~hcirsignificanl impon on Lllc
thcory of pcrsonalily.
Couley's proposition : Pcrsonalily can bc explained by rcfcrcnce to thc "looking glass self' of
Lhc indiv~dual,hisher sclf-conccpl Lhal dcvclops on 1he basis of how olhcr pcoplc of
significance in lhc cnvironmcnl dcfinc him.
Skinner's proposition : An ind~vidual'spersonality is/can bc shapcd by manipulalion of

slirnuli in small slcps and provision of approprialc rcinforccmcnts.
4.4.6 Personological Approaches

Pcrsonological approaches disapprove of bolh ~ h cpsychoanalytical and psycho-social
cxplanalions, staling Lhat human bchaviour is dclennincd ncithcr by Lhc inslincls nor by social
forccs. Thcy belicvc Lhal lhc humanbcing is an aclivc crcalor of his/hcr pcrsonalily, imbibd
wilh a "forcc for growlh" wilhin him/hcr. This characlcristic lnakcs hu~nanbcingdilTeren1 from
Lhc rcsl ofthe animal kingdom. Assuming a basic nccd for "self-ac~ualiza~ior~", his group is
also refcrred as "humanislic". Rogcrs and Maslow are Lhc bcsl known in lhis group.
Roger's proposition : Thc human pcrsonalily is dcicrmincd by the striving of the pcrson Lo
dcfinc, aclualiz, niainkin and enhance his/hcr own growing "sclf' which maintains ilsclP by
the use of Freudian dcfcncc-mechanisms and which dcvclops nalurally whcn its "nccd for
posilivc regard" by lhose significanl around is Pulfillcd.
Maslow's proposition : Individual's pcrsonalily can bc explained and helped by making a
rcfcrence lo lhc fullilmcnl of his/hcr basic dcficicncy nccds (D-nccrls) and mcta-needs
(B-nccds) of Lhc growth o l his bcing as stalcd bclow :
Basic dcficicncy nccds (D. nccds)

Physiological nceds
Safc'cty nccds
Love and bclongingness necds
Eslcem ncds
Mela-ncds (B. needs)
Nccd for sclP-aclualisation
Desire lo know and undcrshnd
Acsbclic nccds
4.4.7 Spiritual Approaches

The spiritual dcvclop~ncnlof an individual that has been the typical philosophic theme ol
Indian cullure can bc scen lo come ncxl W the concepl of "selC-aclualisatior" referred above.
Thc spiritual dcvclopmcnl oP pcnonalily is relerrd to in terms ol "sclf-rcalisa~ion", which
requircd to be differcntialcd from 'sclP-rcalisalion'. SclP-aclualisalion is lhe idcal of realism
which poslulales lhal an individual possesses a self which is a polentialily wailing to become
acluality. Sclf-realisation is, on the contrary, [he ultimate goal of the spirilual philosophy of
idealism which postulates that the real-self of an individual is the divine or spiritual self which Factors Influencing
waits to be discovered, uncovered and realised. Indian thought has described the ultimate spirit
as "sacchidananda" comprising "sat" (existence), "chit" (consciousness) and "ananda" (bliss).
This divine spirit exists in man covered under fine kosha (sheaths), namely matter (annarnaya),
viral (pranamaya), psyche (manomaya), intellect (vijnanamaya) and bliss (anandamaya). Three
model paths to realize the spirit (atman) are the intellectual Cjnana yoga), the emotionall (bhakti
yoga) and the actional (karma yoga), which represent the dominance of the three domains of
mind cognitive, affective and psychomotor. These age-old explanations provide the base for
modem Indian philosophy. Cenkner has identified, for example, ananda yoga (akin to bhakti
yoga) in Tagore, karma yoga in Gandhi and internal yoga in Sri Aurobindo. Their propositions
are stated below :
Tagore's proposition :Human personality can be explained by reference to the development
of the "physical man" into a "personal man" through sub-conscious experiencing of rhythm
and harmony between man and nature (universe) resulting in the expression of "surplus"
energy in man, his limitless potentiality.
Gandhi's proposition : Personality can be explained by reference to the strivings or

experiments of man in search of truth and "ahimsa" (universal love and concern) through
actions charactcrised by selflessness and attachment (anasakti) which lead him to the divine
state of "steady wisdom" (sthita-prajna).
Sri Aurobindo's proposition : The individual's personalily can be explained by reference to
his/hcr "evolution" from the biogenic matter-state to the supermind stale which is achievable
~hroughintegral yoga and which leads to the ultimate, divine "sacchidananda" state.
4.4.8 Some Concepts of Significance

Bcsidcs h e above-stated approaches and propositions regarding personality ranging from the
bio-physical classification to the spiritual proposition of integral yoga, some concepts have a
signicicant relationship with personality. The important concepts are as follows :
Achievement motivation
0 Locus of control
0 Cognitive style
0 Sensation seeking
Achievement motivation : Individuals can be differentiated as high and low on achievement
motivation (n-ach). They differ in terms of (i) degree or achievement motivation, (ii) fear of
failurc (FF), and (iii) the value they attach to their achievement^. Children who are reinforced
for heir successes, howsoever small, tend to become high n-ach whereas those who are
punished for failures tend to become high FF or low n-ach.
Locus of control : Individuals can be differentiated as "externals" or "internals" on locus of
con~rol.Externals believe that life situations are controlled by chance, luck or authorities and
tcnd lo lack in motivation. Intemals, on the contrary, believe that situations are within the
conlrol of lhc person and tend to become independent, dominant, initiative-takerand achiever.
Cognitive style : Individuals can be differentiated as "field-independent" and "field-

dcpcndenl" in their cognitive style. "Field-independents" perceive easily the part and the
whole scparately and are found to be independent. Field-dependents fail to perceive parts
hiddcn in the whole and became prone to social influences, what others say.
Sensation seeking : Individuals can be differentiated as high or low sensation-seekers (SS).
High SS seek adventure, thrill, unusual experiences (may be musical or drugs) and dislike
routine while low SS prefer simplicity and quietude. High SS have been found more creative
and intelligent, independent and adjusted than the law SS. Sensory-deprivation has also been
found 10 result in hallucinations, and for that reason the technique of deprivation of visual,
auditory and tactile sensory experiences is used for brain washing.
Understanding the Development Check Your Progres 2
I of the Learner
Notes : a) Rrrileyour answer in thc space given bclow.
List various approaches to personality. Discuss the approach that you find the most
suitable to your own personality.
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4.5 FACTORS INFLUENCING DEVELOPMENT OF

PERSONALITY
Really speaking, a humanbeing's personality is a product of hisher genetic endowment and
cultural environment. As Cole and Bruce described, "from the moment of conception it grows .
'whole', having within itself possibilities of developing into a dynamic, active, walking,
talking, thinking, feeling humanbeing, provided that the evnironrnent furnishes the raw
materials and the appropriate conditions of stimulation."
Differences in individual personalities are caused because (i) the possibilities within itself are
different, and (ii) the provision of raw materials and appropriate conditions of stimulation by
the environment vary widely. Guilford, for example charted the magnitude of similarity of
pairs of children with respects of intelligence (IQ). simil&ity in heredity varied from the same
child (tested twice), to identical twins to only chance similarity in a pair of unrelated children.
The difference in commonality bctwccn the second and third pairs stated above demonstrates the
role of the environment (rearing-practice) while the trend from pair one to pair seven shows the role
of heredity. You will read about heredity and environmcnt in Unit 8, Section 8.3 in detail.
If we look back at the propositions of personality presented in Section 4.4. there are a number
of factors which influence the development of personality. The following are the main factors:
4.5.1 Heredity
Genetics, or the science of heredity. is a discipline contributing specific details of the impact of
heredity on living beings. Ballcr and Charles have compiles some general statements about the
inheritance of character that are relevant to behaviour of pcrsonality. Basically, we inhcrit "a
tendency toward a certain structure" and "a tcndency to function in certain ways". Specially
these include the following.
Tendency towards a certain structure includes h e following behaviours.
A tendency to achieve a certain body-weight.
A tendency towards a general body-typc (i.e. skelctal structure, proportion of fat and
muscle-tissue, and the length of limbs).
Sex
e Appearance, i.e., skin, hair texture and colour, eye shape and colour, nose shape, ear
shape, head shape.
Internal structure, for example the size of the heart and lungs in proportion to the body,
determining the capacity for prolonged physical effort.
Tendency to function in ccrtain ways includes the following behaviours :
Natural response i.e. functioning of the nervous system, intelligence, predisposition to
react slow or quickly.
Sensory efficiency i.e. keenness of vision, range of hearing, sensitivity of touch and
smell,
Operation of the "vegetative system" i.e., heart and circulatory system, digestive system,
reproduclory system, elc.
Functioning of the endocrine syslem, is., glandular secretions, e.g., the thyroids control
54
1 Factors Influencing
thc metabolic rate, the pituitary controlling growth, gonads controlling the sex-drive and
sex characteristics and the adrenals controlling emotional "stir-ups".
9 Rate of physical growth
9 .Predisposition to certain characteristics.
Finally a note must be added that thc cffects of heredity on temperamental quality arc not
fatalistic as these are on the structural tendency. Medical and surgical intcrvcntions are being
invented continuously to bring the functioning of heredikvy systems and mechanisms undcr
control. Plastic surgery, for example, brings change in the bihcrited appcannce while hormonal
trcatment changes the functioning of endocrinc glands.
4.5.2 Environmental Factors

Technically, environmental factors start cxerting thcir influence through thc uterine
environment during the prenatal stage. Thc dictary habits, thc health of the mothcr, etc., may
cause prenaul "insult" or damage to the developing organism. Somc disabilitics arc inflicted
upon the child by uterine cnvironmental factors.
During the first month or so, varying cultural patterns can be seen to shapc thc physical
appearance of thc child. For example, tough-shaping by a strong massagc of the infant's body
in the northern states of India and tender-shaping of the nosc of thc girl-child by strong-
prcssing in the southern states of India.
As thc child grows, he faces and deals with several environment factors. The child gradually
grows in complcxity, supporting or contracting various factors as the cnvironmcnt may bc
varying kinds.
Lct us discuss some of he environmental factors to see how they affect the growing personality
o f an individual.
Rearing patterns : Interactions bctwcen the infant and mothcr for satisfaction of biological
nccds play a significant role in personality development. Care and affection dcvclop a scnsc of
sccurity. Over-indulgence or under-indulgence of Lhc mothcr in breast-fccding would
detcrrninc the "oral" personality and severity in toilet-training is the "anal" personality.
Regularity in fceding practiccs would develop in the child "basic trust" in thc world,
irrcgulrity would yield "mistrust". Similarly, toilct-mining severity may cause thc child to
I
grow into a doubting and shameful person, training "at ease" develops autonomy.
Parent-child interaction : Once the child grows frcc of the needs of the mothcr, parcnt-child
interactions assume social dimensions. Through the interactions, both thc individual psyche
and thc social psyche are communicated to the child and Lhe child develops in himher
"individuous" (individuzl sclfj and "socius" (social self). Thc effect of parents bchaviour on
the child's bchaviour is summariscd in the following table :
Table 4.1: Relationship between 5 p e of Home and Child Behaviour

- -- -
Type of Home Type of Associated Child Behaviour

Submissivc, aggressive, adjustmcnt difficulties, fcclings of
insccurity, sadistic, nervous, shy, stubborn, noncompliant.
Ovcr-protective, Infantile and withdrawing, submissive, feelings or insccurity,
"babying" aggressive, jcalous, difficult adjustmcnt.
Dominating parcnts Dcpcndablc, shy, submissive, politc, sclf-conscious,
uncooperative, tense, bold, qum-clsome, disintcrcstcd.
Submissive parents : Aggressive, careless, disobcdient, indcpendcnt, self-confident,
forward in making fricnds, ncurotic.
Harmonious, Submissive, good adjustmcnt, calm, happy, compatible,
wcll-adjustcd coopcrativc, superior adjustment, independent.
Child acccpted Socially acceptable, faces future confidently.
Parcnts play with child : Sccurity feelings, sclf-rcliant.
Logical, scientific Self-reliant, cooperalivc responsible.
approach
Understandingthe Development
of the Learner Consistent strict Good adjustment.
discipline
Giving child : Good adjustment, self-reliant, security feelings.
responsibility
The process of homo-formation of "socius" can be u n d c r s d if we just look at the differences

in children in a nuclear and a joint family. Generally a nuclear family is over indulging,
self-centred, introvert and isolated while a joint family is social, extrovert, and
accommodating.
Much of the child's personality seems to be determined by the social class of the family.
Generally, middle-class parents tend to develop in their children a sense of self-dircction, the
power of decision-making and an attitude that the situations or environment can be changed by
manipulative efforts. Parents in lower-class homes do not have experience of building
independence and controlling the behaviour of the child. The children of such families develop
an attitude that the situations or environment are given and cannot be changed, thus a kind of
external locus of conuol is built. The two classes of homes also inllucnce thc kind and lcvel of
achievement motivation in children.
At the broad sociwultural level, the genderqolcs are learnt by boys to become "boys" and
girls to become "girls" as desired by culture. Every child loves to play with toys but we provide
dolls or kitchen toys to girls, and trucks, cars or aeroplanes to boys. And just think of a situation
when a child returns home complaining that it has been beatcn by some omcr child of thc
neighbourhood. If it is a girl child beaten by a boy, how do wc advise? If it is a boy child beatcn
by a boy how do we advise? And X we come across a girl child beating a boy child how do we
react? The answers to these questions will reveal the way pcrsonalitics are shapcd
unknowingly.
Sibling relations : Another environment is built in homes by brothcrs and sisters, callcd
siblings, supporting and frustrating each othcr. Rcsearch studics have revealed that a
sibling-less only child tends to become overprotected and self-centred unless the parents deal
with the child differently. The eldest child happens to be an only child till the second is born
when the first is "dethroned from the function of solitary affection. It gcncrally develops
jcalousy in himher. Olherwise, the eldest child happens to be overtaxed by thc aspirations and
the dcmands of the parents.
Children in intermediate positions have mixed experiences and vary in thcir personalities more.
However, they may tend to suffer more from inferiority feelings gcncrated by comparisons.
The youngest child is never deprived of the affection of parents and may turn into a spoilt if
"babied" child. Somc studies suggest that the first born children have contributed more
geniuses while the last-born children tend to contribute some creative, expressive persons.
These, however, remain unsettled issues.
Neighbou~hood: The neighbourhood provides the first exposure of the larger cultural
environment to the child. Since birds of the same feather flock togcthcr, neighbourhood
families are not different in their social class, etc., and provide a smooth transition from home
to culture. They share almost similar valucs and rearing patterns but expose the child to
different family styles, and the child learns how to deal with the varicty. Thc characteristics of
neighbourhoods are that they are more objective than the parents, Lrcat the child as a pcrson and
thercfore thcy are both lcss approving and less critical, and with different emphasis in
child-behaviour. You may recall your own childhood experiences of home and ncighbourhood
and describe the differences as well as how some neighbours contributed to the development of
your personality.
Peer group : From the ncighbourhood emerges the peer-groups. The first group of indiv~duals
of the same/similar age may be unrelated biologically but are related socially. Interacting with
this group the child learns that he/she should give up a little of individuality to be accepted
socially in the peer group. With Lhe peer group, the child learns to take turns, to suppress
hisher wish in favour of the decision of the group, to dovetail hisher activities with the
activities of the group. And with the desire to be accepted, helshe moulds hisher bchaviour to
the standards set by the group which suggests to him continually what would please the group
members.
Recall the actions that you did in your childhood to impress yourself upon your peer group
56
Why childhood alone, in adolcsccnce and even latcr also this happens. The peer group persists Factors lnnucneing
Development of Personnlity
as a factor ot' cnvironmcnt throughout lifc, of course changing with time and maturity, but
forcing thc individual to live up to hisher "reputation" in the group.
Schcrol : The first peer group of childhood is characterised by play and then the child is
admittcd to thc first formal instituation of the society, the school. The school is aimed to
inculcate in him or her the behaviour patterns required in adulthood. The school environmcnt
lnakcs him/hcr learn punctuality, regularity and scheduling by conditioning through the bcll
whcn to arrive, when to study various subjects, whcn to play and when to leave for home.
Acadcmic icarning is the major cause of schooling. But a lot is learnt through the school
cnvironmcnt in its hidden curriculum. You come to learn the authority (of teachers and
monitors), to rcspcct rules and regulations, and also to doubt even the home. Just think when
onc lcarns the need to use clean drinking water for health and returns home to find the
unhygienic practices of drinking water. What happens to a Uibal child whcn the school insists
on thc use of standard language while he speaks to his parents in the tribal dialcct? The same is
thc h~tcof thc child going to an English-medium school demanding not to use thc moher
tonguc. Whcn the teachings and demands of the school conflict with the family respect, the
child lcarns to conceal facts or to speak half-truths. Besides, each school also has its personality
or stylc and dcvelops in children the Waits it holds important. These may be achievement
no ti vat ion, creative expression, easy going happy-go-lucky or "who cares" (chalta hai)
attitude.
I
hlass media : While school is the direct and responsible authority to communicate and train
thc child to the dcsires and dcmands of thc standard form of culture, the mass mcdia radio,
tclcviqion, the newspaper and the magazinc or the comic, etc., communicate to the child the
stylcs of the various sub-cultures in the total culture. Certainly the variety would make the child
awarc of othcr forms, objects and styles and creative tensions in him. The manncr ego reacts
and ac!just~ to resolve these tensions determines his children and adolescents is fast-increasing
anci crcatlng cvcn social challenges, we may discuss it at length.
In .gcncra'dl,it may be stated that heredity seems to be more important than environment in
dctcrmining the individual's ability lcvcls and physical characteristics whilc the other
psychological, especially affective traits, are influenced more by thc cnvironment.

Writc down the name of the environmental factors affecting the growing personality of an
inclividual.
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
IMPACT OF MASS MEDIA ON PERSONALITY

Films, tclcvision, radio, newspapers and magazincs are thc most promincnt forms of the mass
mcdia anti cach influcnccs the behaviour pattern of pcrsons in a diffcrcnt manner. So, let us
Itxk at cach apart.
Films : Films create an environmcnt in which one cxpcricnces a ncar r a l life situation
cmpathicall y for about two hours and a half. Together they sct a mcnd of lifc -some of love,
olhcrs of social action and still others of religious life. The presentation may be "commercial"
which attcmpw to attract a mass audicncc or "artistic" which attcmpls to paint subtlc rcality.
q ~ ~ v w , wtiat
~ y , thc growing personality of childhood and adolcsccnce finds in thc films is
por~rayalsof rality (which they believe are true), glamour of appearancc, role models and
villains, and varying patterns and stylcs of bchaviour, how and whom to rcspcct or fight.
Basically Indian films have providcd avenucs or oullcts inhibited by [he culturc, specially sex
Underdanding thCI)evdOpment and aggrcssion. The impact of films is also on the increase since the trcnd of hero-por~ayal has
of the Learner shown a shift from the mythological, historical, national and social to a matured individual, to
a frustrated post-adolescent and to loving and tormented adolescent. Anyway, the films stir and
motivate those more who are sensation-seekers.
Television :Television creates an entirely different sort of environment :
One, through its serial presentations it encompasses one's thought by continual and
prolonged discussion of the role-models and patterns of behaviour.
Two, it forces you to tune in on time.
Three, if onc docs not discriminate in viewing television, shehe simply gets engrossed
by the visual stimuli only to find that time has been spent for nothing.
Four, it turns the constant viewer into a passive person permitting no time and
imagination to express oneself in one's own way: in other words, it tcnds to cnslave.
\ Five, it may so engross the school going children and adolcscents that they start
neglccting their education, if parents do not intervene.
And finally, thc long arrays of advertisements inidate the child and the adolcscent into
exploring market products and change or dcvelop food habils, bathing habits, clothing habits
and the like. It may, in certain cases, build in some inferiority complexcs.
Radio :Prior to the emcrgcnce of television, radio was the major mass medium, which in India
has continued to be under the full control of the statc. It, therefore, permits an environment
which is controlled by the standard culture. The impact of radio relatcs therefore to social
awareness, knowlcdge and role models and person,l ~ipbringing,besides entertainment.
Newspaper :Unlike the non-print media discussed above, the mass medium of newspapers has
two basic characteristics:
it is restricted to those who can read, and
it reports and discusses reality.
Like films, it is a privatcly owned medium, so that each mewspaper reflects and builds a
particular ideology of thought or reality. It also motivates the development of regularity so that
generally newspaper-reading becomes a habit of the individual. It dcvelops in readcrs
awareness and knowledge of the events across the world. The social cvents which suggest how
valucs are changing fast, of heroes and villains, in the various arenas of human enterprise. It
further tends to drivc persons towards a critical analysis of the events, sharing views with
others.
Magazines : The magazines differ from the newspaper in that it presents a collection of
readings in a selcctive area. A magazine creates a selcctive environmcnt whclhcr it is of animal
and nature, of fairies, of kings, of politics, of religion, o l films or anything else. It, therefore, is
an indicator and promoter of specific interests. Consistent and persistent interest in a magazinc
gradually builds in the individual typical attitudes and valucs communicatcd through the
magazine.

Discuss the impact of TV on the adolcscent personality.
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
...................................................................................................................................................
Factors Influencing
4.7 ROLE OF TEACHER IN DEVELOPMENT OF Development of Personality
ADOLESCENT PERSONALITY
With all these mass-media cropping up to engross the mind and time of the growing
pcrsonality, especially during adolescence when the person is the most susceptible to being
influcnccd, the rolc of the teacher in the school has to be redefined. By designation a teacher
for this ~voupis a subject-teacher, teaching Hindi, English, Kannada. Mathematics, Physics,
History and the like. School systems in the west provide a psychologist to deal with the
problcms of development. The Secondary Education Commission (Mudaliar, 1953) provided
for a guidancc worker in the secondary school but the scheme was discontinued. Wilh no
provision for specialised services, the responsibility of guiding the development of the
adolescent personality smoothly has to be shared by every teacher of the school. To do so, we
rcquirc to understand the nature and needs of adolescents which are described and will be
discussed in various units in this course. A short discussion follows in view of the personality
construct.
Adolescence, basically, is a bio-social happening, it., a social creation on the basis of h e

biological stagc of physical maturation, charactcrised by muscular and gcnital development.
Sincc muscular strength develops, entry to the world of work is desired; and since geni~al
dcvclopment takes place, raising a family is desired. Both, the vocation and the family
corruibutc, rathcr make, the idcntity of the person. For that reason alone, thc period of
I adolcsccnt personality is tormented by the crisis of identity vs. role confusion, according to
I Erikson.
I
If we look sociologically, adolescence does not happen to many in Indian context.
Tr~rditionally,in lamilies inheriting a vocation from the father, a smooth transition occurs
whcrc thc child lcams his or her adult role from the parent of the same sex, gels married, trades
and raiscs a family. Otherwise, the same happens in destitute homes where the condition of
living lorces thc child to take over the adult rolc at the earliest. A significant reference sets the
lirnit of agc for the world of work at fourteen years. To those who are forced to work at or
bcforc this agc, adolescence almost does not occur. Most of them also drop out of school
prcrnaturcly for their "adulthood" is acccpted by the Samily.
'Tire problcms associatcd with adolescene rest basicall! I I I lllc mcntality of the middle class
wl~ichhas cvolvcd with industrialisation and technology, and tt is this group which I'orms h e
bulk o l secondary school swdcnts. These chilaen are rcI'u\~.d.'childhood" by thcir parcnts and
yct "adulthood" is not granted to them. They are persons in waiting, in formation, prcparing to
carvc out individual adult personalities. As has been stated earlier, middle class families force
tlicir childrcn to dcvclop initiative and independence, their behaviour towards the adolescent
bcco~ncserratic and inconsistent somctimcs very affectionate, at othcr timcs vcry demanding.
Tormcntcd by this, the basic identity-question sprouts - "Who am 1, child or adult, small or
his'!"
C'onsciousncss of the biological changes in the appearance, another question starls pcrplex~ng
atlolcsccnts : "How am I viewed by others?'. Cognitively, formal logic is devclopcd in
atlolcsca~ccand the logic raiscs another question of identity - there are hundreds of pattcms
of 11v1ngin thc socicty, "Which am I to bccomc?". He explorcs the world around him for role
~uotlclsarrct if, and whcn, comes to lzarn thcir failings and the grim reality of thc obnoxious
socicty tllc most agitating qucstion is raised, "Why should I b&ome what thc socicty dcsires
nlk. to Ix?".
The problcms associatcd with adolcscencc, thcn, are that scxual maturation takes place but the
sex rolc is dcnicd, cvcn its cxploration and play is strictly prohibited and inhibited; muscular
+ maturation lakes place but work rolc is dcnicd. The demand lor indcpcndcncc from parental
control turns thcm to pccrs, all facing similar problcms. Thc tom1 group of pccrs functions likc
a crowtt for thcm providirrg opportunities for exploration -vicwing movics, cnjoying picnics,
danccs or dramas, and watching matchcs. Among these emcrgcs a sct of those sharing intcrcsls
or aspirations in common. From the set, Lhe individual finds a "confidantc", the bcst fricnd,
moslly ol' drc same sex, with whom one can sharc all roubles and pleasures.
I f wc. as tcachcrs, rcalisc and visualise thc problems and anxieties of these adolescents, which
arc growlng largcr day by day, thcn wc would ccrlainly fecl likc hclping ~hcm.Basically, it will
mcan I'ulS~llinythcir "nccd for positivc rcgard, as Rogers p u ~ it.
s To hclp them sclf-actualisc,
ir lcachcr can scrve, if possible, as a "friend, philosophcr and guide". As a fricnd, you have to
Unde~ wdbgtheDevdopment accept his blowing hot and cold; as a philosopher, you have to present yourself to him as a role
of the Learner
model as a person; as a guide, you have to provide him informations which parents refuse ID
give and which in society is not easily available to him. Specifically, it means providing sex
education and career education which requires to be in-built in every subject of study to the
extent possible. Interest clubs, hobby clubs, subject clubs or activity clubs, all provitie
opportunities for exploration of reality and role models. Every teacher, to his or her interest,
can choose to work with adolescents in a club and guide. For their blowing hot and cold, Baller
and Charles have compiled from studies communicative indicators of emotional stress and
strain. The* are listed below.
-
Communication att tern Emotional state
Baby-like speech Over-protection
I Large variations in speech Emotional deprivation
I Stuttering/Stammering Emotion(s) throttled down
I High verbal output

Low verbal output
Insecure, anxious
Insecure, demoralised, convinced of
inferiority
High verb-adjective ratio Emotional instability
Word "salad", using new ' Schizophrenic
The indicators may help you in identifying the problem of the adolescent to help in turn. In that
humanistia way, human personalities help develop each other.
4.8 LET US SUM UP -

In this unit, you have studied the concept of personality and its nature that it grows "whole"
and integration is its norm, disintegration only a pathological condition. Several approaches
have emerged to study personality, of which some have been referred to, namely :bio-physical
approaches (Hippocratus/Galen, Kretschmer and Sheldon), bio-social approaches (Freud),
psycho-social approaches (Adller and Erikson), social learning approaches (Eyesenck and.
Cattell), psychoanalytical approach (Cooley and Skinner), pcrsonological approaches (Rogcrs
and Maslow), and spiritual approaches (Gandhi, Tagore and Sri Aurobindo). Besides,
personality can be studied through some specific traits of significance (achievements
motivation, locus of control, cognitive style and sensation seeking).
A glimpse over all the theoretical propositions revealed that personality-formation is affected
by heredity and a host of environmental factors, which chiefly include rearing pattern, farlily
culture, sibling relations, neighbourhd, peer group, etc. The school and the mass media hive
emerged as strong effects. We have also discussed the impact of films, television, radio,
newspapers and magazines separately. Finally, the phenomenon of adolcscencc itself has k e n
discussed to identify our role as teachers in helping the growth of the adolescent personality.

Attempt lo answer the following questions and self-check your answers wilh the contents of
the related sections.
i) Intetpret the organismic view of personality.

ii) Exphin the function of "ego" and state some mechanisms used by ego to defend itself
against the pressure of "id" and "superego".
iii) State the stages of personality growth according to Erikson and describe the crisis of the
stages during school-years from age 5 to age 18.
.iv) Interpret the structure of psychological needs for personal development as suggested by
Abraham Maslow.
v) Compare the views of Tagore, Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo regarding the development of
"Atman" or personality.
Describe some new concepts that have emerged in the personality theory. Factors Lnfluenclng
VI)
Development of Pernonpllty
vii) Compare the effect of heredity and home upon personality development.
viii) Discuss the role of school and teachers in personality development during adolescence.
ix) Discuss the statement
"Thc mass media today excercise greater influence on the adolescent personality than
school teachers."

Baller, W.B. and Charles, D.C. (1%1) : The Psychology of Human Growth and Development,
Ncw York : Hotd, Rinehart and Winston.
Faw, Terry and Gary, S. Belkin (1989) : Child Psychology, New York : McGraw Hill.
Mc Connell, James V. (1977) : Understanding Human Behaviour. New York : Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
Spinglcr, D. Michael and Lieber, M. Robert (1989) : Personality Strategies and Issues.
Books/Cole Publishing Company Pacific Grove, California.

1. The term "personality" derives from the Latin word "persona" which means a mask worn
by an actor. Personality means the characteristic pattern or style of behaviour of the
pcrson as is revealed through his external and internal properties.
2. Bio-physical approach, bio-social approach, psychoanalytical. psycho-social. social
learning, spiritual and personalogical.
We think the most suitable approach in our personality is the spiritual approach which
raises the concept of self-actualisation and self-realisation. This is our approach. You may
differ in your approach.
3. Rcaring patterns
Parent-child interaction
r Sibling relations
Neighbourhood
Peer group
School
r Mass media
4. Adolescents start neglecting their education and develop changes in food habits clothing
habits and bathing habits. Inferiority complexes may build up among adolescents.
UNIT 5 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES :
COGNITIVE DOMAIN
Structure
Objectives
lndividual Differences : The Concept
lntelligence
5.4.1 What is Intelligence'?
5 . 4 . 2 Do Ind~vidualsDiffer in Intelligence?
5.4.3 The instructional Strategies for Handling Individual Difference
Aptitude
5 . 5 . 1 What is Aptitude?
5 . 5 . 2 Do Individu~lsDiffer in Aptitude?
5 . 5 . 3 Inshuctional Strategies for Handling Individual Differences
Creativity
5 . 6 . 1 What is Creativitys?
5 . 6 . 2 Do Individuals Differ in Creativity'?
5 . 6 . 3 Can Creativity be Fostered'?
Academic Achievement
5.7.1 What is Academic Achievement'?
5.7.2 Do Learners Differ in their Academic Achievements?
5.7.3 What are Instructional Strategies?
Let US sun; u p
5.. 11 Answers to Check Your Progress
5.1 INTRODUCTION
We all know that no two individuals are similar in appearance. habits: etc.The students
entering school have different entering behaviour. And as you lalow. entering behaviour has
impact on the tenninal perfonnailce of the student. The study of individual differences will
1 provide information on the average intelligence of your students and the description of
terminal perfonnance of your vis-,a-vis cntering behaviour of individual students in ),our
class. On the basis of individual differences you can make fairly reliable predictions of the
average perfonnance level of your students. Therefore. the study of individual diKcrences
is crucial for the teachers teaching at the school level: i.e. dealing \\lit11 adolescents.
In Block 1 of this Course you have studied thc principles of growth and development.You
have studied physical. socio-emotional. cognitive and language development of
adolescents.You have also studied the factors influencing growth and development of an
individual. In other words, you have already coine across thc cxpression of individual
differences- variations in maturation. cognitive and language development. What you have
studied in Block 1 will help you as a teacher to understand the concept and implications of
individual di t'ferences.
In this Unit we shall discuss the concept of individual differences in the cognitive domain.
111other words. we shall discuss iildividual differences from the perspective of the cognitive
domain. Individual differences are identificd and discussed in the area of intelligence,
U~\dcrstm~~dingthe aptitude, creativity and academic achievement. Instnlctional strategies to cater to individual
Leamcr as a trnique diffcrcnces and to foster intelligence. aptitude, creativit). and academic achievement of
Indiviiluml
students are discussed in detail.
In order to ~llaximtzethe learning of all students you should be aware of the nature of such
differences and evolve strategies to meet them. Outlines given in this unit will help you teach
.your students more effectively.
We hope that you will enjoy reading this unit and will be able to make your teacbing more
effective and suited to individual students.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading tlus unit, you should be able to:
discuss the concept and role of individual differences, .

discuss students' individual differences in terms of intelligence, aptitude.
creativity and academic achievement,
discuss teaching strategies to .meet individual differences in learning,
describe the effect of individual differences on classroom practices,
describe the dimensions of individual differences in the cognitive domain.
5.3 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES : THE CONCEPT
It is not utiusual to find a wide range of differences among students in a class or a group. These
differences are invariably identified in tenns of students' characteristics such a's physical
(appearance. height, size, sex; colour. etc.), demographic (age. caste, socio-ecomonic status,
etc.) and congitive behaviour (thinking, remembering, problem solving. creating idea, etc.).
The differences that exist among students due to physical, demographic, affective behaviour
and cognitive behaviour characteristics are referred to as individual differences.
Differences due to pl~ysicaland demographic characteristic are conspic~lousand easy to

identify. However, the differences that exist in the way they solve problem in Mathematics
or in their ability to interpret and explain ideas are not easily visible but are tdentified through
their performance. Let us examine: for instance. the answers given by S a m and Sheela. two
students of the same class to the following proverb.
Interpret the saying, "Pen is mighter than the sword."
Saina's interpretation
It means that writing had always been able to influence mailkind more than any amount of
sheer physical strength; writing undoubtedly makes a more lasting impact in the minds of the
people that any form of physical demonstration. In the case of the latter the impact might be
forceful though less lasting. Great thinkers, writers and philosophers have from time
ilnmemotial been able to hold sway over the minds of the people by means of their profound
knowledge through their writings. For example. Socrates won the wrath of a powerfhl state.
because of his great ability to hold spellbound the young through his discourses. Similarly the
writing of Voltaire and Rousseau inspired the French to rise up in revolt.
Sheela's interpretation
It is a common proverb which simply means that through wrtting it is possible to win more
victories than by using physical force and weapons. When any good book is read it is possible
to retain in our memory the message it contains. On the other hand, success achieved through
physical might is not for manlund.
The aboue illustration reflects the differences between Saina and Sheela in their interpretation
6
ofthe proverb. While Saina delves deep in her interpretation, Sheelastatesonlythe meaning. Individual Differences: -
Cognitive Domairl
The process of an individual's mental activities such as remembering, analysing, interpret-
ing, reasoning, problem solving and thinking are cognitive domain behaviours and are
essential for learning and achievement. How we think, what and how we remember, how
we solve problem and how we create ideas are cognitive domain behaviours and individuals
differ by these behaviours. Such differences are ofien identified by psychologists in terms
of intelligence, aptitude, creativity, and academic achievement.
Individual differences are crucial for teachers who are responsible for guiding all forms of
learning. In fact, many educators would suggest that the primary role of teachers is to
provide education to meet the individual differences and to. develop student cognitive
processes.
5.4 INTELLIGENCE
In the classroom you have to create a learning environment which can foster the intellectual
development of the students. To achieve this objective we should neither force the students
beyond their intellectual capabilities nor we should delay in giving them intellectual tasks to
perform. Your instructional activities should accommodate the intellectual levellcapability
of the individual student. This is possible only if you have clear understanding of the
underlying concept of ibtelligence vis-a-vis intellectual development of the students.
5.4.1 'Whatis Intelligence?

Intelligence has been investigated by different groups of psychologists from different
approaches. Notable among them are psychometric approach and information processing
approach. Let us discuss each approach in detail.
Psychometric approach : This approach (the psychology of dealing with the measure-
ment ofdifferencesamong people) focuseson measuringdifferences in intellectual abilities.
According to this group, intelligence is the ability to learn in an abstract manner or to think
or adapt to his or her environment. If we analyse this definition it becomes clear that certain .
degrees of relationships exist among learning ability, abstract thought and adaptability. This
reflects ' -e close agreement among psychometricians about intelligence as intellectual
ability involving several related mental operationssuch as abstract thought, learning ability
and adaptability shown in Fig. 5.1 as under.
Learning
Ability
Fig. 5.1 : Psychometric Approach

i Adaptability
Among the theories of intelligence, the two-factor theory and the multifactor theory c g be
related to the above definition. The two-factor theory of intelligence states that all human
intellectual abilities have in common a general factor. Superman's theory is an example
and he calls the general factor the 'g' factor and describes it as the mental energy that is
involved in all mental activities (common to all mental activities).However, he also suggest
the specific factor 's' in intelligence which is specific to a task. On the other hand,
multifactor theory of intelligence describes intelligence in terms of separate factor or
underlying specific abilities.
UiuIerrtandIng the Thurstons's and Guilford7s theories are examples of this type. Let us first examine
Leerwe+ mu P Unlqee
IdLviduaI
Thurstqne7s theory of primary mental abilities which states that nine factors make up
intelligence and each is involved in several intellectual operations. They are :
Numerical factor (ability for mathematical operations)

Verbal comprehension factor (ability for verbal comprehension)
Space factor (ability for manipulating objects in space)
Word fluency factor (ability to think or to infer rules)
Perceptual speed factor
Induction factor (to infer from specific to general)
Deduction factor (to deduce from rules and principles to specific)
General rcasotung fact~r,and
Rote memory factor (ability for memorisation).
Guilford describes intelligence in terms of three independent dimensions. tilose of content.

operations and products. He stated that when five forms of operations -cognition, memory.
divergent thinking: convergent thinking and evaluation -operate upon four fornu of content
-figurall symbolic, semantic and behavioural -and six forms of products -units, classes,
relations. systems, transformations and inaplications -are produccd. The) together make up
(4x5~6)120 factors. Please see Fig. 5.2.
INTELLIGENCE
I
J
Operation Products
Figural
Symbolic
Semantic
Rehavioural
I OPERATIONS I I PRODlJCTS
I
Cognition ' Ilnlts
Memory Classes
Divergent thinking Relations
Convergent thinking Systems
Evaluation Transformations
Implications
Fig. 5.2 : Cuillord's D a c r l p t i o n 01 Intelligence Cunslstlng 4x5~6-120 Frctvrs
It is pertinent to mention here that in the late nineteen eighties a fifth content (ruditoq~)has
been addad making a total of 150 factors.
Information processing approach : You have seen the psychometrlc~ans' view on

intelligence as intellectual abilities. However. the information processing group (psycholog>
that deals with the way the mind processes information and format~onof thought processes)
goes one step further by focusing on the cognitive processes underly~ngthe ~ntellectual
abilities. Cognitwe processes include all processes of the mind such as menlor?. reasoning.
visualization. problem solving, etc. For instance. let us discuss Robert Sternherg's
Triarct~icTheory to understand the infonrlation processing view of intelligence. Incliviclunl Dlf'f'erercnees
Cognitive Domain
Performance component : It refers to the cognitive processes involved in pcrfoiming

a task or solving a problem. Let us take an example in which the student is asked to solve
a problem. Orange is a fruit as horse is to what'?
The perfomlance components c d i s t of the following
Encoding : You placc the information about the problem (task example) in the mcmoq.
Inferring : It refers to the relat~onsin the problem statemcnt (as orangc and horse In the
abobc mcntioned exanlple). You infcr the relat~onbetwccn orange and f m ~ t .
Mapping : This refers to higher order relations. You rclate the relations between orangc and
fniit to horse and animallina~mnalto arrive at the solution.
Response : You state the answcr - mammal.
Knowledge acquisition component : This refers to tlic nieaningful acquisition of new

infornlation by relating the iilforniation(re1ation betwecn orange and Emit or horse and
mammal) to the prior knowledge (meanings of orange. fruit. horse. mailmal) csisting
in the iiiindlnieiilory.
met:^ component ( ho\\lcdgc about one-s o\\n thiiikiiig ) : It refers to ho\v onc directs
ones o\\11 tliiilkiiig i. c. perfornlance aiid hiowledge acquisition componcnts. It means
thc way in which one directs onc's thinking to undcrstand the problem aiid clioosc tlic
strategy to sol\:e tlic problem using tlic perfor~nancecomponcnts. Wlictlier IVC considcr
the intellectual abilities (psychometric view ) or the cognitive proccsscs underlying
iiitcllectual abilities (infonnation processing view) in defining intelligcnce. both lead us
to the sanie coi~clusion.
it is appropriate to consider intelligence in terms of intellectual ability and the ~mdcrlying

cogniti\,e processes. It is important to clarify the view about general ability and specific
abilih:. Iiltelligence is treated as general ability represeilti~iggeiicral lcvel of the c0gnitiA.c
I process. This is more so when we try to nieasurc tlic intelligence of an individual and it is
identified bv obtaining a single score such as IQ to reprcscnt thc general ability and the relatcd
cogilitivc processes. Cogiiitive processes bvill hclp us undcrstand how iiitellectual abilities
operate and formulatc specific instructional task to facilitate thc de\,elopmcnt of intellectual
abilities. We shall discuss specific abilitics in the next section on aptitude.
5.4.2 Do lndividuals Differ in Intelligence?
,Well. the!, do differ. But how? Differences are due to the diffcrences in the level of general
intellectual abilih and the underlying cogiiitive process among indi\!iduals. For example, scc
the illustration given in Section 5.3 as to how Saina and Sheela differ in the intcrpretation of
a proverb.
How do we identifv differences in intelligence'?
Using suitable intelligence tcsts we can measure and ideiitifv the dif'erence. An intelligence
test ma> contain sub-tests (sub-sections) and each sub-test represents a different set of
abilih . The scores obtained in all sub-tests are added up to obtain a single score to represent
the general ability of the student. Thus the single score obtained for each individual in a test
is expressed in terms of intelligence quotient (1Q). IQ is a measure of intelligence and is
delined as the ratio of mental age (average age of children who give corrcct responses1
ans\vers i11 an intelligence test) to the chroiiological age (actual age) multiplied b\r 100 (to
! avoid fraction). Tlms inental age is:
I Mental age
I
IQ = x 100
Chronological age
UncIe1,stancIing the Let us take an example to understand the concept clearl?,.
Learner as a Unique '
Ten year old Babu with a mental age of 12 years has an 1Q 120 (12110 x 100 = 120). On the
other hand: ten year old Sunil with a mental age of 7 years hn; IQ of 70 (7110 x 100=70).
L~~~
IQ scores help us estimate individual differences by categor~slngindividuals on the basis of

their IQs. These differences have important consequences for learning and performance. Let
us examine the different categories of students based 011 their intelligence level.
Gifted : Those students who posscss IQs of 130 or above are called gifted students. They
are superior in intelligence and have high ability to reason. As compared to other children. they
can perform academic activities grasping concepts, memorising, perceiving, seeing relation-
ships, generalising, dealing with abstract ideas, critical thinking and solving problcms inore
effectively and quickly. They have a broad attention span that permits concentrat~onand the
ability for a high level of academic performance. They take initiative in intellectual work and
follow conlples directions. Such individuals are small in number as compared to nornlal or
average children. Normal groups have those children whose IQs range from 90 to 110 and
they are able to profit from regular school progrankes with varying degrees of effort.
Disabled : There are children with disability due to low level of intellech~al'functionmgor
specific leanling deficits. Children with low level or below - average intellectual functioning
are called mentally retarded. The children with inadequate level of intelligence are impaired in
their ability to learn and to adapt to the demands of society. Mentally retarded children are of
different categories. They can be:
Border line (IQ ranges 90-70) and educable mentally retarded (IQ ranges 70-50)
children can perform academic activities but are slow in their learn~ng.Special
instructional strategies can help them to profit from learning act~vities.They can take care
of themselves and live independently as adults.
Trainable mentally retarded (JQ ranges 50-35) are capable of learning only certain
rudimentary literacy materials and simple occupational skills. They possess some ability
to take care of their personal needs and can be trained in daily living skills. Such children
require special classes or schools to study in.
Severely retarded (IQ below 35) have quite limited adaptive behaviour and are never
found in school. They are dependent on their families for their personal needs.
Children with specific learning defects are called learning disabled group. They are normal to
above-average on intelligence but have difficulties in one or more psycl~ologicalprocesses
involved in understanding or in using language or numbers (written or spoken). The
difficulties manifest in their ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell or do mathematical
calculations. These difficulties are identified .as aphasia (difficulty in grasping spoken
language), dyles5a (difficulty in reading), hyperlexia (little or no comprehension), dyscalculia
(difficulty in doing arithmetic) and dysgraphia (difficulty in writing). Some are hyperactive
in the sense that they are excessively active, inattentive and behave impulsively. They follow
instructions poorly and do not often complete the assigned tasks.
5.4.3 Instructional Strategies for Handling Individual Differences
The discussion in the preceding sub-section suggests that you need to be aware of the level
of intelllge~lceand the underlying cognitive processes. You should organise lsvet - specific
instructional activities to help them in their learning. To take care of individual differences you
should design your instructional activities to suit the mental level of the students. Some of the.
instructional strategies are discussed below:
Organise instruction for the development of cognitive process: Instruction should

aim at the development of student's cognitive process beyond the attainment of
information alone. It means that the focus should be on the development of such cognitive
processes as memory. v~sualisation,reasoning and probleni solving.
10
Individual Differences:
Cognitive Domain
Use existing cognitive level as base: Student's existing cognitive level is the bake for
further cognitile de~elopment.For instance, )IOU should observe the reasoning level of
your students and identi& which operations/activities they can perform and which they
can not. To sce part-whole or cause-effect relationship is an essential indicator of their
cognitive level. For example, in the answer of the question, wheat is to food as shirt is
to'? The student has to see the relatioilship between wheat and food and apply the same
analogy to see the relationship between shirt and .... You. as a teacher should help
students iilfer the part-whole relationship for solving the problem and proceed further
to more difficult problems.
Strengthen memory: Learning or problem solving often requires retaining fairly large
amounts of information (vocabulaq, concepts, principles, etc.) in the memory system.
Mnemonics (aiding the memory) is a strategy which helps retain new information in the
memory. For instance rhymes, words or images can be paired with new information to
remember them easily. For example, Monica uses mnemonics, VIBGYOR (Violet,
Indigo; Blue, Green, Yellow, Orange and Red) to help her recall the colours of the
rainbow. Likewise, the mental image of a plant cell can act as a powerful mnemonic tool
to state the properties of a plant cell. Rehearsal is another strategy for remembering. It
meails actively repeating the ideas to be learned so that the ideas are registered well in
the memory. Cun~ulativerehearsal is the most appropriate method where the student
repeats all the names or concepts in a given list cumulatively. For example, when you
are given a list of ten Indian rivers, first you may say, Kaveri; second you may say,
Kaveri. Narmada, third you may, Kaveri, Narmada, Yamuna, and so on.
Formulate level specific instructional strategy: Instructional strategies which are

the best for one group are not necessarily the best for another.. Gifted students as
compared. to average and low ability students require intellectually more demanding
(higher order thinking) learning situations. Enriched learning experiences (advanced
learning experiences over and above wvllat the rest of the class learn) call be provided
to them. Activities such as mathematics, science and social science projects, science
quizzes, creative writing, and special tutoring in specific areas of interest are suitable to
meet their cognitive demand, On the other hand, for average and low ability groups,
clearly explicit, more direct and sequentially structured instruction with specific visual
illustrations (graphics, charts, photographs, drawings) and analogy will be suitable,
Teacher directed small group work, individual practice and demonstration will provide
specific situations to enhance their cognitive process. In a heterogeneous classroom
situation you can. organise instruction based on ability grouping where students are
grouped accordiilg to the level of their ability and instruction is modified as stated above
to suit the level of their ability.
Use individual meeting: Though it is a difficult strategy, it provides you with insights
'
into a student's learning and cognitive processes. For example, a student has difficulty
in comprehending passages. B$ giving a series of passages with questions, observing
the way the student answers in each passage, you will gain insights into the student's
difficulties and will be able to help himher overcome the difficulties. This is more suitable
for low ability students.
Provide instructions to overcome learning disability: You should design structured

instructions to meet the nature and level.of learning disability. Let us examine the
strategy. For esample, Mr. Gopal, a teacher, located poor vocabulary as the problem of
poor comprehensibility of his students and provided them activities to learn essential
vocabulary. Subsequently, those s$udents were exposed to selective reading material
coi~tainingvocabulary and concepts already learned. Later practice sessions were held
so that a good reading practice was acquired by them. This also led to an understanding
of the content. Afterwards, they were asked to answer questipns as well as to summarise
a given passage either orally or in'writing. At the end, Mr. Gopal confirmed the right
answer and the confirmation of right answer gave feedback to the students for
improving their vocabulary.
Understanding the
. -- --. -
Learner as a Unique Check Your Progress 1
Indiviclual
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of thc unit.
What is intelligence quotient UQ)?Write the formula of IQ?
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5.5 APTITUDE
You have seen in section 5.4 that intelligence is a nteasure of an indi~lidual'sgeneral abilih-
However. psychologists' attention was gradually drawn towards the specific abilities
represented by intelligence. This initiative b). psychologists led to the formulation of ideas
about aptitude.
5.5.1 What is Aptitude?
Aptitude refers to the set of abilities essential for acquiring howlcdge and skills specific to
an area of perfomlance. Precisely, it denotes the set of abilities required to perform a
specialised activity. For instance: when we say aptitude for enginecring and aptitude for art.
the set of abilities involved in learning performing in engineering is different froin that of art.
The same is true for medicine, mathematics. science: music: teaching or athletics. The
components of aptitude will tell us more about these sets of abilities.
What are the components ofaptitude?
Intellectual processes are a major component of aptitude. It refers to nlultiplc cogi1iti1.e

processes related lo thinking such as memory processes, restruchlring symbols and ~deas.
perception of relations and patterns betbeen ideas, spatial comprehension or orientation.
reasoning, problem solving, judgement, ctc. These cognitive processes are important for
recognition of infornlation and for innovation, invention or discovery while performing a Lash.
Another is sensory component and it refers to the abilities related to sensory process such as
vision and audition. Vision implies the ability for visual sensitivity (e.g. colour sensitivity. etc.).
Audition means the ability to hear tones at different pitch levels (e.g. pitch discrimination.
loudlless discrimination. etc.).
Another component is psychomotor coinpoilent which refers to the kind of abilities involved
in the gross body movements or its parts -trunk, limbs, hands, fingers: etc. The kinds of
abilities involved are strength, impulsion, speed. precision and flexibilit?.. Strength means
strength of body parts - leg, trunk and hand (e.g. hand grip). Iinpulsion refers to the rate
of initiation of a movement and can be identified using reaction time to light or sound (e.g. time
taken to start at the signal in an athletic event). Speed means the rate of movement (e.g. hand
or finger or leg speed Fvl~ileperforming an act). Precision implies steadiness in performing an
act or movements (e.g. putting pins tluough tiny holes rapidly). Flexibility refers to the
looseness of the joints (e.g. touch toes with fingers without bending knees).
It is important to note that when we speak of aptitude. say mechanical aptitude, this is a
coinbination of separate abilities related to cognitive process, sensory and psychomotor for
performing mechanical activities such as writing with a pen. The same is true for
mathemat~cal,muslc, graphl~art or athletic aptitude. Here you may ask why we discuss Individual Differences:
Cognitive Domain
psychomotor component under cognitive domain. We need to discuss this psychomotor
component when we deal with specific activities. These activities may be required for
acquiring knowledge and skill for performing routine tasks. For instance, let us take the
example of a pilot. While navigating an aircraft the pilot has to perform several complex
operations with speed and precision involving specific abilities related to cognitive, sensory
and psychomotor components.
How does aptitude differ from intelligence ?While intelligence refers toaset ofmental abilities
and skills, the term aptitude refers to the set of those abilities which directs individual
performance in certain specific areas, such as teaching aptitude, mechanical aptitude, etc.
You may like to know the difference between aptitude and academic achievement. Though
both are important for determining future learning, academic achievementreflects the effects
of learning of a specific subject or a set of subjects during a given period of time. Aptitude
reflects the cumulative influence of a combination of a set of abilities a'nd a multiplicity of
experiences (including learning subjects) in daily life. For example, a student of your class
may be very intelligent but that student may not have an aptitude for public speaking or .
dancing for that matter.
Yes, they do differ. An individual may have a mechanical aptitude, another may have an
aptitude for mathematics or yet another may have an aptitude for language, music or athletics. '
Such differences are due to the differences in the combination of abilities related to the
cognitive processes, and the sensory and psychomotor components. For instance, when we
talk of mechanical aptitude, we may deal with ability for spatial relations, ability to acquire ,
information on mechanical matters and ability to comprehend mechanical relations, besides

sensory and psychomotor abilities. Similarly, when we discuss aptitude in music, we may
identify ability for musical memory, pitch discrimination, loudness discrimination, time
discrimination and judgement of rhythm. Likewise, abilities required for science or
A mathematics are different and each requires-a separate set of abilities.
The differences in aptitude can be identified using aptitude tests. Aptitude tests for areas such
as mechanical skills, mathematics, science, language, music and graphic art can be used to
identify the aptitude of students in each area of performance. You might have heard of the
use of aptitude tests in medicine, engineering, business management, law or teacher training
/ for selection of students for studies in the respective fields. The aptitude test, in fact, provides
a measure ofthe candidates promise or teachability in afield ofstudy, say, medicine. In other
words, the test would tell whether the candidate possesses the required aptitude or readiness
I to profit from studies in the concerned field of study,
5.5.3 Instructional Strategy for Handling Indjvidual Differences

The suggested approach for handing individual differences is gdaptive instructional
system. In this approach at least two alternative instructional treatments are needed to ensure
academic success. Which is the most appropriate instructional treatment for'the student
I depends upon his or her existing level of aptitude (learning readiness). Students with high
I
aptitude may choose unstructured instructional strategy. With minimum .guidance from
teacher, they may be encouraged to learn through the discovery oriented approach. You may
us&the inductive process but instructional treatment is essentially learner-centered.
In contrast, highly structured instructional treatment for low aptitude learners is designed in
small units through sequential steps and feedback. Frequent summary and review with
simplified illustration, analogy and precise explanation of concepts and principles to be
learned will facilitate p;ogressive learning. Periodic achievement and aptitude assessments
' and comparison of these scores with the aptitude scores obtained at the start of instruction
would tell the degree to which each learner in the specific treatment group has achieved.
However, for those who are unable to profit from either of the alternative treatments
presented above, compensatory aptitude training is suggested. This consists of directed
I ~~clc~.stanctin@ the rcading skill. study habits. self-learning skills. notc taking and related act11it~es.The Inall1 aim
L e a t ~ i c ~;IS
. a Unique
Intli\~iclunl
of compensatory aptitude training is to develop rcadiness for eentq into structured treatment.
Periodic monitoring should be formulated to idcntif>pthe students who reach the required l e cl ~
for enlry inlo alteniativc treatment.
Notcs : a) Write j70ur answers in thc spacc givcn belo\v.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit
I
i) What do you mean by aptitude'?
ii) Which instructional treahnenl \vill you give to the shldents ~vitlilo\i aptitude ?
5.6 CREATIVITY
Prc-historic man did not travel by plane or by car, colnniun~catcby telephone. watch
television. use computers. wear suits, live in concrete houses or eat the food available today.
Infact. the hunianbeing's jouniey from the ancient period to lnodeni times is the story of
creativity. Let us i~ndcrstandthe conccpt clcarlyf.You have read about thc concept of creativity
in Sub-scctioii 3.5.2lSection 3.5/Unit 3 of Block I .
5.6.1 What is Creativity?

Creat~vityis an overused expression in cducation. One often hears that tlic goal 01' schooling
is to pro~notccreativity in students. What exactly IS creat~vit)'!The definitions are almost as
broad as the use of the expressloll itsclf.
Creativity refer7 to the abilit). to create or discover something that is n o ~ ~and

e l has some 1-alue
for the society. For example, the discovery of peiilcilli~i.formulation of tlie coilcept of
relati\:ity. creation of television, Tagorc's workGitanjali and the like are acts ofcrcativity. The
definition of creativity stated that something tliat is created slioiild be novel and of some value.
Novel means the unusual naturc of the thing that is created whether it is pencillin. tlie concept
of relativity or Gitanjali. The einpl~asisis 011 tlie production of something ncn. Equall\.
important is the value which means tliat products of creativity should be of somc value to
humanbeings. For instance. the discovery of pencillin, fonliulation of thc co~iccptof relativih
and creation' of television havc been himing points in tlie dcvelopmcnt of knov lcdge as well
as for humanbeings and society. Fi~rtlier,Tagore's writings speak certain basic truths about
humanity and seem as powerful now as when he conceived thcm. Ps~chologistsIn general.
to name a fav. Guilford, Hayes, Taylor: Torrance, Wallach and Kogan. acccpt the novel@
and value aspects of creativity.
Some psychologists define creativity in terms of product where the emphasis is attached to
the output of the creative effort. Others look at it in temis of a process \vhick places cilipliasis
on the tliinking process (ability) involvcd in creating tlie product. Whether we look at creativil?.
from the pcrspectivc of product or process. both thcse are two facets of crcativily. Our
definition of creativity as the ability to create or discover (process) ~ornethi~ig tliat is novel
and of some value (product) is based on both product and process vic\vs.
5.6.2 Do Individuals Differ in Creativity? Incliviclu~l 1)irferenres
C:ognitlve Domain
Like intelligeiice and aptitude. you may be curious to know whether individuals differ in terms
of creatiwty. Well. the answer to this question depends upon your understanding of the
coinpoilents of crbati~ity.
Let us tun1 to the components of creativity. The major component is divergent thinking
which refers to the thinking process involved in generating alternative (more than one) ideas
or answers to a given problem.
Esaml~lc- List the things [hat are round in shape. One can list sevcral answers hcre.
In fact. creativit?, involvcs a cluster of abilities based on the di~ergentthinking process. Let
us examine thosc abilities in a hierarchical order.
Ability to sense problems : It means an awareness of the defects. needs and

deficiencies in the environment.
Example - Sensing the need to improve the telephone or finding a cure to heart disease A
or finding a metaphor or symbol to describe the present situation.
Fluency : It refers to the ability to cxprcss or generate multiple solutions of a given

problenl or concept.
Example - List the ilunlber of uses of the newspaper.
Flexibility : It refers to thc abilih. to state a variety of solutions or answers to a problem

and reflects the abilit], to change the direction of one's thinking. Variety of or alternative
solutions created and not the number of solutions is considered under flexibility.
Example - Varict? of uscs of the nebvspaper can be idcntified as source of news, packing
material. material for preparing toys. mat for table, etc.
Originality : It incans the ability to produce unique or new ideas. Inventions are the most
conunon example of this aspect of creativity.
Example - Ability to suggest a new title of a poem.

1
El:rbol-ation : It means the ability to develop well an idea or insight. A thinker's or

writer's grcatness lics in making the idea elaborate with explanations, situations and
implications or plots. characters and dialogue.
Example - I) The ~ d c athat bj, providing Illere iilfonnation to students does not develop
their competencies, rather the task or activity-bascd approach would ensure students'
involveinent in learning and de\~elopmcnt of competenc~es.Task-based approach
provides the ratioilale for designing and providing appropriate activ~tiesto develop
learners' competencies. ii) Elaborate thc phrase into a stor)
Redefinition : It refers to the a b i l i ~to improvise operations in situations where a

familiar function is perfonned with an object bvliich is not normally used to perform such
a function.
Example - Using a bangle or a cold drink can to draw circles
Though creativity is essentially based'on the ability of divergent thinking, psychologists

are of the view that components such as intelligence. knowledge and nlotivation are
linked to creativih~.In fact. intelligence involves cognition and convergent thinking i.e.
form of thinking which is needed in a situation or a problem where there is only one
acceptable answer or acceptable answcrs. The cmphasis here is on acceptable and that
CJnderstuncling the too acceptable within the limits of our present knowledge and iiiioruiatioii.
Learner as a Unique
Incliviclual
Psychologists are of the view that a certain levcl of iiltclligence is requircd for creatij it!
For instance, Machinnon's study of highly creative indi\ iduals (biologists. inatheniati-
cians. architects and social scientists) with IQs ranging froin 120 to 177 indicatc that
while highly creative individuals had higher than aJrerage Ic\;cl of intclligcncc. the! were
no brighter than their noncreati\..e colleagues: It mealis that there is no difference in thc
IQ scores of. say, the highly creativc architect and the non-crcatijc architect. Thc
possession of higher than average le\.el of intelligence alone does not ensure creativit~.
It inlplies that creativity is essentially divergent thinking proccss but tlierc is a placc for
cognition and convergent tliinking too. While bcing involvcd in crcative problem sol\!ing
besides generating altcniativc solutions. one has to nlakc logical inferences. coinpare
alternatives and choose the right alternative. For this reason quite oltcn creative thinking
consists of alternating phases of divergent (imag~nati\,e)thinking. and cognitive and
convergent thinking.
I11 fact. creativity is directly linked to knowledge and motivation. I t is not possible J'or a
biologist or a musician to become crcativc without acquiring a grcat deal of lino\vlcdge
in the field of biology or luusic. Devotcd study olzera long pcriod 01' tinic cnablcs one to
gain hiowledge in.the field. Moti~,atioiito produce original \\.ark is another factor.
Motivational factors, to name a few, coiisists ol' a dcsirc to question. high intellcctual
persistence, tendency to put up with frustration of not being ablc to lind solution and
delight in trying with ideas and curiosit\,. Creati\.c individuals spcnd an cnornlous amount
of timc in their work and. in general, tend to bc satisfied only \with origiiialit!~. Thus !ou
have seen that apart from divergent thinking abilities creativih rcquires abo\ e wcragc
intelligence, deep howledge and higher motivation.
What does this mean'? It simply ineans that divergent thiiAing abilities. intelligence.
knowledge and motivation help us to understand creativity and to idcntilj indi\,idual
differences in creativity. In fact, individuals do not posscss tlie sanic le\.el 01' di\;crgcnt
thinking abilities, intelligence. hio~vlcdgeand motivation. Such diffcrc~lccscrealc
differences in creativity among individuals. Besides. thc abilities - abilit?.to scnse problc~n
fluency. flexibility, origii~ality,elaboration and redefinition - are not usuall! found i n thc
equal levels in the same individual. One may bc highly fluent but ma) not bc Hcxible in
generating ideas. Siniilarly. differenccs iq intclligcnce. Lillokb-Iedgc and mot11 atlon
strengtlie~ithe differences in creativit~..Thus. difl'erences in divcrgcnt thinking abil~tics.
intelligence, luiowledge and motivation account for differenccs i n crcati~.~t? 111 11ic field
of study or work cliosen by individuals. For instance. one ma? bc crcati\c in
Mathematics: another in literature and yet another is C l i c m i s ~or art or nlusic or
advertising. Every child is expected to have creativity but thc naturc of creativit? ma?
differ from child to child.
5.6.3 Can Creativity be ~ostered?
E. Paul Torrance who investigated the strategies of foslcring creati\.it? suggcsts that crcat11.e
abilities call be enhanced if appropriatc,supportive bchaviour and classroo~npractices arc
provided. Let us identi@ the tecluiiques of attaining this.
Encourage unusual or odd questions : As a teaclicr. should encourage ?our

4011
students' curiosity and accept unusual questloris For ~nstancc.a studc11r nia! ask \ou.
ho\v does a cloud fonn'? Using thc follo~t~ n gact11 ~t! ? 011ma? ~lluslratcthe atis\\ cr as
follows
The teacher takes a half-filled beaker with boiling \t.ater and closes tlic top with an icc
picce. Students are asked to obscwe what happens. The! noticc c\al)oration and a cloutl-
like formation in tlie upper portion of the bcakcr. In tlic cnsuing discussion the\ rclatc
water, heat, e~aporation.ten~pcraturc.cloud, and rain. and all this lcads fi~rtherlo the
concept of different states of matter.
your acceptance of the questions encourages the students' cur~osityto know. Quite Inclividual Differences:
Cugnltlvc. Domain
often teachers dismiss such questions by saying, 'you find out for yourself. An
indifferent or negative attitude of a teacher damages a student's thinking process and
creative effort. Suppose you are asked by a student- why does the moon change shape
every night? If you don't know the3nswer, welcome the question and help him find out
an appropriate answer through discussion or using reference materials.
Provide activities to promote creative thinkinglabilities :For instance, ask students

to list unusual uses they can think of the following:
Ballpen Paper Rope

Shoe Book Candle
Discuss the answers and help each student understand his or her fluency. flexibility and
originality. Continue the exercise using different items.
Organise brainstorming sessions : This is a strategy where each member of the group
generates ideas to find solutions to a given problem. The leader (you, as a teacher)
presents the problem to the brainstorming group and directs each member of the group
to state one idea at a time. After one round, the session moves on to the second and is
on leading to several rounds. One is encouraged to generate an idea based on another's
idea (hilch hiking) but not allowed to criticise another member's idea. Ideas thus
generated. are furlher scrutinised by members for choosing the idea with the most
potciltial to solve the problem.
Use synectics : Synectics is a strategy based on analogies to generate ideas. Analogies

provide a structure to generate ideas by connecting a familiar content with a new content.
or looking at a familiar content from a new perspective. You can use direct analogy or
personal analogy. In direct analogy you compare two objects or ideas. To help students
get an insight into the mechanics of a car, for instance, compare it (the mechanics of
a car) with the movement of a bird. The students list the connections they see behveen
a car and a bird.
Bird Car
brain engine
food petrol
nervous systen~ mechanical co~lnections
sick breakdown
No\\ ask students to write a short paragraph indicating the analogical connections. In
persoilal analog! an individual is asked to empathise with an object or an idea to be
compared. If the discussion is about air. ask students to imagine tliemselve to be m the
air and express what they feel.
Provide students situations to evaluate their own ideas 'or thinking : Students who
make evaluation of their own thinking are lcss likely to be inhibited in future questioning.
Extra cl-edit for creative thinking : While evaluating students performance in your
subject. look for creative ideas. Students exhibiting creative effort should be recognised
and rewarded by extra credit. Well. creativity can not be fostered unless as a tcacher,
you display originality in your classroonl behaviour.
l~ticlerstrncling the
Learner as r Lhique
Incliviclual
Check Pour Progress 3
b) Compare your answer with.those given at the end of the wit.
What is creativity'? What are the techniques of attaining creativity among students?
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5.7 ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT
Like intelligence. aptitude and creativity. the students differ in their academic achievement
also. Accordingly, your teaching methods and behaviour differ according to your perception
of students as low achievers or as high achievers.
5.7.1 What is Academic Achievement?
We often refer to academic achievement as the marks secured in a subjcct or subjects. For
example Rahul, Smita, John, Rahiin, and Mary are students of class VTIT. Their marks in
science at the terminal examination are 60,78.84. 72 and 50 respect~vely.A critical analys~s
reveals that these marks are mere indicators of the knowledge and capabilities attained by
Rahul and others in Science. Academic achievement. in fact. should refer to the know ledge
and capabilities acquired by each of them in Science. It means that academic achievement is
the acquired potential (knowledge and capabilities) in a subject or subjects.
You may be curious to know how students acquire their potentials in subjects. Psycl~ologists
address this question using schema theory. Let us discuss it further.
Schema means knowledge structure created by the students i ~ their i memor). Knowledge
structure is the internal representation of extenla1 realities. A student. for instance, fonns a
knowledge structure of 'bird' (external reality) in terms of shape. wings. feather, flying and
living in nests or.branches of tress (internal representation). Knowledge structures - different
types, characteristics, biological processes and life pattern - of birds. Likewise, one may form
knowledge structures of 'refraction', in terms of propagation of light, bending of light.
convergence and divergence of light and image, and later widen the structures by relating the
phenomenon of refraction in nature (rainbow) and functions of optical instruments (human
eye, microscope, telescope). Schelpa theory states that learning takes place forming
appropriate knowledge structures (schema) by relating new information (e.g. principles of
microscope) to the existing knowledge structures (c.g. principles of refraction). Let us relate
this idea to academic achievement. How do you know that thc student has formed the
appropriate knowledge structures'? Let us use the follo~vhgquestion.
Why do we use convex lens instead of concave lens in microscope'! The student ii7ill be able
to answer only and only if helshe possesses appropriate knowledge structures about the
microscope. The answer to the question would indicate the student's existing knowledge
structures of a microscope. In fact. the marks awarded to a student represent hisher
knowledge.
Incliviclual Differences:
C:ognitlve Ilomain
You have seen that knowledge is fornled by relating new information to the existing
knowledge. It means possessing appropriate domain-specific knowledge facilitates acqui-
sition oC new knowledge. Domain-specific knowledge means existing knowledge or
pre-requisite knowledge essential for learning new illformation in s subject. Those who
possess appropriate pre-requisite knowledge (e.g. refraction principle) learn more from new
infomlation (e.g. microscope) than from those who lack such knowledge in science. This
is true of all subjects. A student, thus, progresses in attailment of knowledge in a subject
by ,relating new illrormation to the existing knovdedge and the progressive nature of
knowledge attainment suggests the cumulative nature of learning. For instance, students
who know subtractioll and multiplication (pre-requisites) will effcctively learn division and
those who possess knowledge of those operatiolls (pre-requisites) learn effectively
compound interest. On the contraw, those who do not possess the appropriate pre-requisite.
knowledge would fail to learn division and continue to fail in acquiring knowledgc of
coinpound interest.
Along with knowledge the student is expected to attain related capabilities. The knowledge
discussed above includes comprehension. In other words, when a student learns the
principle of refraction, helshe should not only be able to recall, identify and recognise it (the
coilcept of refraction) but should also be able to demonstrate, differentiate. illustrate and
explain it. Kno\vledge is the base for attaining the rel'afed capabilities involved in applicati.on
( a b i l i ~to apply the principles in a new situation), analysis (ability to compare, contrast and
diffcrcntiate), synthesis (ability to derive, formulate, modifl, originate) and evaluation
(appraise, judge, assess). Thus academic achievement refers to the acquired potentials
(lalowledge and capabilities) in a subject or subjects. .
5.7.2 Do Learners Differ in their Academic Achievements?

They do differ, but how'? You have seen that those who possess appropriate pre-requisite
kno\\;ledge learn more effectively than those who lack such knowledge, Differences in pre-
requisite knowledge possessed by students create differences in the attainment of knowledge.
Further. knowledge is attained progressively. Progressive differences in knowledge attain-
ment leads to cumulative differences in knowledge attainment and this form of differences
is often called Mdhew Effect. It means that academically rich get richer and those who are
I
poor continue to be poor. Thus, differences in pre-rcquisites and cumulative knowledge lead
to differcnces in the knowledge possessed bv the students. Likewise, they also differ in their
capabilities to manipulate the knowledge in a given situation and the differences are identified
in ternls of the abilities to apply, analyse, synthesise and evaluate knowledge. In fact, ability
is an essential condition for learning and the abilities related to intelligence, aptitude and
creativity are important for academic achievement. You have seen the instructional strategies
1 for meeting the differences in intelligence. aptitude and creativity tlvough classroo~n
situations. It means that differences in intclligence, aptitude and creativity do create
differences in academic achievement.
The differences in academic achicvement can be identified using an achievement test in the
concenled subject. However, if the achievement test contains only knowledge level items
(questions). it tells only knowledge level differences. On the other hand. if it contains items
(questions) on kllowledge and capabilities - comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis
and evaluation - thc various levels of differences can be identified. Besides, the total marks.
each level-wise total is needed to identify the strengths and weaknesses of every student as
well as the differences among students. As a teacher. if you know the strengths' and
weahnesses of yoiu students in a subject: j>oumay be able to adopt appropriate instructional
strategies to suit their strengths and. weaknesses iu that subject.
Apart lrom thesc. achievement differences are quite often identified in terms of categories
of achievers by classify-ingstudents as high, average and low achievers. Though there is no
strict cut-off points, these categories can be created using marks. High achievers are those
who possess Iugher level of knowledge and capabilities (say, with marks 66% and above)
than the rest and those who possess average level of knowledge and capabilities (say, with
marks 36% to 65%)) are called average achievers. On the other extreme, you may find
Understanding the marks 36% to 65%) are called average achievers. On the other extreme, you may find learners
Learner as a Unique
Individual
with low level knowledge and capabilities (with 35% and below marks). They are called low
achievers, lfyou are interested in identifying the high, average and low achievers in a subject.
say Science or language, the categories are created using the marks obtained in the concerned
subject. However, categories can also be created based on the overall achievement in a class.
As a teacher, you may be curious to know the strategies for meeting the achievement
differences in your classroom or the challenges posed by the strengths and weaknesses of
the students in teaching-learning situations. Let us discuss important instructional strategies.
5.7.3 What are Instructional Strategies?
The basic principle is that instruction should aim at the development of knowledge and
capabilities ofall children. How can you operationalisethisprinciple? Let usdiscussthemajor
strategies to cope up with the differences in academic achievement.
Provide appropriate pre-requisites to organise and learn new information : You

have seen that new information is learned by linking itto pre-requisite knowledge. So, first
ascertain whether the student possesses the appropriate pre-requisites for learning new
information and if not, provide the pre-requisites. Advance organiser is a suitable
strategy for providing the appropriate pre-requisites. Advance organiser is a general
overview of new information presented in advance of processing new information. The
student is told in advance what the main point or the main concepts to be covered will
be. For instance, prior to learning a lesson on mammals (new information) students can
be asked to describe the characteristics of domesticated animals like a cow or sheep.
Knowledge of the characteristics of a cow or sheep activates the appropriate pre-
requisites to learn about mammals. Advance organiser is effective to focus a student's
attention on the key points. Careful application of advance organisers can improve the
impact on student learning. An advance organiser may be a statement, a descriptive
paragraph, a demonstration or even a video programme. Application of advance
organisers is moreeffectivefor low-ability learners. More skilled students can invent their
own model.
Use visual aids :A visual aid creates the mental image of ideas(s) and represents and
facilitates students' thinking concretely by reducing the amount of abstraction. Graphics.
charts, diagrams, photographs, models and real objects are the various forms of visual
aids. Fof instance, a chart depicting a transport system would facilitate students to attain
the conceptual clarity and the characteristics of transport system.
Use an#logy, example and illustration :Analogy is a productive instructional device
and allows students to think and learn. Analogy encourages students to draw parallels
between a familiar idea and the idea to be learned. The new idea is taught by referring to
the similar features of the familiar idea. For instance, you can introduce the structure of
animal aell (idea to the learned) using the analogy ofegg (familiar idea). Usinga raw egg
and a drawing or a model of an animal cell, you can provide a situation to show that the
animal cell in some ways resembles the egg. The cell membrane is like the outer skin and
shell of an egg. The cytoplasm is like the egg white. The cell nucleus is like the egg yolk
and so on. Likewise. use examples and illustrations to explain concepts and principles
Ensure learner's active involvement in learning : Only listening to the teacher's talk
will not ensure effective learning. Besides talking, you can provide tasks (manipulatable
conditions) for student's active involvement. For instance, you can deal with a lesson on
'environmental protection by formulating a series of tasks for students performance.
Tasks consisted of analysing textbook lessons, identifying effect of environment,
designing a poster campaign, writing a story, drawing cartoons and formulating
strategies for environmental protection. Students are first exposed to the idea in the
textbook and subsequently small groups can be formed where each gfoup consists of
high, average and low achievers. Each group is asked to complete one task. Different
levels of,the cognitive process are involved in each task and by performing the task
students are expected to attain understandingas well as to shape their cognitive processes.
Ifthe teaaher is dealing with astory, the story mapping technique (how elements ofa story
arc organised) is appropr~ateto ensure students' involvement. In thls situation. activities . Inclividurl Differences:
should be provided for identifvinglsetting (time and place of story), characters, Cognitive Domain
problems or goals (what the characters arc trying to attain or to resolve), episode (events
that occur). theme (underlying message) and resolution (characters' effort to resolve the
problem).
. Periodic assessment : It provides an opportunity to students to rehearse and remember

infonnatlon. It helps teachers identify the students' level of attai~unentand get an insight
into their weaknesses. The results would help identify those who need remedial
instruction or those wlo can proceed further.

b) Coinpare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
I i) What is Mathew Effect ?
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ii) What do you mean by advance organiser '?
5.8 LET US SUM CTP

We began the discussion on the cog~litiveperspective of individual differences by introducing
the coilcept of intelligence. While the psychometric approach focuses on intellectual abilities,
the information processing approach deals with the cognitive process underlying the
intellectual abilities. Intelligence is the general ability representing the general level of a
cognitiveprocess. Individuals differ on intelligence. Gifted, normal and disable categories are
specific illustrations of the differences in intelligence.
Aptitude involves a sct of given abilities some of which are given and some are acquircd.
Aptitudc also reflects the readiness to learn. When we talk about aptitude, we discuss the set
of abilities related to cognitive, sensov and psychomotor components. Differences in
specific abilitites create differences among individuals. Anong the students some may have
the aptitude for mathematics, somc for language and other in music, athletics, science or
graphic art. Within the same area, say, in language, the students may also differ. As a teacher
you should identify such differences.
Creativity is the ability to create alternative solutions to problems which are novel and of some
value. Divergent thinking abilities are essential for creative thinking. However, creative
individuals tend to have higher than average level of intelligence. Such individuals are highly
motivated and work hard. and possess deep knowledge in the field of their work. Individuals
differ on creativity and such differences can be attributed to differences in divergent thinking
abilities. intelligence, knowledge and motivation.
L:nderstsnding the Academic achievement refers to the acquired potentials of shtdents. They acquire new
~ a a t n e ras a Unique
information by relating to the relevaill pre-requisites and progress in h~owledgeand
I~rdisidual
capabilities c~mulatively.Abilities related to intelligence. aptitude and creatiwrip are essential
for learning. Differences in these lead to differellces in academic achievement. As such the
various instructional strategies suiggestcd are also expected to promote academic'achieve-
ment. As a teacher, you should find differences anlong your students on the dimensions of
the cognitive domain. The cllallenge that may confront you is how to formulate and exccute
specific instructional strategies to meet sucll differences. Certainly, while you engage in the
exercise of fonnulating your own specific instructionaf strategies and applying them, besides
those strategies suggested in this section, you can also expect to enhancc your cognitive
process and attain greater professionalisin in teaching.

1. Reeja is a bright student and always tops in the class. Her score on intelligence places her
as a gifted learner. She often feels that regular classroom teaching is not challenging and
does not meet her intellectual curiosity. She often feels bored and at times considers
herself as being a misfit in the class. Which instructional strategies would you suggest
to help Reeja'? Support your answer wit11 convincing argument.
2. Discuss the cffect of individual differences in students on your role as ateacher

Anastas. Anne ( 1958): Individtinl and Group D~ferences,IIIrd Edition, Mcmillan Cornpall?.
New York.
Entuislle, N. (1985) :New Directions in Education Psychology :Learning and Teaching, The
Fatma Press. London and Philadelphia.
Mohan. (1993) : Ed~rcationalPsychabgy, Wiley Eastern. New Delhi.
1. IQ is a measure of intelligence and defincd as the ratio of mental age to chronological age
multiplied by 100. The fonnulla to calculate IQ is :
Mental age
IQ = x 100
Chronological age
2. i) Aptitude nleans a set of abilities essentially for acquiring knowledge and

skllls.
ii) The instructional treatment for thc low aptitude students must be designed
in a small units through sequential steps and feedback.
3. Creativity call be defined as novelty, value of usefulness, product output. process of

thinking divergently or convergently. Creativity refers to the ability to create or d~scover
something that is novel and of some value.
Creativity can be fostered through various activities. You might hate listed some of the
following activites.
ask ui~usualor odd questions.
provide activities to promote creative thinking abilities.
organise brainstorlning sessions. lndiviclual Differences:
Cognitive Domain
use synectics. .
provide students situations to evaluate their own ideas or thinking.
give credit for creative thinking.
4. i) Differences in pre-requisites lead to cuinulative differences in knowlege

atlainment. This types of differences are called Methew Effect.
ii) Ad\,ance organiser is a strategy which provide an overview of what

is being taught or discussed. Advance organiser strategy helps students
learn at a faster pace.
LTNIT 6 INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES :
AFFECTIVE DOMAIN
6.1 lntroduction
6.2 Objectives
6.3 Affective Domain : The Concept
6.4 Interest
6.4.1 Nature and Aspects of Interest
6.4.1 Growth and Development of Interest
6.413 Identification and Importance of Interest
6.4.4 Individual Differences in Interest
6.5 Attitude
6.5,l Nature of Attitude
6.5.2 Acquisition of Attitudes and Attitude Change
6.5.3 Facilitating Learning of Attitude
6.5.4 Individual Differences in Attitude
6.6 Values
6.6.1 Nature and Development of Values
6.6.2 Values and the School
6.6.3 Individual Differences in Values
6.7 Social Adjustment
6.7.1 Criteria of Social Adjustment
6.7.2 Difficulties in Social Adjustment
6.8 Self-concept
6.8.1 Development of Self-concepts
6.8.2 Pattern of Development of Self-concepts
6.9 Motivation
6.9.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
6.9.2 Theory of Motivation
6.9.3 Locus of Control
6.10 Let Us Sum Up

6.1 1 Uhit-end Exercise
6.1 3 Answers to Check Your Progress
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 5, you have studied individual differences in the cognitive domain. You have studied
individual differences in termsof intelligence, aptitude, creativity and academicachievement
of the students. The instructional strategies to cater individual differences in the cognitive
domain were presented to help you plan your teaching activities. This unit is concerned with
individual differences in the affective domain. The basic and subtle problems of how
interests, attitudes, values, social adjustment and motivation develop, change and vary are
discussed. These are non-cognitive factors that influence students' learning. The impact of
non-cognitive factors on students' learning and development will also be discussed.
Individual Differences:
6.2 OBJECTIVES Affective Domain
After going through this unit, you should be able to:
state the concept of affective domain,

describe the meaning and nature of interests, attitudes, values, social adjustment, self-
concept and motivation,
describe the role and importance of interests, attitudes, values, social - adjustment, self-
concept and motivation in learning and development of students,
'e differentiate between children's and adolescents' interests, attitudes and values,
discuss the implications of differential interests, attitudes, values, social adjustment,
self-concept and motivational patterns for teachers and parents.
6.3 AFFECTIVE DOMAIN : THE CONCEPT
A class of students shows a wide range of differences in individual levels of learning and
development. This may be due to the fact that onechild isgenetically different from the other.
A teacher's success often depends primarily on the extent to which he can make his students
do what they are expected to do. You, as a teacher, have to accomplish something. You
should know every child's characteristics and have an understanding of the underlying
developmental trends and their causes. By doing so you can ensure that every child develops
the interests, attitudes, values, self-concept and motivation that are best suited to hisher
personality.
Both the cognitive and the affective aspects play important role in determining what children
will do and will not do, and what type ofpersonal and social adjustment they will make. Upto
a point, cognitive and effective developments are correlated. Beyond that, affective
developments play a greater role. ~ h o u g hit is hard to provide a scientific proof of this
statement at this juncture, you might have noticed that a task which draws emotional
attachment from the student gets more attention than the one which is just forthe sake of
knowledge. For example, reading a story from a book may be less involving than enacting
the same story or watching play based on that story.
You might have seen that individuals prefer to engage themselves more in one activity than
the other. This tendency gives selective attention to one activity rather than to others. This
is because of one's interest. For example, your student selects some subjects to study out
of interest or picks up an activity of rnodel building or painting for the same reason. But the
attitude of that student towards arts or model building in general may be dependent on the
concept of applications he has developed during his learning process.
Learning of attitudesand values are important objectives of schooling. Attitudes and values
are core concepts for understanding individuals and their behaviour with other people and
their reactions to different social issues. They also throw light on their own self-image.
Attitudes and values like interests are highly dependent upon environmental factors such as
home. neighbourhood, school, place of worship, and other agencies. Values are more stable
than attitudes. They are of high importance to organised segments of society, such as the
community, state and nation. An individual's values are generally similar to those of the
groups of which he is a member.
Self-concepts are images students have of themselves. Students with low self-concept give
up in the face of pressure or stress. Motivation refers to the level of task involvement and
persistence the students exhibit. Social adjustment means the success with which people
adjust toother people in general and to the group with which they are identified in particular.
There is no such thing as common patterns of interests, attitudes, values, self-concept, etc.,
that will fit all. This calls upon you to tailor your instructional strategies and use motivational
Understanding 'the procedure in such a way that individual child's needs are met and his potentials are optimally
Learner us a llnique
realised. It is for this reason that we shall discuss various components of the affective
Individual
domain. '
6.4 INTEREST
Interest is a commonly used expression in day-to-day life. lnterest has agreat influence on
human behaviour. This is an important aspect ofthe affective domain that we discuss in this
sectioh.
I
6.4.1 Nature and Aspects of Interest
The concept of interest is primarily considered to be an affective one. The term is used to
designate a concept pertaining to factors within an individual which attract him to or repel
him from various objects, persons and activities within his environment.
Webester defines interest as excitement of feeling accompanying special attention to some

object orconcern, such as, an interest in Botany. An interest has been explained as something
with which the child identifies his personal well-being, interest is a source of motivation
which drives people to do what they want to do when they are free to choose. They specify
a condition or cause of attention. We read a book, go to watch a football match or attend
a lecture on religious discourse. We do all these because we are interested in them. The term
'interest' is also used to connote the feeling of pleasure resulting from giving attention to
somethi,ng. lnterest defined as a feeling of pleasure resulting from attending to something
is not a cause but a result. It is when we draw pleasure in an activity that we say that the
book, game or lecture is interesting.
lnterests become stable by the time development and growth reach a level of maturity in an
individual. Slow maturers encounter other problems. Their interests are those of children
while their other agemates develop interests those of adolescents. In any case, interests
depend upon students readiness and to some extent the opportunity to learn.
Interests are influenced by cultural factors and are emotionally weighted. An unpleasant
emotioh weakens interests while pleasant emotion strengthens them.
Aspects of interest : lnterest has both subjective and objective aspects. In the subjective
aspect, the emphasis is on the feeling component. In the objective aspect, the emphasis is
on the motor behaviour of the individual. All interests have cognitive, affective as well as
motor aspects. Components that make up the cognitive aspect of interest are based on
personal experiences gained from various means of communication at home, at school, and
in the country. Theactivities that satisfy the personal needs ofor give pleasurableexperiences
to an iridividual develop into an interest.
lnterests give rise to certain activities. The attitude towards these activities is part of the
affective domain.lt is developed from personal experiences as well as from the attitudes of
others especially parents, teachers and peers towards the particular activities.
6.4.2 Growth and Development of Interest
The iodividual has two kinds of interest-inborn and acquired. lnterest grows out of three
kinds of learning experiences:
trial and error learning,
identification with people they love or admire, and
guidance and directions they re,ceive from others.
The development of interest closely parallels the child's physical and mental development.
Limitations in his physical and mental capacities or in his experience set limits on his interest:
Interests develop through Individual Differences:
.ifI'ccti\.c l)c~mi~ilt
coiltact with wide range of desirable activities:
activities proportionate to capacities, and
presence of conditions insuring satisfaction.
6.4.3 Identification and Importanceof Interest

Children's interest can be identified through :
observation of their activities
I
the questions they ask
the topics of their conversatio~l
. the books they read
their spontaneous drawings
their wishes: and
their self-reports of what is of interest to them.
What kind of a pcrson or a child will become is determined to a large extent by tlle intcrest
developed during the childhood years. Interests are a contributing factor in no ti vat ion to
learn. Students who are interested in an acadcmic activity. whctkcr it is tlvough play or work:
put more effort in learning than those students who are less intercstcd. It affects thcir
aspirqtions and lends enjoyment in getting engaged in the activity of their interest. Failure
to understand student's interest reduces effectiveness of teaching.
Role of intcrest in adolcsccnt dcvelopmcnt : lntcrcsts havc important rolc in adolescc~lt

development. Interests lead one to choose activities of hisher choicc and acquire knowlcdgc
about them. A wide range of wholesome intcrcsts tend to cnsure breadth of espcricnce and
personality. Interests faciIitate substitution in case of thwarting and hclp in maintainiilg
mental health. Intense and abiding interests arc dcsirablc for efficiency.

Notes : a) Write your answer in thc space given below.
b) Coinpare your answcr with those given at the end of the unit.
List the importance of intcrests.
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6.4.4 Individual Differences in Interest

I
Physical and psychological characteristics, socio-economic backgrounds: thc familial and
I
environmental support: social pressures, attitudes, access and exposure to information and
learning opportunities arc not the same in the casc of all students. Thercforc. individuals diffcr
among tliemsclvcs in their interests.
Clear-cut differences in interest of children and adolesceuts are discer~iiblcin sports and
.
games, school activities and various areas of subject matter at the scliool level and in alniost
Understanding the every classroom. Their interests range from very low to very high. For example, some
Learner as a llniquc
Individual
children may like playing most of the time while others prefer reading.
Infants present evidence of interest in the form of attention. During first two or three years
exploratory activities interest the child. Nursery school children between 2-5 years of age
are interested in locomotor toys. This interest in movement seems to increase with age for
boys and show a decline for girls.
By the age of fiveor six patterns of I ikes and dislikes are not the same. Marked sexdifferences
areobserved in whatchildren likeor dislike. Boysdislike anything called inappropriate. Girls
avoid physical activities, and seldom exhibit aggression.
Sexuality during childhood and sexuality after puberty differs markedly. Little children play
with children of both sexes. Pre-school group turns to unusual friendships. Five to eight
years children feel no embarrassment in playing with other sex nor do they feel embarrassed
in getting physical affection from adults. During adolescence both sexes indicate interest in
heterosexual group experience. Adolescents are more interested in sex, personal attractive-
ness and getting along with the other sex.
6.5 ATTITUDE
Attitude is a personality trait which indicates towards individual's likes ordislikes. Attitude
influences the way an individual behaves towards an object, institution or a person. Attitude
towards a particular object is influenced by parents, teachers, school and society in which
the individual lives. We shall discuss individual differences in the terms of attitude towards
an object.
6.5.1 Nature of Attitude
Environment around us consists of all kinds of objects, people, groups and institutions. An
individual's interaction with the environment brings the person face-to-face with varied
experiences. But he does not always react to these experiences afresh in every encounter.
The cognition, feelings and response dispositions that these objects recurrently evoke get
organised into a unified and endiring system. A set of feelings and response tendencies is
available to the individual wherever he is confronted with an object, person, situation or idea.
Attitudes predispose the individual to act in particular ways towards these objects, persons,
situations or ideas and there is a degree of consistency in his response to these.
Ofthe many definitions ofattitude. the one advanced byG.W.AIIport is quite comprehensive
- " Attitudes is a mental and neutral stateof readiness, organised through experience, exerting
a directive and dynamic influence upon an individual's response to the objects and situations
with which it is related". It is clear that the attitudes of a student are formed due to his
experience and interaction with real situations.
Attitudes provide the 'frame of reference' for a person's life; all that he thinks, feels, sees
and does is consistent with the reference. Attitudes involve organisation of motivational,
emotional, perceptive and cognitive processes. Thus attitudes are reinforced by information
(the cognitive component) and often generate strong feelings (the emotional component)
that may lead to a particular form of response (the action-tendency component).
Harrison (1 976) identified three components insattitudes : beliefs, emotions and behaviour.
Your beliefs are what you consider desirable and undesirable. They are preferences that
result from your value systems. Since attitudes are accompanied by emotions, and they
influence each other, the resultant behaviour is always a complete interplay of both. The
individual displays his likes or dislikes (attitudes) through his action (behaviour).
Attitudinal information is governed on the one hand by socio-cultural influences operating

on the individual and on the other, the nature of experiences that the individual has had and
the informatian he is exposed to. Therefore, in order to understand individuals or groups and
that tbc? entertain and the values that they cherish Incliviclual Differences:
,.\ffccLivc Domain
Positive ;~ntlnegative attitudes

Sincc man). attih~descannot bc neutral, children acquire or learn positkc or ncgativc attitudes
Froin their parents. peers and scl~ools.Negatite attitudes lead to a~oidance,disagreements,
arguments. conflicts or other confrontations. Prejudice is a premature or snap judgement
that is made before csainining the facJ(s). It is a kcy factor in negative attitudes. Tlic negative
anitude gencrated by prejudice is usually directed toward people who are perceivcd to be
different in some way or the other. Negative attitudes tend to rest~ictan individual's
inlcraction with objects. people. places or things and thereby restricts his expericnces which
ma!. well have been positivc and a contributory factor in enlarging his vision. On the other
hand. positive attitudes can induce an individual to assist other people, to be caring and
unselfish. to be at pcace with his world.
6.5.2 Acquisition ofAttitudes and Attitude Change

Jnltlall~.we all lln~tatethe attitudes of our parents Later, In school. teachers and peers
contr~butcto the formation of attitudes Attitudes are also acqulred through one's own
clnot~onalevperlcnces
Attitudes, once formed; are resistant to changc. Explanation, unconditioning or rational
anal~rsisof errors in perception or fallacies are not enough becausc thc attitude produces such
stable sub-systems in the individual as to predispose him,to defend it by substitution,
avoidance and rationalising. Attitudes, whcther good or bad. do change. Man!, attitudinal
changes are accompanied by changes in tlie pcrsonalih and significa~ltchanges in the value
systcm.
6.5.3 Facilitating LearningofAttitude

In order to facilitate leaniing of an attitude, you need to identi& the attih~deto be acquircd
and clarifi the meaning of the attitude. Once this is done, then you should sharc your
experiences about attitude-building. It would be bctter if you can arrange appropriate
contexts for practice and reiilrorcement of tlie att'itude. For this you can also use group
techniques to facilitate understanding and acceptance of that attitude. Jt k~ouldbe
~vortliwliileto encourage tlie student to delibcrately calculate the desired attitude.
Dealing with extreme attitudes : Confonnity or agreement upon all attitudes and values
is not the goal. However. therc must b t a sufficiently large core of coinmoil attitudes and
values for people to livc together reasonably well. A balance, somchow. must be found
betwcen encouraging uniqueness in individuals and requiring confoni~ityto reasonable group
standards and to the codified laws of the land.
To help adolescents with extreme attitudes. you need to use your lino\vledge of the wajs
students can acquire positive anitudes.
L
Check Youl- Progress 2

b) Conlpare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
Discuss the nature of attitudes. How are they lcarnt or acquired'?
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Undelstanding the 6.5.4 Individual Differences in Attitude
Learner as s Uiclue
Individur l
Individual differences in attitudes are observed in students. Maturity Icvels. planned and
random experienccs, 'physical surroundings, extent of warmth eshibitcd, democracy and
indulgence in home enviro~unent,schooling, play~natesand exposure to media are not the
same for every one. Similarly, tlie persons a child desires to be liked and whose attitudes
he tends to intenialise, or the persons he dislikes and whose attitudes he gcnerall\. rejects
would not be the same for all individuals. An object liked by one may be disliked by others
and vice-versa. The result wvould bc attitudinal differences among indi\~iduals.
An intellectually mature individual can change and modifi, his attitudes. should he rcalise that
his attitudes are narrow, biased or even jvrong. The intellectually immature individual. b?.
contrast. will cling to his attitude even though there is enough evidence to indicate that i t is
not desirable.
Attitude towards cheating and stealing is different in children of different ages. Ten year old
children inay have stro~igattitudes against deceiving or tricking and stealing. 'The sixteen
year old, depending upon the background and the level of intelligence. fro\vii upon stealing
but may show some acceptance for cheating particularly in examination situation.
A young child is reverent in his attitude towards religion. Religion at this age is foniial.
Adolescence children are reported to be skeptics and agnostics. Individual differences are
also observed in the degree of rigidness and extent of dogmatic training received during
childhood: more likely it is for the adolescent to doubt the foniicrly acquired religious
concepts.
Adolescents di£fer in their attitude towards authority (teachers, principals, leaders and
parents) depending on the satisfaction or figures of dissatisfaction they derived during the
course of their interaction with them. Adolescence is generally marked by a rebellious
attitude towards authority whereas childhood is niarked by confirming attitude towards
authority.
6.6 VALUES.
Society establishes scl~oolsto preserve and transmit culture and value systems. i.e. thc role
of school is perceived to develop hunian resource in conformity with the n o r m set out b?
the society. For instance, in interest and attitude, students differ in their perception about
various trait and virtues of tlie society. Lct us study the various coniponents of valuc system
in this section.
6.6.1 Nature and Development of Values
A value is an orientation towards a whole class of goals that are considered important in one's
life. The value is labelled with the specific goals to be achieved in life. One may have strong
convictions about freedom, independence. good health. close familyrelationships, money or
success. If good health is one of your important values, you probably believe that people
should eat nutritive food, do exercise: take rest and avoid drugs and alcholiol. Similarly, if
you value family relationships and success, you will hold. beliefs that will promote better
relationships in the family. Every individual has some stable underlying values.
Basic values are likely to be leanled during early years. These values enter into every phase
of life aiid include attitudes towards success, competition, problem-solving, self-expression
and many other areas of life. The values also includc the virtues of honest!-. indusk?.,
cooperatioil, obedience aiid the like, depending on what kinds of beliaviour arc reinforced
in the societal institutions: such as home, farnilj,: comniunity, school. political sJrstem,etc.
Dc\lclopment of vi~lues: Some values are dcrived through tlie natural development process
and cannot be traced to specrfic clc~nentsor c\lciits that occur along the way. A niiniber of
sat~sijlng and unsatisijing cspenences. leanung about tlie effects of tlie act~vit~cs
of others.
knowledge of the human organism and its animate and inanimate surroundings, and the individual Differences:
adoption of concepts considered useful by others, all contribute to the formation of values. Affective Domain
Knowledge of the relationships within and between the individuals and their environment
makes up the material for the reasoning process and reasoning hasa place in value-formation.
It (reasoning)allows the child to arrive at conclusionsand predictions concerningthe results
of a particular action or behaviour. Through introspection there is internalization of things
held dear, warm and friendly by someone with whom the child identifies. Through
identification, the child arrive at a status Similar to that of the model or ideal. The catalyst
that develops values is warmth and love. Rules and guides are internalized when the child
desires to make them part of hislher own personal life.
6.6.2 Values and the School
Can we teach values? should we teach them? How can we teach values in classroom? These
are some of the questions that are of great importance to you, as a teacher.
As you might have observed, whenever teachers teach or come into contact with children,
they have an influence upon individual child or upon groups of children. Schools always
exhibit the importance of values in their purposes and programmes of study and most deeply
desire to nurture those values in their own students. The values held by adults are not, most
of the time, handed down to the younger generation.
Educational experiences, undoubtedly, promote certain values and cast others aside. The
school curriculum contains innumerable value judgments made by those who have designed
and developed it.
/
A useful technique in teachingvalues is to survey existing Indianphilosophies.Readingabout

philosophical viewpoints makes you aware of the values ofthe society you live in. You may
also point out-values presented in movies, art creations, and social situations that become a
part of classroom activity.
Schools are where young people spend most of their time. Therefore, schools are the place
for major intervention to help promote healthy child development. School experiencesaffect
the development of the sense of responsibility, honesty, moral courage and friendliness in
students.
One of the key factors in value development is the amount and quality of peer interaction.
Children learn aboutjustice and fairnessthrough sharing their ideas, feelings or experiences.
Yet the process is slow.
Values to be taught
Values related to the conservation of human life should be taught in schools. Students should
be made aware of the dangers of impulsive action, carelessness, thrill seeking, and other
behaviours that destroy lives.
Social norms that involve feeling of responsibility towards personal and public property are
also a matter of concern for school. Stealing, wilful destruction or vandalism, defacing
property owned by persons, groups or institutions (as in student violence agitations) are
examples of value oriented behaviour that can be built into the curriculum and transacted in
classroom.
Laws passed and enforced for the protection of individuals should have a rightful place in
any system ofvalues. Yet some youth challenge society's right to regulate affairsthat involve
their personal desire. A positive value should be given to a law because it has gone through
the process of becoming part of the public statutes.
Research evidence indicates that special classroom teaching methods can affect the level of
student's moral maturity. For instance, the dilemma-discussion approach isvery effective
in making students of all age groups aware of values and virtues of the society they belong
31
t'ntlerstantling the to Since the process of value dcvclopment, IS closely related to age, stage of cognitlve
Learner as a Unique
Individual
development. level of experience and ability of reflect from different point of view. such
a value development can not be brought about overnight . You, therefore, should not feel
frustrated at the slow development rate of your students.
For better adjustment to the social environment children should be taught that social
institutions such as the fam~ly,church. and school have a valuable place in our culture.
Check Your P~~ogress

3
Notes : a) Write your answer in the space g i ~ ~ ebelow.
n
What values do children. learn (i) at home, (ii) in schools'? List them.
i ) .........................................................................................................................................................
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6.6.3 Individual Differences in Values
Satisfying experiences in school life are important in value formation. Every child, however.
does not experiencelderive satisfaction in the same way from achievement in and
worthwhilcncss of education, in thc realisation of goals. They differ in their values/
orientation.
All children ma>,not accept the values held by the teacher. The process of identification
and introspection does not work alike with all the students of a class. Individuals differ in-
their capacity Lo make pcrsonal decisions with respect to the sense of justice, obedience.
duty, rulc-abiding, abstract reasoning. Hence, they differ in their values too.
Exposure to western style of living and behaviour patterns through newspapers: magazines.
radio, TV, cable TV networking, etc.. causes differential identity confusion among
adolescents. Their family and caste codes collide with changing social. political and
economic values system. Somc of d ~ eadolescents may suffer from value erosion. The>-
nlay indulge in violence, strikes: disobediencc. truanc~.,drug abuse and addiction. Thej.give
up their values without intenlalisiag a new oncs in varying dcgree ma!, produce individual . .
differences.
6.7 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT
It is essential to study the child's social adjustment by parents and teachersT'or two reasons:
First, patterns of behaviour and attitudes formed early are rather persistent. Sccond. the
kind of social adjustment children have contributes to the e\rolution of their self-concept.
The degree with which a student adjusts to other people and the group \vitll \vhich hc
identifies, gives an idea of his social adjustment. Well-adjusted students arc supposed to
havc leanled social skills such as the ability to effectively deal with both friends and
strangers, etc. Socially well-adjusted students generally develop favourable social attitudes
towards other members of the society. You will stud! about social adjustment in Unit 14
(Section 14.3). You should read both the units together;
6.7.1 Criteria of Social Adjustment
There are various criteria to judge whether a studelit is socially well-adjusted or not. Thc
following are the four inail1 criteria:
O\.ert performance : Whcn childrcn's social bchaviour conforms to thc standards and
expectations of the group they are identified with. they are socially adjustedlacceptcd
members of the group.
Adjustment to different group : Cliildrcn wlio can adjust reasonabl~\\fell with different
groups of people as well as pcer groups are considered socially \vcll-adjusted.
Social attitudes : Socially well-adjusted students exhibit favourable attitudes towards

people. social participation. and social group interactions.
t
Person;~lsatisfaction :To be socially well-ad.iustcd. students should be reasonably satisfied
with thcir social relationsli~psa~ldthe rolcs they play in the social system.
6.7.2 Dificultiesin Social Adjustment
Mak~nggood social ad-iusttnentis dificult. An tillhappy childhood results in an unhapp? and

maladjusted adulthood. You and your school can help children adjust. Children should be
taught about factors that contribute to poor adjustment in socie5.
The children with poor social bellaviour at home generally fail to establish good social
belia\iour outside their home. Children lia\ling an authoritarian home climate Frcqucntl?.
demonstrate resentment against all in autllority whereas those wlio arc brought up in a
permissive liomc regard the wishes, of others.
Similarl?. those children klio do 1101 Liid good nlodels to iniitatc i : ~ tlieir family find
tllenlsclvcs handicapped outside their family. The children rejccted b ? their parents or those
\vho imitate deviant beha\,iour of their parents dcvelop aggressive and dcviant bchaviour
patienis. Childre11 fecling deiected. maltrcatcd. teased or bullicd b?. other sibliiigs lack
nioti\:ation to tr?.to make good social adjustment. Lastly. lack of nccessan~/properguidancc
and help in ilzaliing good social adjustnient. despite inotivatioii to niakc it. leavcs tlicm trying
little to acqulrc proper social adjastment.
I check Y o u r Progress 4
Notes : a) Writc ?.our anslvcr in the space given below.

b) Coinpare your: aiisiver with thosc given at the cnci of tlic unit.
How docs good social ad.justmcnt of studcnts contribute to tlieir pcrsonalit~
de\ elopnicnt'l
I
6.8 SELF-CONCEPT
A self-concept is a person's total vic\\g of him or herselr (Hamacheck. 1987). 11 is composite

of thc beliefs. ideas or perccptio~ionc has about oneself: onc's physical. ps~~chological. social
i
and eniotioiial characteristics. aspirations and acliievenients. This is \vliat an individual rcfcrs
I
llnderstanding the to as I or me and is the totality of meanings, attitudes and feelings which the individual has
Learner as a tlniquc
Individual
of himselflherself-the complete description one could give of hislner present self. Your
opinions of your health, appearance. disposibility, influence on others. abilities, and
weaknesses are part of your self-concept. If we could place a student in a situation in which
helshe felt absolutely free to describe himlherself as accurately as possible, the possible
description such as intelligent, hardworking, caring, mature, responsible, insightful,
etc., would capture the essence of hislher self-concept.
The physical self-image is usually formed first and is related to the student's physical
appearance. Psychological self-image is based on thoughts, feelings and emotions. They
(physical and psychological self-image) consist of the qualities such as courage, honesty,
independence, self-confidence, aspiration and abilities of various kinds.
Self-concept has certain characteristics. Important among them are as follows:
Self-concept is organised :To arriveat a general pictureofthe self, the individuals collect
and organise a great deal of information on which they base their perception.
Self-concept is multifaceted : Self-concept includes areas such as social acceptance,

physical attractiveness, academic abilities, etc.
Self-concept is hierarchical on a dimension of generality : The multifaceted characters

are in a hierarchy which is developmental in nature. Self-concept becomes increasingly
differentiated with increasing age.
Self-concept is stable: Though success/failure or superioritylinferiority in a student may

bring change in his self-concept. It however does not change the primary self-concept
ofthe person. It, however, does not mean that self-concept can not be improved through
appropriate interventions. There is dispute among researchers over (i) whether self-
concept can be improved or not (ii) if yes, to what extent.
6.8.1 Development of Self-concept
Self-concept is based on what children believe their parents, teachers and peer think of
them.They are thus mirror images. If children believe that these significant people think
favourably of them, they think favourably of themselves too and vice-versa. Encourage-
ment, love, praise, reassurance, positive comments, sincere caring and interest on the part
of parents and others whom they consider of some significance have been found to aid the
development of positive self-concept or high self-esteem among children. Self-concept is
largely learnt over a period of time, albeit incidentally and in part through conditioning,
identification, and imitation. With increasing age the self-concept tends to become stable.
The individual does not markedly change his attitudes, feelings, or ideas about himself.
Children who are constantly scolded and rarely shown affection are likely to develop poor
self-concept or low self-esteem. Children with low self-esteem have less self-confidence
and develop feelings of inferiority. They are likely to experiencedifficulty in interacting with
other children and getting accepted by them. As a result the children with poor self-concept
often develop problem behaviour that attracts negative attitudes from peers, teachers and
others. Poor self-concept hinders initial school adjustment and academic progress too.
Students with positive or high self-concept tend to accept others with ease. They also tend
to accept their failures. They are better achievers as compared to children with low self-
concept.
Students with positive self-concept rely on themselves rather than on others and are willing
to accept criticism and suggestions. On the other hand, students with low self-concept are
sensitive to criticism and blame themselves whenever things go wrong. Most students with
low self-concept prefer to work on easy tasks where they can be certain of success.
lnclividual Dit'fe~.encc.s:
A l f e c t i t e Domain
Self-concept is l~ierarchicalin nature. The nlost basic - the primary self-concept is folinded
on thc experiences the child has at home with members of his fanlily. As i~lteractionsoutside
the honle increasc, children acquire other concepts of themselves. This makes up the
secondary self-concept. The secondary self-concept relates to the way children see
f
themselves though the eyes of others.
! Educators have become increasingly aware of the impact that an iildividual's self-concept
and self-esteem have on classroom behaviour and achievement. Onc can argue that high
1 achievement in class leads to high self-concept or others can say that high self-concept leads
to high achievement. Self-concept can help us understand how our students dc;il wilh
academic tasks.
P

b) Co~npareyour answers with those given at the end of the unit.
I) Tick (4) mark tl~eright answer.
a) A person with a positive or high self-concept has high self-esteem.
b) A person with a negative or low self-concept has high self-estcem.
c ) A person with a positive or high self-concept rarely has low self-esteem.
d) A person w ~ t ha low self-concept rarely has low self-esteem.
I ii) How a student's self-concept affect academic perfonnance'!
i 6.9 MOTIVATION
Motivation is a term used for conditions that cause one to begin an activity and pursue it with
vigor and persistence. In cveryday terms, motivation refers to the why of behaviour. When
we question one's motivation. we ask - why does he do what he is doing'?This is an attempt
to understand the reason behind an action. The reason could be the driving forcc behind a
student to take sonle challenges or leave them.
The concept of motivation accounts for differences is scllool achievement beyond those
resulting from differenccs in intelligence or scholastic aptitude. The concept is used to
account for differenccs in behaviour in the same student and also differences between similar
type of students.
Motivation is the term used to describe what energises and directs a student and sustains his
Understancling the activity. It is sometimes compared with thc engine and steering wheel of an automobile.
Lerrrner as n llruque
Individual
Eiiergy and dircction are at the centre of the concept of nlotivation to perfornl an activity.
You may be aware that sometimes your motivation is based on physiological need such as
hunger, th~rstand fatigue. At times your motivation reflects psychological needs. such as
a desire for approval or craving for love.

'
State the main characteristics of motivation.
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6.9.1 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is satisfied by internal reinforcers or factors and this does not depend
on external goals while extrinsic motivation dcpends on needs that are satisfied by external
reinforcers.
If you are intrinsically motivated. you will perform an activity because you enjoy it. h
extrinsic motivator supplies an outside reward: If you envoy leaniing in itself, you are
intri~isicallymotivated. On the other hand if you are studying to earn a course credit,
certificate or degree, you are extrinsically motivated.You have both types of motivation in
studying. Learning is far more long lasting when it is sustained by intrinsic motivation.
Extrinsic motivation, however, may be necessary to get the student to initiate certain actions
or to get the learning process startcd.
Besides enjo~~ing learning, if the student looks forward for a good grade. a well paid job, he
q~~alifiesfor both intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Psycliologists have found that some
beliaviour may be internally motivated for s o r ~ ~students
e and exteniall\~for other students.

b) Con~pareyour answer with those given at the end of tlie unit.
Distinguish between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation and give one exaniple of each.
6.9.2 Theory of Motivation
Scl~olarshave defined motivation from diffcrcnt perspecti\,es. Somc of the important efforts
arc presented 111 tli~ssub-scction
Nced disposition theory : A basic assumption in the no ti vat ion thcory is that an organ~sm
belia\les in order to reduce its necds. A wed is a requirement that must be met for optimal
adjustn~cntof an organisln to the cnvironmcnt. Need disposition theory prescnts thc point
o f ~ j i e uthat peoplc arc moti~:atcdto take action and invest energy in pursuit of three motrves
- ;tchievement, affiliation and influence. The dcsirc for achicvcmcnt is clridcnt lvlien
s t ~ ~ d c ~t int shard to learn a particular subject. Afliliative motives beconie important when
students and teachcrs recogi~iscthat value ofthc support and fricndship of thcir pccrs. Thc
nlotivation towards influence can bc scen 111 tlic studc~~ts who strivc to havc nlorc control
over thcir leariiiiig and it can bc scen also in tliosc tcachers who strive to halt tllcir say in
tlic wa! schools arc nln.
M:alon.'s thcory of motivittion : Maslow has suggcstcd that tlicrc is a deiiliitc ordcr in
\vhich individuals attclnpt to satisf? their needs. Hc mai~itainsthat a pcrson will rcliiain at
a given need Ic\.cl until thosc needs are satislied. thcn movc on to thc ncst. Pcoplc's
niotivatioii dcrivcs directly fiom their nccds. Human bchaviour. tlicrcforc. is aimcd to\vards
~iccdgratil<catio~i.For example. the need to become an eiigilleer and acquire status \\;ill
moticate a studcnt to study hard for the ent~anceesamination.
In tl~cMaslon-s h~erarch) of needs. fulfilment of cacli bas~cneed IS an iniportaiit stcp

toctards self-gronlh T h c ~arc h~crarch~cal.
that IS. onc lcvel of iiced lni~stbc met beforc
thc next beconics mot~\ratlng.
Maslo\\ postulated scvcn basic nccds in a Iiicrarch~calorder. The!, arc :
7. Pli! sloloycal needs - Nced for food. drink. slccp and so on

I
6 Nced for safcb - Avoidance of danger arid anx~ctl.dcs~refor sccurit~.
I protect~oliand fam~lystabilit~.
I
5 . Necd for love and - Necd for affection. in family or pecr.

I belo~iging~icss group affiliation and personal acceptancc
4 Need for sclf-esteem - Necd for self-respect, a feeling of adcquac!,.

conlpetence. mastry.
4
I
3. Nccd for sclf- - Sclf-fulfilments and achievement of pcrsonal
actuali~ation goals and ambitions. striving for fill1 use and exploitations
P of talents. capacities and potentialities to achicve goals
(characteristics of sclf-actualiscrs are : honesty: creati~j-
ih. acceptance: appreciation. sense of hilman sensili~:-
it?).
2. Nccd to knoll - Curiosi~.a need to lcani about tlic \vorld.

I
I . Acsthctic ~iccd - Nced to cxperiencc and understand bcauh for its own
sake.
Maslo\\ refcrrcd to thc first four nccds as dciiciencj~needs (lack of food. lack of safcb.
absence of lole. etc ) and tlie last thrce nccds as 'bc~ng' necds. Pcoplc are nioti\atcd to
gralib tllc being needs lvhcn thc~rdcfic~cnc?necds arc met.
Theory of achievement moti~atian: This thcory is based on the work of Hoppe (1930).
Scars ( 1 940). McClclland (1958. 1961) and Atkinsou (1958.1 966). This thcon secks to
esplain tlie shrdent's motivation to achickc in study. sports. job. etc.
t ! ~ ~ t l e r u t ~ n t i i n the
g Hoppe (1930) described how people raised their level of aspiration after success and lonered
1,cntner us u Unique
Individuul
them after failure. Those who set unrealistically high goals n ill inevitably fail and. conversely,
people who set goals at a v e n low level do not obtain an!, satisfaction fro111 their
accomplishments. For students it is better to set level of aspiration at realistic level-
achievable and satisfying.
McClelland (1961: 1971) stated that the need for achievement directly influences academic
performance. According to McClelland (1961) people with,strong nccds for achie\.ements
use their own skills to improve themselves. They prefer tasks that require some eSfofi. Tlie
tasks, however: should not be impossible to perform. Achie~ersusually sct goals for
themselves as a symbol of success. They want to do well and cn-joy gctting positive fecdback
from others.
McClelland found that n ~ e dfor achievement is related to parents' attihtdcs. Parcnts who are
high achievers themselves demand independence and hclp dc\doplng scll-confidence.
Parents with low need achieverhent arc protective of their childrc~i
Attribution theory :Attribution refers to people's interpretation oi'cxpcriencc. Attribirtion

theory helps us understand how students .explain their success and failurc and lhc
implications those explanations have for achievement-orientcd beliaviour in tlie liltul-c.
Attribution theory suggests that students often L I S C one of the sc~,cndifferent ihrnis of
explanation for their success or failures. Commonly uscd catcgorics arc: ability. etTort.
difficulty of task, luck of chance. mood, teacher bias. and i ~ n ~ ~ shelp
u a l from othcrs. Failure
in a test is ascribed to:
not studying (lack of effort).

tlic hard test (dificulty of test).
feeling enlotionally drained wliilc taking thc test (mood).
studying wrong thing (luck or chance).
ulueasonable teacher behaviour (teachcr bias c.g. tlic teachcr wantcd to fail mc).
6 personal shortcoming (ability, ,e.g.I have a1wq.s been bad at science).
The attribution theorists generally subsume all explanations within the seven attributions
mentioncd.
6.9.3 Locus of Control
Students' e2blanations of their success and failure provide infornlation about their locus of
control. Locus of conh-01refers to the feeling of a person about tlie root cause where a person
feels success and failure. Some students blame sonleonc or somcthing else for their poor
performance. such as a poor test. a confusing book or an incoherent teacher.
Loucs of control has hvo dimensions : External locus of control and internal locus of control.
In external locus of control, the student perceives having little control ovcr fate and fails to
perceive a cause-and-effect relationship between actions and their conscquences. Studcnts
with an internal locus of control are likely to attributc thei; success to ability and cfforl and
their failiuc to lack of effort. Students with an external locus of control arc likely to bclicve
that their successes and failures are governed b?, task difficult>.. chancc. lack of abili?.
mood. bias. or unusual help from others.
6.10 LET US SUM UP
. We have outlined the principal differences which characterise students' interests, attitudes
and values. Students bring differential interest patterns to the classroom. The school
provides a wide choice of materials.The teacher's task is to integratc students' interesr'aud
appropriate curricululn demands. Over-emphasis on student's needs or over-emphasis on
curriculum demand will result in lack of focus on other activities.
1s"
Incliviclual Differences:
Affectlvo Domaln
I T an indi1-idunl has had suitable espericnces with an activlq: the law of effect operates to
producc a posithc association of interest and ability. Any activity having irrelevant elements
would generate hislikc. -
A lino\\:lcdgc of general attitudinal dispositions of students is useful to the teacher to the

extcnt that it enables him/hcr to anticipate thcir possiblc reactions towards different issues
and situations that the!, encoilliter. Bcing aware. thc tcachcr can plan intcrvention. taking
into account the rcsistancc that is likcly to bc cncountcred n~hilcattempting to modifj~an?,
orthc~n.Sincc attitudcs are learncd and acquircd tluough cxpericnce: they can bc modified
through a judicious use of nicdia and persuasion tcchniques. A desirable attitude towards
Icarning \bill be ~naiiitainedif tli~ngsto,be learnt are not too far rcmoved from previous
learn~ng.leanling situation is niadc physically and intellectuall\~attracti\;e, and thc knowl-
cdgc or skill to bc acquircd is perceived as need satistier.
Most of the tuifa\~ourableattitudcs and beha\ low could be prevented or corrected if thcy
arc spotted In t ~ m c
Dur~ngadolescence. the ~ndividualshave an an~biguousstatus. At this stage they are neither

children nor adults. Thcy display uncerlainty about their values and find difficulty in making
clearcut evaluative rcsponse to certain socio-moral issues. They base their decisions on
their own evaluation and standards of what is right, rather than conforming to social
pressures and cxpcctations. They are unable to locate stable roles to emulate. Value-vacuum
situation. coiitradictio~~s
and coliflicts characterise this period of transition.
The school sliould bc careful to recognize that value systems change froni generation to
generation. Therc is a nced to help youngsters outgrow their childish ways and learn to
acccpt adult \,alucs.
Tcachers can hclp studcnts build self-cstccm and generally positive self-concept by
coi~municatingpositi\.c expectations. attitudes and feedback. Improvelnent in self-vicw
can be helped by non-contingent acceptance and honest feedback. Failure results in
de\reloping a self-conccpt ' I am no good'. success makes him feel 'a good student', a hard
workcr. I
Teachers should do e\!er?/thing possible to help students satisfv their deficiency needs
becausc inner motivation for kno\\-lcdgesimply will not develop until these basic needs have
been inel. Tcacliers should rcmcmber that molivation is both the ends and the meails of the
educational process.
6.11 [[NIT-END EXERCISE

Intei-r.ie\\ tive students. Find out their interests. attitudes and values. Plan an inten/cntion
programme to 1110diTy thcir interests. attitudcs and values.

Haiiiachek. D. (1987) : A Hi.r/ory of'Hi/mnnisticP.\lvchofogv. In J.A. Glovcr and R. R.
Roiuiing (Eds) Historical fiundatzons ?f'fih(catzonnfPsvchology. Plenum, Neil. York.
Herbert. E.F.: Winograd. P.N. 81. Danner. F.W. (1984) : Chi1dren;s Attributions for Failure
and Success in Different Aspecls of Reading. .Jotirnal c~f'Educa/ionaIpsycl~olo~v.
76.1 139-1 148.
Wciner, B. (1972) : Iheorics clf~orivntiJn.Rand McNally. Chicago.
Weiner. B. ( 1979) . A 'fieory c!fMotivatzon,for.someC'lnssroom Experzence, Journal of
Educational Psycholog. 7 1. 3 -25.
Understanding the
Learmr as a Unique 6.13 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
Individual
I. The importance of interest is as follows:
develops learning in a specified area.

broadens the scope of experience and personality in an area of work.
helps in maintaining mental hcalth.
leads efficiency in life.
cultivates interests in the required direction.
provides wide range of activities.
provides conditions ensuring satisfaction.
2. Attitudes predispose the individual to act in particular ways towards an object. situation
or idea. Attitudes provide a frame of reference to a pcrson for how he/she feels, thlnks,
sees or performs activities in a given situation.Tkcrc are t h e e main concepts of
attitudes-beliefs, emotions and behaviour.
Children acquire or learn attitudes from thcir parents. peers and schools. The teachers
should provide appropriate context to practice and reillforce attitudes. Involving students
in group activities can also help develop desirable attitudes in thcm.
3. i) At home - they learn traditional values alongwith awareness about the

modem progressive changes in the society.
ii) In the school they learn
values that inculcate respect for othcrs

ways to follow community norms and living with a group other than one's
own family
awareness of authority figure and workicing within a fralnework of sct rilles.
4. Socially well-adjusted students deal efficiently with people in faliiiliar as well as strange
situations. They develop favourable attitude fonvards other mcrnbers of thc society.
Social adjustment keeps them mentally healthy, thus increases their cfficlency.
5 . i) A person with a positive or high self-concept has high self-estccm.

ii) The students with high self-concept think high of them. their capabilities. their
determination to meet their goals. High self-concept develops self-confidence in
them. The students with high self-concept do not suffer from inferiority complex:
hence they are free from mlntal sickness. They express their ideas, view points
forcely with others.
A high self-esteem resulting from to a good self-concept and a feeling of acceptancc

is also an attribute of high achievers.
Studcnts with high self-concept tend to accept others with ease and their own
shortcomings are also accepted rationally.
6. Motivation is a driving force that leads a leaner to some achievement. It can bc extrinsic
or intrinsic..
The differences ill achievemcnts can direct thc level of motivation a lcarncr has.
7 . Intrinsic motivation propels the learner from within to achlevc his goal. So. the Icarncr. ,
inspite of contrary external situations tends to lean something extra-ordinary due to his/
her Inner drive. Extrinsic motivation is something that comes as a reward from an
agency
- - other than the learner himself. In a learning situation, both extrinsic and intrinsic
motivation may work together for goal achievement
UNIT 7 GENDER ISSUES
Structure
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Objectives
7.3 Gender Issues : The Concept
I 7.3.1 Ciroup Diffzrznces
7.3.2 DitYersncos iu Terms ol' Szs
I
I 7.3.3
7.3.4
DitYzrznczs in 'lbrms of Age
DiiYerencos 111 Tcnns of Caste
7.3.5 Diffcrenccs in Tznn?; ol' Socio-economic Status
7.3.6 Dillkrcnces in TCI-rnsof L1zrsonaliIy
7.4 Gender Issues - Nalure and Implications

7.4.1 Nah~rz01' Gender Issues
7 . 4 . 2 In~plications tbr Taachcrs
7.5 Lct Us Sum Up
I 7.6 Unit-end Exercises
7.7 Suggestcd Readings
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Every individual is uniquc. This unique~icssof the individual is one of the ~iiostfundamcntal
characteristics of life. Even childrcn in the same family differ from one another. At all periods
of human histoq.. attempts have been made to observe and describe differences bchveen
individuals and among various groups of individuals. Educationlists ,politicians. planners.
sociologists and administrators have felt a nced for some cvay of organising or systen~atising
the many-faceted complcsity of individual differences. Both philosophcrs and psychologists
have attempted to produce such system.
In Units 5 and 6 you have studied individual differences in tlie cognitive and affective domains
in detail. In Unit 5 you studied individual differences in intelligence. aptitude. crcati\rit~.and
academic achievement. I11 Unit 6 a comprehe~isivediscussion on individual differences in
interests: attitudes, values, social adjustment, self-concept and level of niotivalion was
r presented.
In this unit you will study tlie differences between male and female students. The gender
c issue lias been discussed from various perspectives, such as sex, age. caste. socio-economic
status (SES) and personality. Impl~cationsof gender issues for teachers have been
hghlighted.
7.2 OBJECTIVES
This unit wsualises the gender Issue in the wider perspective. The discussion in this unit helps
YOU understand the group differences \vli~chexist in terms of age, caste. socio-cconomic
status and personality due to sex. It will also help you in understanding the gendcr issucs
and its relevance to teacher and teaching.
Linclctstandlng the After going through this unit, you should be able to:
Lcnnler as n llniquc
lndiviclual explain the nature of group differences vis-a-vis gender issucs
discuss the complexity of gender issues, and
explain the relevance of gender issues to teachers and teaching.
7.3 GENDER ISSUES : THE CONCEPT

Variability among individuals IS a universal phenomenon. This fact gives rise to a question
about the characteristics in terms of which these differences are found. Such differences
have been measured in both physiological as well as psychological terms. Differences in
intelligence and the morc narrowly defined intellectual processes such as memow,
judgement and probleiii solving have been demonstrated a number of times.
7.3.1 Group Differences

Wlien wc talk of group differences, we intend to talk about characteristics in ternis of which
various groups dilTer. These groups may be formed on thc basis of sex, age. caste*socio-
economic status and personality. Youmay like to luio\v about such yroup diffcrenccs. The
information received may be helpful to you in dcaling wit11 si~chgroups in da>-to-da? lilk.
specially during the process of teaching and leanling.
Equality is a dominant concern of the modcnl timc. It refers to equivalent qualifications.

cquivale~ltabilities.cquivalcnt capabilities. same rights and samcopportunities oflearningand
of working. In other words. it docs not perceive any difference between hvo sets of
individuals : ~nalesand females. But the vcry ideology of gender is based on an idea of
assumed dilrcrcnces between males and females, even though there is a concern to obtain
cqilality betweal the two in the social as well as educatio~ialworld. This g i ~ e srise to the
pertinent question whether females differ from males in terms of traits. skills. values and
competencies or not. If they are not different. the reasons for discrimination behveen malcs
and fernalcs in various areas/domains and notably whether the reasons arc inherent in the
individuals or they are because of economic and political reasons have to be studied.
Variety of group diffcrences : Sociologists have compiled a long list of supposed sex
differences based on adaptive value of sex-specific behaviours for the survival of males and
females. The area of psychology has had thc most to say about sex differences - the sub-
field of individual differences In the follow~~igsub-sections we will discuss what constiti~tes
group differences 111 tcnns of sex. age. caste. socio-economic status (SES) and nationality
and also thc i~nplicat~ons of the gcnder issues to the teacher with specific reference to
education.
7.3.2 Differences in Terms of Sex
No topic in Psychology is of liiore pere~uiialinterest than sex differences. Many social

problems having to do with ad-iustment in marital life, education and living and working
co~jditionsin gcncral depend upon such kno~rledgefor their successful solutions. Many
educationists or educat~onalpsychologists compared the performance of males and females
as the subjcct of the stud?.. They dividcd the sample into two separate catcgories. males and
females. Research studies done in this area have demonstrated such differences on both
sociological as well as biological bases. The purpose of the studies following this phase was
to acIi~c\ea better understanding of differences behveen two groups formed on the basis
of sex. Many of these studies related to the psychoanalytic theoqpostulating basic emotional.
diffcrences detcrniined by biological rather than soc~alcauses. Later on. studies were
conducted to find out not only how much average differences in a particular trait the hvo
sexes had but also what other traits and extenlal factors were correlated with each of thesc
sex groups.
What are the maln group differences which are found in these two sets of persons'? As far
as general intelligence is concerned. males and fenlales appear to be equal, The differences
are either related to specific abilities or specific traits. Males on an avcrage shbw superiori@
over females in the ability to reason and to detect similaritiesand in certain aspect of general Gender Issues
information. Girls on an average show some superiority in memory, language and aesthetic
comparisons. Males excel in a number of skills and in understanding spatial relations while
females excel in verbal aptitude and memory. Studies have shown that female students
develop facility in the use of language at an earlier age than the male counterparts. Studies
on pre-school children have shown that girls had larger vocabulary than boys of the same
age and had consistently higher scores in reading, sentence completion and the like.
Generally speaking, differences in terms of intelligence or what is called scholastic aptitude
are not such as to call for different roles assigned to them by society. Therefore, in
educational programmes there should be no discrimination in the treatment given to boys and
girls. This is so because whatever be the difference in curricula for boys and girls these are
because of their future needs rather than due to any innate differences in the mental ability.
7.3.3 Differences in Terms of Age

Age is one of the crucial factors which influences individual difference. With an increase in
age, many differences appear in both boys as well as girls. The intra-group differences are
also found due to difference in age. It is evident that an individual's ability to adjust to the
environment grows with the age. With increasing age the individualsdevelop ability to deal
with more and more different problem solving situations which result in better adjustment
with the environment. As a child grows from infancy to maturity, histher mental powers
increase. Histher body, nervous system, brain and its functions mature and there is a
corresponding maturity and development in the mental capacity. Also, the child grows in
experience and this too adds to histher mental capacity. Thus you will find that age is an
important factor contributing to individual differences. But as compared to its influence in
adulthood, you will find that its influence during childhood is greater. It means a few years
in the age of the child make much more difference than a few years in the life of an adult.
You might be knowing that to generalise a principle or a finding it is necessary to conduct

a scientific study on a representative sample of individuals. In this case a study over a long
period oftime (longitudinal study) ofthe same group of individuals is required to find out the
effect of age on group differences or individual differences. Some studies of this type had
been carried out and the results of such studies have been very useful in throwing light on
such issues.
Children differ in the rate of their mental growth and these differences persist even during
various phases of growth. Age differences in mental growth of the same child are also not
the same. During certain periods of growth these changes are rapid while during other
periods they are not. Some people believe that the changes occurring due to change in age
stop at a specific age i. e. 15 or 16 while others think intellectual growth ceases at the age
of 20 or 25. After maturation mental growth becomes slow, though some individuals
continue to grow intellectually. Recent research studies have proved that there is enormous
scope for developing mental abilities as we use a very small portion of our brain at a given
t
point of time. Many older people continue to learn effectively and often in a new direction.
Therefore, it has been emphasised that learning is a lifelong process and this idea is being
practised in all the programmes of lifelong education and continuing education.
C
Do individuals differ if they belong to different racial, national or cultural groups? Do they
differ if they come from different castes? Many scholars of Psychology, Sociology and
Anthropology have studied these questions.
7.3.4 Differences in Terms of Caste
Studies done on various racial differences showed that the differences were there in the so
called higher mental processes such as reasoning, attention, foresight and judgement. The
primitive races excelled in terms of sensory and motor characteristics, keenness of the
senses, quickness of response and perception of slight details. Such studies on the race-
difference problem have shown adecrease in the certainty with which it is possible to predict
differences. In fact it is very difficult to carry out psychological studies on pure races. When
we compare two races living in one country the question of classification becomes very
Ilnderstanding the difficult. The influence of cultural and s c ~ ~ imilieu
al gets mixed up with that of variety of
Learner as a Unique
hereditary endowments of various ethnic groups. The psychological tests used for such
Individual
studies are also not available to study such group differences. It is also not possible to isolate
innate ability from the influence of environment. Yet it is difficult to identify the influence
of particular geographical regions with differences in climate, ways of living or in cultural
environments which over a period of time has an impact on the mental make up of the
individual. In fact the degree and form of mental development is the result ofthe interaction
between individual abilities and environmental influences. Therefore, it is necessary for you
to keep such differences in mind while dealing with various racial groups while organising
teaching activities. The flexibility in teaching methods may help overcome such problems.
Besides,certain groups may haveexcellence in certain areas which could fruitfully be utilized
for peer group learning.
7.3.5 Differences in Terms of Socio-~conomicStatus

A number of studies have demonstrated consistent differences between the average ability,
achievement andaptitudeof individualsbelonging to different socio-economicbackgrounds.
Children with very low mental ability who are classified as stupid children. were born to
parents of all SES levels but these are much less common amongst those belonging to higher
economic status. When scales are used to measure economic status, the relationship can
be correlated with intelligence. The correlations between the two come to be about 0.30.
It was obierved in some studies that when subjects are asked to rank occupational titles on
the basisaf prestige, these ranking tend to follow the pattern ofthe differences in intelligence.
While this and many other studies have pointed to a relationship between social status and
intelligence, for the groups called infants it does not seem to hold true.
What do we understand by class differences? It is important to know the meaning of socio-

economic class differences because such conclusions are significant for social policies in
a country which tries for equalisation of opportunities and has a concern for maximum
development of all her citizens. In fact, as you know, this is more general hereditary-
environment discussion which raises many questions, for example, "Are poor people poor
because they are poor". It is quite probable that some of the differences between social
classes do rest on differences in genetic endowment.
But even if class differences are accounted for on the basis of heredity, most psychologists
have not been content to dismiss the topic by settling it in this way. There are two sets of
such peop~le.One ofthem believes that present intelligence tests are not really measuring the
potential ability of lower class children. As a result of this, lower class children are
consistently and repeatedly underestimated and discriminated against when compared to
other higher class children. Therefore, an attempt should be made to devise more adequate
tests. The second line of thinking rests on the hypothesis about the importance of early
experiences on general intellectual development. Children are underdevelopmentwhen they
start school. The cultural deprivation results in differences between these children and the
children beloging to other groups which widen with increase in the chronological age. Be
it inheritance or environment, such individual differences in abilities of children are to be
tackled by you, as a teacher, in almost all educationalllearningarrangements. Such children
when are in a group look almost the same but they bring alongwith them their background.
and the culture and circle of friends, which is usually in the same socio-economic groups.
These facts are to be kept in mind while dealing with them as students. Some of their
emotional problems are also ascribed to their socio-eonomic status.
7.3.6 Differences in Terms of Personality

Differences in personality make-up bring about differences in intellectual pursuits and
achievement. Individuals, because of diversity in interest and goals. habits, background.
mental abilities. etc., seek general outlets for expression realization.
Some are txtroverts and some introverts. Some feel comfortable with one learning method
while others go for a different learning method. Some are aggressive others are submissive.
Such non-intellcc~ualcliaraclcristics and qualities may also cffect tlic dc\~elopnic~it and <;entier Issues
expression of nie~italabilities in difikrent directions. To help thc child grow into an integrated
personalip, it is important for !,ou to look into individual dii'fcrcnces and trcat an individual
student as a uniquc pcrsoii. This will promote child-based learning in an cducationalAcanlingg
arrangenicn t. .-
Check Your P~.ogress1
Nntes : a ) Write your ansurcr in tlic spacc gi\.en below

b) Compare your answer with thosc gi\cn at tlic end of tlic milt.
What are group differences? Wh~clik~ndof diffcrenccs do 5 . o ~find in tenns of
personality'?
7.4 GENDER ISSUES - NATURE AND IMPLICATIONS
As !,ou are aware. thc movcinent for educational developiiic~itof fcnialcs cncountcrcd multi-
dimensional probleiiis which come in the waj. of their advancenicnt and progress. Most of
thcsc probleins are due to differential treatment given to feniales both in thc educational as
\\..ellas social scttinys.
7.4.1 Nature of Gender lssues
Society perceives a fenialc child as different froin a male child and assigns stcreotypcd roles
to tlie feniale child. Solnc teaclicrs in the school whilc teaching givc exaniplcs and usc
teaching strategies which arc biased against girl studcnts. Such teachers think that girls
should havc a diffcrcnt type of cducation \vhicli may be helpful for thcm to dcvclop as a good
house\\.ifc and a mothcr. This not onl!. negates individual diffcrcnces both in tcrnis of
pct-sondity traits and specific abilities in which girls are different from boys. but it also comes
in thc wa?. of certain coinpetencies to be developed alnong all the students studying at a
particular levcl. As has been said earlier, girls and boys may differ in terms of certain abilities
and both these sets of individuals cxcel each other in tenns of certain abilities, so specific
teaching-learning strategies liave to be evolvcd to develop their inherciit abilities to tlie
inasinlunl and also Lo prove extra opportunit? for development of other compete~~cies in
which tlicy are weak. As a teacher. you are supposed 13 make some bold efforts for replacing
the professional value system by a belief in the cqtiality of sexcs. Besides this, an attempt
should also be inadc to recognise the individual differences between girls and boys and make
use of these d~iringthc teaching-learning process.
The second issue relates to the social attitude towards girls which is reflected not only in the
treatment rcceived by girls but also in the instructio~lalmaterials nient for them. This
becon~esmore serious in case of girls coming from wcakcr scctions of societ>ri. e, schedded
castcs. scheduled tribes, nomads and other disadvantaged classes. They carry tlie stigma
of belongi~lgto the disadvantaged group and that also coining from a weaker section. Both
these educational and social perceptions collie in the way of the development of a girl child
in our society. Ecoiloniically also, most parents feel uncomfortable in sending heir
daugliters to school for education. They are also always conscious of the fact that thc money
requircd for educating girls could be Inore usehlly spent on their nlarriage instead of
L~ndcrstrnding the education. While the various State Governments ha\,c started a number o i \\clfare sclicm<.
I,cn~ner rs r llnique
for female children and some programmes ha\c becn developed to promote their education,
Indlviduvl
girls still remain the biggest group outside thc cdi~cational system. The economic.
educational and social issues related with cducalio~lof girls are of immense in~portancefor
the teacher to ponder over. The necd to illcorporate such issues (concerning thc cducatio~l
of the child) in thc curriculum as well as inthc learniiig illatcrials has become significant in
view of equal cducational opportunities. If the curriculum and instn~ctional~natcrialsare
transacted keeping in view the issucs related to gendc; as ~\.cllas individual differcnces. it
is quite likely that girls in our c o u n h will develop a better scl1'-image. E\.eii thc ~ccl~iiological
changes taking place rapidly in our system are helpfill in brining changes in the attitude of
the members of the society towards girls.
I 7.4.2 Implicationsfor Teachers
As you might be awarg, dealing with gender issues is not simple. Wliilc on the one hand.
researchers have established that various individual diffcreiices arc found bctxveen t~vosets
of individuals i.e. boys and girls. atteiilpts arc bcing madc by reformers aiid planners lo br~ng
girls at par with boys. In such a situation it beco~iicsv c n difficult for you as a tcachcr to
acco~nn~odate two view poiilts in order to deal \i;itl~the indi\.idual girl childrcn in the
classroom. lndian girls tend to be timid and take a lot of timc to opc~lup and participate in
the learning process. To encourage them for participative learning and also to help them in
decision making as well as in performing various curricular aiid co-curricular acti\,itics
resi~ltsin better self-image. For this you may be rcquired to de~clopspcciiic activities for
girls which may bring them at par with boys in tcrnis of all tlie conlpc!cncics supposcd to
bc acquired by children studying in the same cducational setting. As >.ouknou. it is not a
simple task. It needs a multi-dimensional approacli to addrcss to various gcndcr issucs in
! an educational setting.
Check Your PI-ogress2
Notes : a) Write your answer in tile space yi\.cn belo~c.

b) Compare your ansnicr w~ththose gij cn at thc end of tlie uii~t
How can tlie g ~ r l s111 our countn will debelop a p o s i t ~ ~inlagc"
e
111this unit yo11 have studied the group differences found in both males and fenialcs . All thesc
group differcnccs address themselves to gendcr issues which havc i~nplicatio~ls for
classroo~nteaching. These are only indicative of various group differcnces \\-hicli ma\: be
much more than the ones discussed in this unit. Tllrec types of gendcr issues - social.
economic and educatio~ial arc relevant for the teacher in the educational \r.orld. Tlic
iinplicatio~lsof all these arc cnicial for a teaclicr. You may be required to make conscious
efforls to tackle this probleni in an educational scning.
G e n t l e r Issues
I. Takc a sample or 10 boys and 10 girls. Identify individual differences (scx) between
tlicni. Dcvelop an iiistructioiial strategy to suit lo both thc groups.
2. Describc gender bias. What are the main social constraints coming in wa? of
111111.ersalprimary education of girls?
Bliatia. H.R. ( 1977): 7i.xthook ~~f~~/~~cntionnlI?v~vchologv.

Tlic Maciiiillan Company of India
Ltd.. Nc\\ Dcllii.
Kundu. C.L.. and Tutoo. D.N . (I 985): IC~/~icntionn/
l?vychologv. Stcrling Publislicrs Privatc
Ltd.. Nc\\ Dcllii
Mohan. (1993): E~/t~ccrtior~nl
P s ~ c h o l o gWilcy-Eastern.
~~. Nev Dcllii.
I . Group ditfercnces difrcr in various groups. Tliesc group may bc ror~nedon the basis
of' sex. age. c a s k soclo-ccononi~cstatus and personality
DifTcrences in lenns of personality:

~~itellccti~alpursuits and acliievemcnts
intcrcsts and goals
habits background
inental nbilitics
cxtro\.crts and intro\ crts
ascendants and submissive
2. Thc curriculuni and instn~c~~onal niater~alsarc transacted kccping in view tlic issucs
related with gender as wcll as individual diffcrenccs. It is quitc likely tliat girls in our
countn. nil1 develop a better self-imagc. Even the tcclinological clla~igestaking plaic
rapidly in our system are helpful in bring~ngchanges in the attitudc o r the incinbcrs or
the socict\- towards girls.
UNIT 8 FACTORS PRODUCING
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Structure
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Objectives
8.3 Heredity and Environment
8.3.1 Nature o f Heredity
8.3.2 Genetic Basis of Individual Differences
8.3.3 Nature o f Environment
8.3.4 Environment and Individual Differences
8.4 Interaction
8.4.1 Interaction o f Heredity and Environment
8.4.2 Misconceptions Regarding Heredity and Environment
8.4.3 Implications for the Teacher
8.5 Let Us Sum Up
8.1 INTRODUCTION
There has been a debate for a long time on the issue ofthe relative influence of heredity and
environment on individual differences. Lately it has been accepted that the ipdividual's
, observed behaviour is actually determined by both heredity and environqent. Why do
individuals differ? What are the factors which are responsible and to what extent is the
knowledge of these variations important for us to know in order to improve the behaviour
of our students? This is an area which should be explored fully.
You would like to know about various factors which influence the development of the child
so that appropriate instructional strategies are developed and implemented to suit each learner
in a homogeneous or heterogeneous group. In fact, no educational or instructional method
or strategy can be developed in the absence of such information as underlying all such
strategies in the assumption that various factors contribute towards individual differences.
The explanations or preference for a particular subject may also be provided in terms of
different hereditary and environmental factors.
In Units 5,6, and 7, you have studied individual differences in detail. In Unit 7 we discussed
gender issues concerning male and female children. In this unit. we discuss the factors
which cause individual differences. As you know, heredity and environment related factors
have a strong bearing on individual differences. These two concepts and their educational
implications will be discussed in this unit.
8.2 OBJECTIVES
This unit is aimed at explaining the various basis of individual differences. Individual
differences are not the result of a single factor. Therefore, it is necessary for you to
understand the specific contribution of heredity and environment related factors so that
each child's behaviour is correctly analyzed. Both problem-specific and general methods of
correction should be utilized with a view to helping the student achieve the goals.
Factors Producing
After going through t h ~ unit,
s you should be able to : Individual Differences
discuss specific contribution of hereditary and environmental factors to individual

differences,
differentiate between genetic and non-genetic factors,
explain the child's behaviour in terms of genetic and non-genetic factors, and
describe corrective measures with a view to achieve learning goals by the child.
8.3 HEREDITY AND ENVIRONMENT
To achieve the above-mentioned objectives it is very important to understand the compo-

nents affecting learning abilities. In this section we discuss the nature of heredity and
environment.
C
8.3.1 Nature of Heredity
Before discussing the contribution of hereditary factors let us see what is meant by heredity
when we talk of heredity we usually have biological heredity in mind. The term 'heredity'
may also be used in another sense, for example, if a child is brought up in a particular social
environment say of a tribe, the value of that tribe and the norms of that tribe are inculcated
in him through other members of that social group and we call it social heredity. In the same
way, a student in a classroom situation brings with him a specific cultural heredity' also.
Here in this section our discussion will be focused on the influence of only biological
heredity on individual differences. Each individual has a specific set of potentials which
are developed through the environment. These potentialities and characteristics possessed
by the individual are the result of his biologically heredity. The influence of heredity is so
strong that twins brought up in drastically different environment show very much similarity
in terms of their mental abilities and other traits. This shows that even drastically different
environments are not capable of overcoming hereditary influences.
8.3.2 Genetic Basis of Individual Differences
Basically while talking about heredity we invariable mean genes received by the individual
from his parents at the time of conception. These genes are found either in groups or exist
singly. These combinations of genes are called chromosomes. Similar chromosomes from
pairs and are very similar to each other in terms of appearance and characteristics. The
number ofthese chromosomes is the same in one type of species. Each human call contains
23 pairs of chromosomes. These chromosomes may be seen only with the help of high
powered microscopes. Each individual at the time of conception is in the ford of a single
cell which divides itself into two daughter cells which again divide themselves. This process
goes on and ultimately results in a matured organism. When these cells divide themselves,
each cell has two identical sets of chromosomes resulting in identical heredity. Whicb cell
will develop into a skin cell and which one into a bone cell depends upon the cellular
environment. Genes of the individual interact with this cellular environment in various ways
. during the process of specialized development of different cells. A different type of cell
division takes place at the age when the individual attains sexual maturity which results in
specialized reproductive cells. This process is called meiosis. Meiosis involves two cell
divisions, during which the chromosome number is halved.
Individual difference is the result of a number of possible combinations of genes. It is avery

complicated system in which even a simple looking and small characteristic is the result of
various genes. As is apparent, individual germ cells of each parent and those of two parents
i.e. mother and father have a number of possible combinations of genes. This results in
individual difference between two siblings. Since identical t\\ ins develop from the division
ofa single fertilized ovum they are identical in terms ofheredit! Rut fraternal twins are unlike
each other in terms of appearance, except that is siblings ma! resemble each style.
49 .
llndcrstanding the
Learner as a Unique
Physical characteristics are a result of heredity. Various physical characteristics i.e. colour
Individual
of hair, eye, skin, etc., are the result of various co~nbinationsof genes. If an individual
receives two genes of albinism from the parents, the person will be an albino. Such an
individual will be called homozygous with reference to albinism. If the individual gets
albinism from one parent and normal colouringfrom another, he will be called heterozygous.
Since normal colouring is dominant such individual will have normal colouring.
Even the sex of the individual is determined by the pair of chromosomes the baby receives
from the parents. When the individual receives X chromosome from both the parents, the
sex will be female. But if the individual receives X chromosome from the mother any Y
chromosome from the father, the sex will be male. Additionally, certain genes which are
received by the individual through X chromosome result in sex-related characteristics. One
good example of this is hemophilia-widely known as colour blindness. A female receiving
one dominant gene of hemophilia from one parent and one normal genes from another parent
is not likely to have this disease as the normal gene will dominate the hernophilis gene. In the
case of a male if a dominant hemophilics gene is passed on to the individual by the mother,
the individual is likely to have this disease as the Y chromosome of father will not carry this
gene at all. Hence there is no possibility of receiving any normal gene from the father. The
same is the case with blindness. A male is likely to inherit it if either of the parents pass on
this gene but a female will have it only when received from both the parents. There are also
some other factors called sex limited factors which are present in the individual.
Heredity and mental development : The fact that the mental development ofthe individual
is limited by heredity has been established lately. Watson claimed to train any healthy child
into someone expected or desired. This concept looked possible till experiments on animal
breeding proved that some kind of mental ability could be inherited. The early experiments
on rats were conducted by Tryon ( 1942) at the University of California and by Heron (1935)
at the University of Minnesota. They studied wide differences in maze learning (finding a
way to a cheese through a maze) done by various groups of rats. The ability to learn maze
was studied over generation after generations and it was found that with each generation the
groups drew further apart. Rundquist (1933) after twelve generations of selective breeding
obtained gtoups of active and inactive rats which referred to temperamental or motivational
characteristics. Many psychologists interpreted these characteristics of rats as analogous to
human intelligence. When these bright and dull rats were exposed to other learning
problems. it was found that bright rats were not good at everything. This became further
evident in the experiments conducted by Searle (1949). He found that rats from each group
showed a characteristic pattern of high or low scores which were quite different for each
group. The dull group performed as well as bright group on many learning tasks that did not
involve mazes. In general it was found that the maze bright animals were characteristically
food drivers, economical of distance, low in motivation of escape from water and timid in
response to open spaces, as against dull rats who were relatively better in water motivation
and timid of mechanical apparatus features. These differences were more temperamental or
motivational than cognitive in nature.
As has been stated earlier, the fact that identical twins cannot be made to differ to any great
extent indicates the strong influence of heredity. How are some very bright children found
among the under-privileged, rural, semi-skilled or unskilled labourers when their environ-
ments are uniformly discouraging for every member? The answer lies again in heredity.
Then there is the famous study conducted by Arthur Jensen of the University of California
at Berbely on genetic differences where it was found that white children were genetically
superior to black children. This argument claims that I. Q. has an extremely high genetic
factor (about 80%) and that there must therefore, be racial differences in intelligence. This
study was later on criticized and results questioned by many researchers. Jensen based his
argument on theconceptofheriditability. Heriditability is the proportion ofthetotal variability
in a population which is due to genetic, as opposed to environmental factors. Since I. Q. is
the result of heredity. environment and critical period (kaal), the heriditability value for 1. Q.
lies somewhere between 0 to 1.00. Jensen argues that the actual value is somewhere near 80.
You should not forget that heriditability does not apply to any single individual. According Factors Producing
to Jerry Hirseh heriditability only explains variation in some particular population at asingle Individual Ditrerences
generation under one set of conditions. Therefore, the question of high or low heriditability
is not significant for us.
-
In a study conducted under the Project called Head Start, the programme typically involved
teaching disadvantaged children on how to get along In school six months before they got
there. By the time these children were enrolled, they ka.1already gone through various critical
learningperiods. This shows the impact of improved rogramme onchildren's achievement.
Some such studies while not refuting the importance of heredity on intelligence make it clear
that the time factor and the environmental factors are extremely important in determining later
levels of intellectual functioning.
Robert Carkhuff ( I 97 I), an expert in the field of counseling and human relations, makes the
point that although the mean 1.Q. of black children is about 86 when they enter first grade,
it drops ever lower by the time the children reach fifth grade. He attributes this drop to
environmental factors working on the black child in the school setting. Sihce teachers often
treat black children as ifthey were devoid of intellectual resources, the children begin to fulfil
this expectation by achieving less and less as the school years go by. One of the reasons for
this drop relates to the placement of the eleast competent teachers in these schools. It is the
reform not surprisingthat black children often do not progress beyond the VIIlth or IX grade
level, since it may be that the level of their teacher's (non) competence does not help them
beyond that point. One study found that two -thirds of the teachers tested stood lower than
junior high school level on a proficiency test.
Heredity and family resemblances in intelligence :Though scientists will not find it very
convincing to believe, yet for a common person, resemblances among the famiIy members
in terms of intelligence is an indicator ofthe influence of heredity on different abilities of the
.same family. Some systematic studies have also been conducted to see the influence of
heredity on behavioural pattern ofthe members ofthe family. The problem withsuch studies
is that in a family it becomes difficult to differentiate between the hereditary and
environmental influences. It is true that the members of a family do not have the same
heredity but genetically they can be considered more alike than persons chosen randomly.
If, in a sample of large family groups one notices intragroup similarities, it may be attributed
to their heredity while the rest ofthe influences might have been caused by the environment.
These researchers have tried to test the following hypotheses:
If environment is an important factor in the production of intellectual traits, correlation

coefficients between siblings should be lower for these traits than fin physical
characteristics like eye colour, height and head measurement, which are thought to be
almost entirely hereditary.
If environment is an important factor, correlation between like-sexed siblings should be

higher than those between different-sexed siblings. The environment is more closely
similar to the two brothers or two sisters than it is for a boy or a girl in the family.
If environment is an important factor, correlations between siblings should be higher

than correlations between parents and children. The fact that they belong to the same
generation would operate to-make the siblings' environment more similar.
Ifenvironment is an important factor, correlations between mothers and childrenshould

be higher than those between fathers and children. The mother is more closely associated
with the children during their early formative years.
Scattered evidences have been cited both for and against each of the hypotheses presented
above.
The best evidence of hereditary influences on human psychological traits also comes from
studies of twins. As you have already studied earlier in this sub-section, the best way to
Understanding the' evaluate the influence of envirolunent is to hold heredity constant. This could bc demonstrated
L e a n e r ns n Unique
Indiviclual
by working with two monozygotic twins (who are exactly like each other in tern~sof their
genctic possibilities) but are separated and kept under two different types of environment. The
best way to cvaluate the influence of heredity is to take subjects who experienced the samc
environment but who are known to differ in genetic endowment and compare them u-ith a
group in which both heredity and environment are the same. This could be dolie by comparing
the amount of difference between identical twin pairs with the amount of difference between
fraternal twins or between siblings. Two terms viz., concordance and disordance arc uscd
in such stlldies. If both the twins show certain characteristics, they are called to be
concordant. In casc only one twin shows it and the other does not. they are called discordant.
Whenever the percentage of concordant pairs is much higher in case of idcntificd hvins than
fraternal twins: there is a sound basis for coiicluding that the traits in question have a genetic
origin. It is the consistency of the hvin resemblaiiccs from tiliie to time and from place to
place that is more impressive. Later on, some morc rcscarchers becamc intercsted in finding
out whether aptitudes and other kinds of iiitellectual abilities also have some genetic roots.
Let us prgseiit some more studics on hereditan, influence for your information and
understanding.
The role harcdity plays in certain kinds of psychiatric difficulties has been established by a
large-scale study of Ncw York Psychiatric Institute under the leadership of Kallanian (1 950).
The procedure adopted in such studies was to start with a group of persons with certain
diagnosis and then to locate and check up on their blood relatives. While much infomiation
has been accumulated about family niembers who show all degrees of relationship to the index
case. it is the figures for the twins that are most meaningf~il. In case of individ~~als with
schizopluenia (psychosomatic disease), it was found if one of a pair of identical twins has
tlie disease, the chalices arc that eighty-six tilnes out of a hundred the other twin has it also.
The other fourteen who are iiot fraillily schizophrenic are found to have schizoid personalities.
Many more such studies have also been conducted to show the influence of heredity on the
persollality of the individual.
Significant research work has also been done to stud!- neuroanatomical traits in the house
mouse and the determination of associated differenccs in behaviour. This collaborative
research wals done by a genetics interested in bchaviour and two psychologists interested in
genetics. One of the questions addressed concenis the extent to which behaviourally variablc
traits, particularly those within the so-called normal' range of variability. are due to genetic
variability among individuals. Another such question rclates to the nature ofbeliavioural traits
which have a high genetic component. Stores (1967) found highly significant and substantial
strain differences. Studies on brain weight providc an ample basis for optimislii with regard
to our f~lturoability to manipulate at least some of the compound traits ~vhichunderline it.
Heredity is high and many locii appear to be involved. On thc basis of studies of inbred strains
done by Roderick et al. (1973), and R. Wimer et al. (1969) show that identifiable genetic
control exists for the sizes of some specific portions of the central nervous system. Another
question related to selective breeding is whcthcr therc are detectable associated differences
in behaviour. A great deal has been learned from various studies conducted in this area.
Evidence was available for at least a moderate association between brain weight and reversal
leaniing in the water maze (Elias, 1969; Fuller et a l . (1973)). Studies conducted by Terris
(1964), C.Wimer and Prater (1966) and Wimer et a l . (1969) provided some evidcncc to
support a positive association between brain weight and activity in the open field.
All the studies quoted above point to the potential value of bchavioural studies. It is possiblc
to identi& some substantial behavioural differences when house mice differ with respeet to
brain weight' or with respect to the size of some specific portions of their brains. It is quite
possible that a substantial part of the genetically associated variability in behaviour which
occurs in house mice will eventually be found to be able to differentiate in brain morphology
8.3.3 Nature of Environment
So far you have seen what heredity is and how it produces indi\.ldual drfferences.No\\ you
may like to laow about anot1;er factor callcd environment and learn how it influenccs Factors I'roclucing
individual personalih in various ways resulting into individual differences. The concept of Inclividual Differences
environment needs little clarification when we say the environment of the child is not good,
sometimes 1t.emean that he is living in a localihswhich does not liavc desirable people or we
mean that he is living in the n ~ r a area
l where he does not have access to man). things which
an urban environment ma?. pro~iide.Psycliologically speaking, it is wrong to say that hvo
children colning from the same family have the same or an identical environment at homc.
The envi~.onmentfor the youngest child in a family is different from the environment
for the eldest child as the treatment to, and expectation from: both these children would be
different in each given situation. Besides, the past experience of each child will be different
which would make the present also different. As has rightly been said. the psychological
enviroturicnt consists of the s u n total of the sti~nulationthe individual receives from
conception till death. This is an active concept of environment i.e. the physical presence of
objects does not in itself constitute environnient unless the objects serve as stilnuli for tlic
individual.
The role of the prenatal enviroiunent on the development of the child is well known and has
been denionstrated through various experiments. The diet a mother takes at the time of
pregnancy, her mental status, glandular secrctions and even the thinking process influence
the developlnent .of the child. Environmentalists finnly believe that. under favourable
circi~mstaiices.every individual is allnost infinitely improvable. Let us see what role
cnvirolunent plays in deternlining individual differences.
I i)
What is heredity'?
ii) How genes are responsible for individual differences'?
I ui) Match the list:

I
A B
a) Genes are found in from the parents
b) The coinbination of in terms of heredity

genes
c) Each human cell in terms of appearance

contains
Understanding the
Learner as a Unique
d) Skin cell and bone are called chromosomes
Individual
cell depends upon
e) Identical twins the cellular environment

develop from the
division of a single
fertilized ovum.
f) Fraternal twins are 23 pairs of chromosomes

unlike each other
g) A person will be an group or exist singly.

albino when he receives
two genes of albinism.
8.3.4 Environment and Individual Differences

The studies conducted on identical twins brought up in different home environment, as has
been discussed, are the best example of environmental influences on individual differences.
Though most of us, except identical twins, get fifty percent of our genes from one parent,
we are likely to develop hereditary characteristics quite different from that parent. Thus
differences between parent and children or siblings do not prove anything about the effects
of environment. But the same can be demonstrated in case of identical twins as they are
identical to each other in terms of their genetic heritage. You may like to know' about some
researches done by separating identical twins at an early age and rearing them in different
home environment. Foster homes provide different environment to study its effect on
identical twins under controlled conditions. By doing careful analysis ofthe results one could
easily find out how much difference the environment makes in shaping personality and what
is it in the environment which is important in producing these effects. Newman, Freeman
and Holzinger (I 937) conducted thorough research on nineteen pairs ofidentical twins reared
in different environments. Initially they found that the pairs reared apart show mere
differences in I.Q. But Woodworth (1941) in his analysis of the results pointed out a factor
called error of measurement that istalways involved in intelligence testing. When this factor
was taken into account and results interpreted, Woodworth concluded that environmental
differences do operate to produce 1.Q. differences in persons with exactly the same
hereditary potentialities. But the magnitude ofthese differences is not as large as those found
among children whose heredity is not alike.
Special component ofenvironment influences intellectual development ofan individual. Case

studies have been very helpful in understanding what it is about the environment that makes
a difference in intellectual development. Woodworth demonstrated that educational influ-
ences can produce I.Q. differences in persons having the same heredity but it is the large
rather than the minor environmental discrepancies that are important. Though Newman,
Freeman and Holzinger (1 937) tried to identify the factors present in the environment which
produce personality differences in separated identical twins, their results were not that clear.
One of the reason was the non-availability of a good personality test at that time. Their case
studies included several examplesofmarked differences in superficial personalitytraits. Two
main conclusions drawn from the studies of identical twins are as follows:
Marked educational differences can produce substantial differences in measured

intelligence.
Intellectual differences in the population as a whole are too large to be accounted for in
terms of environmental differences alone.
As ateacher, you may be interested in knowing about the impact ofagood educational system
on the individual. Results of such studies would seem to justify a moderate optimism with
regard to the social usefi~lnesso f a good educational system. It means it is quite possible that
the intelligence level ofthe population as a whole can be moderately increased. What we are Factors Producing
not justified in assuming this is that individuals with low intelligence can be brought to the Individual Differences
level of the bright ones through a good system of education,
.Children in foster homes and institutions
In addition to the studies conducted on identical twins, a number of research studies have
been carried on children adopted by others and brought up in good homes. But these studies
cannot be called very scientific as the studies are not carried out in two situations i.e before
and after adoption and in this situation it becomes difficult to pinpoint the effect of
environment on the developmerlt of the child. Another important aspect of these studies is
that while selecting a foster home for a child. the concerned agencies try to locate homes
where the child with his intellectual abilities and personality could be adjusted. This factor
is called selective placement.
In one of the earlier studies, attempts were made to find out how successful adopted children
were in their life. These studies used the simple capable personalities as the criteria. 77
percent of the subjects were found to be capable, only 10 percent were delinquents or
vicious. Burks (1 928) compared a group of adopted children placed within the first year of
life with a control group ofown children matched with the adopted children for age and sex
and living in homes matched with the foster homes for locality and occupational level. She
found that a superior home can result in a moderate increase in a child's tested intelligence,
but can not bring him to the level of individuals who have both superior heredity and superior
environment. It also appeared that while there is a slight tendency for the intellectual level of
adopted children to correspond to that of the home in which they are reared. it is not nearly
so close a relationship as that which holds for children in their own homes. Leahy's (1935)
study was also much closer to Burks study in terms of its findings. All these studies agreed
in their findings and led us to believe that the average intelligence of adopted children was
somewhat higher than that of children in homes of the educational level from which they
come. They were also in essential agreement with the findings ofthe identical twin research
studies in which marked educational differences were shown to produce moderate I.Q.
differences.
Some more research findings
Findings of the above studies were challenged by researchers at the University of lowa. The
studies conducted at the University of Iowa showed that the environment exerts a much
larger influence than that which had been ordinarily attributed to it. In one of the studies it
was found that the older the children were, when they entered the orphanage, the lower their
I.Qs. were. It compares the results on the increasing retardation with age of isolated groups.
In another study of the University of lowa it was found that children placed in the superior
adoptive homes turned out higher on the average than those placed in the less superior
environments.
It is not enough to talk in generalities about environmental influences. Let us study the impact
of some of environmental inputs that appear to affect a individual's personality and
intelligence. One of the environmental factors is nutrition. Gross deficiency of diet can
adversely affect I.Q. and even produce mental retardation. Kwashiorkor, an illness resulting
from a protein-deficient diet has been found to be extremely damaging the intellectual
developement. A specific variety of pulse (Khesari) available in certain area of Madhya
Pradesh in lndiaresults incrippled individuals. Ifthisdeficiency occurs duringchiIdhood the
impact is pronounced. Though the exact relationship between protein deficiencyand mental
developments is unknown. however, recent studies have led to some speculation that
inadequate protein intake prevents full development ofthe brain especially those areas which
are involved in memorystorage. Recent introduction ofmid-day meal scheme for all children
studying in school going children may prove to be a motivating factor resulting in high
enrolment and low dropout rate. Various states in Indiahave already introduced this scheme
for tribal children with a view to attract them to the school.
Understanding the Sorlie psychologists have emphasized that tlie key to cogniti\.e growth is matching the child's
Lea~nerHS a Unique
lntliviclual
present intellectual ability with just the right amount of stilnulus varlet?.. lisants must be
exposed to a wide variety of stimulus inputs arid a sl~iftiiigenvirorunent ifnonnal intellectual
. growth is to be maintained. Bloom ( I 964) has emphasiscd that an abundant carl~renvironment
is the key to the full dcvelopiiient of intelligence. David Krecli has shown that ~vitlioutstimulus
heterogeneity animals are lcss able to learn and their brains ncyer devclop fully.
The threc crucial environmental variables listed by Blooln (1 964) are:

the amount of stimulation children receivc for vcrbal development. .
the amount of affection and reward childrcn rccei~c rrom verbal reasoning accomplisli-
ments, and
the amount of encouragement children recenlc for actnc in~cractlonwit11 problems.
explorat~onof tlic environment for leanilng of nc\\ skills
In a recent attempt Murlidharan and Srivastava ( 1995) cxamined thc impact of temple ecolog~
on cognitive development of children. In pariicular. tlic impact of gro~vingup in thc vicinity
of Hindu te~iipleson cognitive developnicnt of grade I and 1V childrcn IT as csamincd. Children
associated svitli temples emergcd to be liiorc cogniti\ cly competent than children from non-
temple areas. In another study by tlic sanic rcsearclicrs. a facilitatory effect of temple on
achievement was observed. Thesc results poilit to thc role ol'tlic templc inst~tutionin shaping
developmel~tof children by providing rich and var~egatedccologj .
Desh and K;t;tl (place and timc) are two important cllvironmcntal ~~ariables jvhich exert
.influenceon the total personality of tlie indi~ridual.Thc placc and its environment. as we have
seen iidue~zcesattihtdes?interests and o\-erall dcvelopmcnt of the individual. Same individual
placcd in different environments at various times is likely to ediibit different beliavioural
pattenl. 111the salue way a child slio~vsdifferent behaviour in different subject pcriods or at
different placcs viz. play ground, home, and school.
Kaal or time is an equally imnportant environmental variablc as age,increascs intellectual

developincnt increases -less. Initially the specd 1s fastcr wh~clibecomes slowcr and slower
with age. Bloom fccIs that the difference bct\vcen a beneficial and a stufT~ngeniirolunent
during these carly childhood years can producc I.Q. diffcrences of 20 points. The study
conducted by Wayne Dennis of a Teheran Orphanage where children wcrc kcpt in, a condition
of extreme sensory deprivation also showed that stimulus variety at an carly age is critical for
cogniti~;eg,rdt\ith.Almost all of tliosc senson-deprived children wcre intcllcctually retarded.
' Since no indikidual is beyond Desli and Kal, it is important to view tlie individual's personality
in thc contex(ofp1ace and time and not in isolation. The illfluence ~Ethese'variablesis so strong
that hereditary influences are overshadowed by them. Thus the teacher has access to various
nietliodologies for shaping and reshaping the learner's bcha\.iour.

Notes : a j Write your answer-in thc spacc given below.
1I
b) Compare your answer with those given at the cnd of tlic iuliit. 1
How do heredity and environnlei~tcontribute to individual differences? I
Writc your answcr in four lines.
F ~ C ~ H I'racluring
I.S
8.4 INTERACTION l s d l \ ~ i d u a lDltYcrrnrcs
In tlic prcceding section you have studied thc impact of both lieredity and environment on
liunlan bchaviour. You might have observed tliat neithcr lieredity nor environment is tlie sole
deteniient or individual bcliav~our.The causes of behaviour are niultiple and complex.
Hereditarians and cnk iro~ui~entalists
argued in their favour and created a division in tlie field
. of psycholog!: Tlic solut~onto the age old controversy is tliat behaviour is the result or
hcredit? interacting with en\.iro~uiientand both interacting with time (kaal). This statenicnt
will help you to answcr Clicck Your Progress 2.
8.4.1 Interaction o f Heredity and Environment
You ha\-c scen tlic influcncc of lieredity or cnvironmcnt on thc growth and dcvclopnicnt of
tlie individual. as established by various rescarch studies. Today most of us believe firnil?
tliat hunian beha\,iour and personalit? are the result of both heredity and environnicnt. It is
now rccogni~cdthat c l c n trait and rcaction of tlie individual that hc manifests dcpcnd on
both liis liercdity and enviroruiient. Still an attclnpt to classi+ behaviour into hvo catcgorics:
innate and ;required. is madc. But onc should kno\c that hereditary and envirorunental
factors ca~uiotbc sortcd out in sucli a fashion. nor can bcliaviour bc divided into tliat which
is inherited and that which is acquired.
kiollier approach to lieredity and en\~ironmentis hiown as additive contribution wliich

niearis tliat both of tliese detenninc human beings growth and dcvclopnient and tlic resulting
behaviour is the sun1 of Iiercditaq and environniental influences. But it n.ould not be wisc
to attribute a fixed propottion of tlie development of one bel!aviour to hercdity and anotlier
to tlic cn\riro~uiient.Therefore tlie most logical explanation would lie in interaction ofheredity
and cn~,ironmentwliich would mcan that the effects of hcredity aiid environnent are not
cunli~lativeor additive. The nature and extent of tlieir influence depends upon the contribution
of each other. To sap it more explicitly. an environmental factor cxerts different i~lfluenccs
depending up011 the specific hereditary background. Similarly. any hereditary factor will
operate differently undcr different environme~italconditions. Under this assuniption,
lieredity and environmelit do not have fixed proporti011of contribution. rather the cstenl of
their colitribution varies as hereditaq and.cnvironnienta1factors vary. Tlicrcfore tlierc could
be as many combinations as the number of situations.
The relationship between the two types of factors would vary from a v c e simple one to the
most co~ilplicatedbeliaviour. For example in the case of determining body weight it may riot
bc possible to predict a one-to- one relationship as the weight would largely depend on the
diet one takes, the'intake capacity of the person and hereditary factors, In the case of
behavioural traits. it is still more futile to look for a single figure to express thc contribution
of these factors. Both these factors are interdependent and interdependence mcans that tlie
influence of any given environnicntal factor on a particular trait depends upon the individual's
specific liereditan background and in thc same wvay the influc~iceof any given hereditar)
[actor depends upon tlie specific enviro~mlentalconditions within which it operates.
Another aspect of this interaction refers to the occurrence of changes as a result of slight
*riati011 in oneof the hvo factors. It is also possible that a slight variation in theenviro~lniental
factors and a slight difference in the hereditary factors would lead to wide vanation in the
resulting trait or beliaviour which may furtlier influence the total process of development.
57
i~~~cleratilncling
the
Lernwr us u U~lio
lndividurl Check Your Progl-ess 3
Notes : a) Write your answer in the spacc given below.

b) Compare your answer with those givcn at the end of the unit
Are hereditary and cnvironmental factors dependent upon each other for the develop-
ment of the behaviour of a child'? Esplain bricfl?
8.4.2 Misconceptions Regarding Heredity a n d Environment
While dealing \11itIi heredity and environment in the contest of individual differences. one has
to bc cautioncd against niisuse of terriis like inborn. acquired. resemblance, maternal
impressions. etc. For esample. take tlie tenn 'inborn.' The hvo tenlis i.e. inboni and lieredit?..
are somelinics used interchangeably. It is usually belicved that whatever is inboni is hereditan.
Another related ~iiisbcliefis that taking birth is thc end of heredit?,. Both thcsc \ie\\:s are
misconceptions. Hereditary-s influences may be visible at the later stagc. bl thc same way.
environmental factors sta,rt exerting their iduencc much bcforc tlic birth i.e. during prenatal
period. Therefore. thc influences of heredity and environment co-exist in time. Birth is not to
be regarded as the end or beginning ofone hpe of influence as it is only a stage,ofdevelopment.
. .
Another such inisco~~ccption relates to parental rescmblance. Heredity does not neccssaril)
resi~ltIn resemblance of offspnngs to the~rparents. S~ncegenes glven b?. parents to the~rOK-
springs are not produccd by parents but are passcd on to tlieni by their ancestors. it is not
neessary for the off-spring to resemble one of the parents. hi the same \\a> what we call
parental resemblance may be the influence of some env~ro~unental factor result~iigin such
similarity.
Another such misconception is about transn~ittingacquired or trained skill to the off-spring

by tlii parents. Heredity does not refer to any sucli transmission as these skills or beha~iour
are consciously learned by the parcnts and do not fall within the pun~icw of heredit\.. The
experiences of the mother during pregnancy and their inipact on the individual should also
not be confused with heredity. Only some indirect biochemical effects may be coiis~dered
for this purpose.
Another common misbeIief relates to the modifiability of characteristics attributable to

heredity or environment. It is believed that if a hereditap origin is identified under a given
cond~tron.nothing or very little can be done to improve it. This is not true. Man? heredita~
diseases are curable. Traits having hereditary basis respond to environmental factors likc diet.
exercise. training. etc. In fact there are very few hereditary characteristics that cannot be
chaiigcd by an? hio\vn cnvironmental factors. In the same way tliere is a false belief that
acharacteristics of. or differences between individuals attributable to environment can be
changed easily. In fact such environmentally produced changes or behaviour are as real as
hereditary and cannot be done away with so easily.
I 1;nctnrs Produrlng
I 8.4.3 Implications for the Teacher Incllvldunl Differences
I
1
As a teacher you would like to know about the implications of hereditary and environmental
I backgrounds for the teaching-learning process. As you have seen, there is evidence available
to prove that the measured intelligence of individuals or groups of individuals is related to
some extent to their educational experiences. There are intellectual differences in terms ol'
the aniouiit of foniial education, even in cases of sibliiigs who initially look alike. Besides,
studies have shown that many individuals originally labeled as feeble minded or mentally
retarded become able to function as nonnal persons 111their communities after receiving the
right kind of education or training. This is indicative of the positive impact of a stimulating
environment on the development of the individual. Therefore, it is necessary to provide a
favourable stimulating and supportive educational atmosphere to children coming to the
school.
I11 fact. whether it is curriculum development, teaching strategies or guidance. knowledge

of one's heredity and environment backgrounds, and their impact on an individual's
personality is very handy to teachers and curricululn developers. Educationists conccmed
witli pedagogical issues always attach immense importance to the selection of proper
teaching methods to suit the need of the students.
The selection and placement of children in various groups should be done on the basis of their
qualities, skills and talents. Illformation about these aspects can be collected by the teacher
through observation alld testing cognitive styles and personality traits. Students need
educational guidance to either select a suitable course of study or to improve tllc level of their
ach~evements.Guidance also involves counselling for adjustment to educational, emotional
or social situations. Maladjustment in one area is likely to influence ad-justment in other areas
also. As has been discussed earlier. the purpose of individualized instruction is to reduce the
educational variability ainong individuals by catering to their specific needs arising out of
individual differences.
You have seen that children at a particular age might differ from each other in a number of
I ways i.e. intelligence, personality characteristics. interests, readiness to study a particular
1 area (subject of knowledge) and some physical characteristics. Individualized instruction
aims at helping every child according to his capabilities. You should understand clearly that
I individualized instruction is not meant to impart instruction to each child separately. A group
of students similar to each other in tenns of intelligence, interest. +rsonality, etc.. can be
taught together. Individually prescribed instruction (IPI): computer-assisted instniction
(CAI) and open classrooms are some forms of individualized instruction.
As has been discussed earlier, you can utilize information about every child's personality and
cognitive development for the purpose of selection and placement in a suitable vocation.
Children witli specific skills: whether obtained through heredity or acquired tlxough
1 enviromneiit. may be put in suitable groups or advised to go to a particular stream of
education. You are also aware that sometimes the school arranges special remedial classes
for certain students to help them improve their resultslachievement in the exanimation.
I
Remedial measures are effective only when you know the exact cause for poor performance
or learnmg. Even for selkcting students for competitive examinations information about
student's heredity and environment is very helpful.
Counselling should be an integral part of educational guidance in our system. The purpose
of guidance is to make the individual aware of his own interests and abilities and to guide him
in the proper direction.
What should you do? You should observe each student for the initial period carefully and find
out details about him. What are his characteristics'?, what are his interests'?, what is his
general level of iiitelligence'? On the basis of your observation you can develop specific
corrective measures to take care of his deficiencies so that he could be brought at par with
other students This will also ascertain the quality of education for each student. The moment
you become'conscious of each student's specific potential, you become a real friend of your
students
Understanding the
Leaner as r IJnique
Indiviclual
Notes : a) Wr~teyour answer in the space given below.

As a teacher. wbat corrective measures will you plan for a mentallv retarded and
maladjusted students
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8.5 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have studied about the two important factors - heredity and environment
- which influence the development of individuals, resulting in individual differences. You
have also read about various research studies conducted in this field of study. Now-a-days.
it is alniost certain, and all of us also believe, that individual differences are the result of the
interaction of heredity and environment. While we recognize the importance of heredity in
individual differences, we are almost equally confident of the cole environment plays In
building up the personality of the individual. A teacher can provide a favourable educat~onal
environme~tin the school to help the child develop his potentialities. A non-favourable
environment is bound to be detrimental in the process of development of the student.
- 1. .What are the main factors responsible for producing i~idividualdifferences?
2. ' What is the genetic basis of heredity'? Cite some studies'insupport of hereditary i~ifluences
on individuals.
3. What do you mean by environment'? How is the behaviour of the individual influenced bv .
it1?
4. What do you understand by thk interactidnal.mode1 in reference to influenkes of heredity

and environnient on personality development'? Describe it.

Dreikitrns, Rudolf (1957) : Psychology in the lassr room. Second Edition, Harper and Row
Publishers, New York.
Entwistle, Noel ( 1985).:New Directions in Educational Psychologv :Learning and Teaching,

' n e Flamer Press, London and Philadelphia.
Tvler, Leona E. (1965) : The Psychology ofHuman Differences, Third Edition. Vakils, Feffer
and Simons F'rivate Ltd., Bombay. -
60
Fuctora Procluclng
Intllvldual Mftkrcncen
1. i) Each individual has a specific set of limits \~hicllare tlie result of his biological
heredity i~iheretedfrom his parents or forefathers.
u) Each parent and those of two parents i.e. mother and father have a nuniber of
possible combinations of genes So thesc conibinatiolis of gc~icsarc rcsponsible for
individual differences.
iii) a) Genes are found in groups or exist singl)..

b) The conibination of genes arc callcd chromosomes.
C ) Skin cell and bone cell dcpcnd upon thc ccllular cnvironmcnt
e) Identical t ~ ~ develop
n s from tlie divisioli of a siliglc fertilized onun in terms
of heredit>..
t] Fraternal twills are unllke cacli otlier in tcrlns of appearance.
g) A pcrson \\.ill be albino whcn lic rcccives two gcnes of albinisiii from tlie
parents.
2. Individual differenccs is the result of a nunibcr of possible combinations of genes.

Indijidual germ cclls of parcnt and those of tlvo parents i.e.. mothcr and fathcr liave a
nuniber of possible combinalions ofgcnes. This results in individual differenccs betwecn
two siblings. Tlie environment also infl ucnces individual's personality in various wa5.s
resulting into individual differences. Special coniponelits of environment influcncc
i~itellectualdevclopment of an ~ndividual.
3 . Any give11en\-ironmental factor on a particular trait dcpcnds up011 thc individual's

specific hereditan background. In tlic same waJTthe iiifluence of ally given hcreditan,
factor depends up011 the spccific environmental conditions within whicli it opcratcs.
Thesc hvo factors would lead to widc variation and affect.tlie dcvelop~nentbehaviour
of the child.
4. Classrooln observation. dctcr~iiinctlic potential of each specific case. develop teaclii~ig

techniques along with technical nlpport.
UNIT 9 THE NATURE OF THE
LEARNING PROCESS
Structure
9.1 Introduction
9.2 0bjecti1,es
9.3 Conccpt of Lcanliilg
9 . 1l 'nlc L-'s\,chologist~sViews on Leaning
9.3.2 Characteristics of Le~mnling
9.3.3 Behaviours not Attributable to Learning
9.1 The Leanung Process
9.5 Principles of Leanung
9.6 Conditions Affecting Leanung
9.7 Learning and Maturntion
9.8 Verbal Leanullg
I
9.. I h e Nature of Verl~alLcamlllg .
9.8.2 Process of Vei-bal Leamulg
9.8.3 Implication li)r Classroom Practice
9.9 Leanung of Concepts
091 Na111rt. or Corrcej)ts
9 9.2 Process of Concept Attaiiunent
9.10 Modes of Leanling
9.10.1 Leanling by Observation
9.10.2 Letuning by l~uitation
9.10.3 I,ei~rlllnpbv Trial a i d Error
9.10.4 Leanling by Insight
9.1 I Transfer of Learning
I '1.1 1.I Meaning and Nat~ueof Transl'er ol'Leanling
9.11.2 Types of Transfer of Leanling
I
1 0.11.3 Ir~iplicationsfor School
i
r
9.12
9 13
Let Us Su~liUp
Unit-end Escrciscs
9.1 INTRODUCTION
We Il;i.rfediscussed in Block 2 that all learners are not alike. They an: unique in tt~emscl\.es.
They ma!. dlffcr in their l~ientalcapacities. interests. attitudes and values. They may also differ
b! \ irtuc of their being ilialc or female: rich or poor, of one caste or the othcr. You Iia\*calso
studied how individual differences can be esptained on tllc basis of em.iroiunenta1 and
hereditary factors.
I~~tlusunit.we shall discuss how learningtakesplacc inaan indi~idll;~la~idwlat are tlic guiding
principles of leanling. You will lean1 conditions of leanling. n~aturalionand the proccss of
leanling. You \\:ill also study the \.arious iilodcs or learning. Due i~nportailcehas bccn laid on
\ferbal Icarning ;lnd lcarning or conccpts. Iliiportant rroiil t l c teacher's point or .rrie\~is the
kno\vledge of tllc proccss of tc~llsferof leanling. Tllc nature and hpes of t r a l ~ f c of
r leanling
have been discussed. The rolc of tllc teacher in llclping students to acquire the skill of transfcr
of leanung llas beell higl~lightcd.
I ~ 1r~ 2I~ I~ ~i l r l i i Process
I I ~ P ~ S ~ : I It lI ~ l~g
9.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit. you sl~ouldbe ablc to:
csplain tlie nature and principles of the leaniing process:
illustrate the conditions infli~e~icing

learning:
describe the various modes of learning: and
discuss the use of transfer of trailling in the new situation
9.3 CONCEPT OF LEARNING

What is leanling?How do we learn? These are sollie of Ule questions which should be ansn.ered
by each one of us?of course. in our o ~ v n\wy. The answers to the questions provide us a sorulid
basis for understanding the nature of leanling. It is tllercfore uecessag that :ve should an;il! se
the liaturc of learning from different angles. Learning occupies an iniportanl placc in
everybody's life : i11 the fanlily, and in school. Schools are set up by society for its children to
leanl. The children interact with the school enviro~uuentand lean1 to adjust.
Let us tw to understand the concept of learning from psycholog~sts'point of view. According

to this view-point. the organism. fmm tllc nioinent of birth rather from tlie tiine of conception,
is surrounded by some kind of en~riromnent.Thc organism does not simply live in the
environment but is also acted upon by it. In turn the organism also acts upon the en\~iroiunent.
All such action-reaction behaviours invo1k.e cliarlges and iiiodifications in (lie organism. Tlus
kind of change or modification is tenned 'lean~iiig'.Tliese 'changes can bc ii~tentional.
deliberate and controlled, or lnay take place witliout intention. i~!an uncol~trolled1lap;izard
manner. This may involve modification in various aspccts of belxr\:iour : psycho-motor
beliaviorrr. verbal behaviour. cmolional bcliaviour or. in all its possibility. a conlbillatio: of
two or niore of tlesc aspects of belia\~iour.Tlius tlic ps! cliologists' \.ie\v poilit liolds ~iat
leanling is a behavionral lnodificatioli due to tlic interaction bclwec~i(lie orga~lisnia~ld:hc
ern.iroiunent ~ i ~ a k i nang impact on the orgaiiisln itself.
9.3.1 The Psychologists' Views on Learning

Many attciilpts lxive beell nude to define leanling. vet. a dcfiilitio~lacceptable to all has not
been cvolved. However, these definitions help us in visualizing fro111 different angles what
takes place during liuman learning. Mnnn defined learning 'as the process of being nlodificd.
more or less pcnlianently, by what l ~ p p c n ins the world around us. by what we do. orby n.liat
\ye obscwe'. According to Huiider and Hilgard. 'leanling is the proccss by which beha\iour
(in the broader sense) is originated or changed tluougli tr;iining procedures (whether in the
natural en~.iro~unent or in tlie laboraton.)'. For Boaz 'leaniing is a process by nbich tlie
individual acquires various l~abits,kno\vledgc and attitudes that are necessary to meet the
delllalid of life 111 gcncr~l'.In the sallic waj., Geoch has also gi\.en a flcsible definition that
.learning as \ye Incasure it is m:re or less a penllanellt c1i;ingc in bclia\.iour \vliich occurs undcr
the mori\~arionalconditions of p~icticc'.
Co~nillillsand Fagin h a ~ edescribed 'leaniing as a sequence of illeiltal events or conditions

lcading to cllangcs in the learner.. Tlic?.have fiirtlier elaborated the sequence of lncnlal e~clits
(or llic process of learning) as follows:
Tlle lcanicr llas needs (or goals) and is Illerefore 111a slate of readiness to respo~ld Tlic
readiness is Iiecessaq for learning lo take placc.
The leanicr niects a problem (or leanling situation) bj, solving whicli his need(s) is (are)
Ilkcly lo bc satisfied. But for solving it a new in1crprcta:ion is required because pre\,iousl!.
lcanled responses are inadequate for reacliiug the goal (or solution) and satis[>-iugliis
need!^).
Conscquentl~,Iic intcrprets the situation with reference to his goals, and trics responseis)
\vlucli scenis to satisf?-his nced(s). Tlle way lie pcrceives the situation (or problem) and
thc rcsponse he iilakcs depends on thc 'readiness' of the learner and external coi~ditioils
of the situation or tlie problem.
T l l c N ~ t o r eof the I,ca~mblgI'rurrss
I 11isrcspollsc Ici~dsto the acliic~.en~ent of lus goal (or satisfaction of lus needs), he will
tend to interpret iuid respond to similar situations in future in the same way. Otllenvise.
lie keeps 011 t ~ i n and
g rc-intcrpretiiig tlie problem until satisfying consequences/rea~Its
are acliie\ ed
On ailal! sing tlie abovc and sinular other espla~lationsand definitions of leaniing we can easily
infer tliat:
11ierc are ccrtain g c n c ~ iclui~icteristics

l of leariiing: illid
therc arc filcto~s\~liichinfluence leanung
9.3.2 Chal-acteristics of Learning

A close look at the psycliologist's view on learning reveals tliat there is a basic agreenient that
.learning' refers to sollie kind of cluinge in beluiviour arising froni tlie experience of tlie learner.
Also. leanling involves hvo coiiiplemcntary processes:
Differentiation. that is a process of dividing tlie tvhole into its colnponent parts, and
that is a process of conibining tlie parts into a new whole.

Integratio~~
For example, J 011 nuglit have observed a young lea rner disiirantling a toy into several pieces.
Through tlus act the learner attenipts to understand tlie structure or functioning of the toy by
breaking it into its coniponents. This may be followed by an attenipts to put together all the
disniantled pieces to rebuilt the originiii toy. i.e.. integration to a new whole.
I,ea~kingis goal tlirccted o r 1)urposive : E v e q human being aspires to achieve sonie goals
111lus l ~ f eThese goals Ins! be achievable niuiiediately or 111 a longer duration of time. which
nle call 'shod-ternl' goals or tlie 'long-tenii' goals If these goals are stated in an explicit and
defimte manner. leamulg beconics nieaiungfi~land purposive for tlie leanier
Leiiming is iui iictivc process : Suppose, as a teacher, you want your students to learn tlie
matlie~natlcalmultlplicatlon tables froni two to ten. As far as the purpose of learning in t h s
case is concerned. !011 know it prcc~selyand explicitly. Now how would youproceed to aclueve
tlils goal? Perhaps. !ou n.111present the tables one by one orally and ask the students to repeat
tlic tables wit11 you ln tlic coursc of doing so, aftcr some time the students would learn tlie
tables b~ lieuxt The grcater the effort on tlie part of the student, the better will he learn the
tables Thus wc see tluit learning IS a forni d activity, rather a self-activity on the part of the
student
Lei11-ningis individui~l: Yo11rniglit liavc observed tliat in a class there are some students who
learn thiugs quickl? while others learn it slowly. In fact. the rate of learning differs froin person
to person. In a class c v e y student is a unique person and he has his own problerns, needs.
I
purposes. asp~ratior~. interests. likes and dislikes. Due to differences in such personality traits
I the students d~fferin the rate and alnount of learning.
Lciiiming is the outcome of the interaction of the individual with the total situation : A
sh~dentleanis by responding to tlie total leanung sitllation and not inthe context of sonie single
stimulus Moreover. in tlie act of doing so, all the three aspects of a learner's persolxllity:
I physical, intellecttial and emotional, are affected. Therefore. a good teacher. on the one luind.
sets tlic env~ro~uiient carciully for fraliung a leaniing situation and on the other hand, lie takes
car: of the various motivating f:ictors wlucli affect the learner.
Learning is creative : Learning is nct ~ncrelysulnniing up of previous experiences, rather it

is the creative synthesis of the knowledge and experiences of the learner. In this sense learning
is a I;c\\. way of acting. and it aims at higher level of thinlung wluch we call creative o r critical
thinking. Here creative tliinkilig is tiof being used intlle strictly tecllnical sense. It siniply poiuts
ro\vards the lncntal process suggested by Crow and Crow. According to them critical tllinking
in\-ol\.cstlic follo\~.ing~iientalprocesses:
Direction : !o this process interests and attention of tlie learner are directed towards a
goal.
I
4
I
Intcll)rctiition : In tllis process llie leanier sees tlie relations between \~iirioustypes of
I
infor~iiatlonu\railable to him.
I 7
the Lean'ing Process Selection : It is tllc proccss of recalling 2nd selecting such past cxpericnccs ~vhlchare
useful to tlic Icanicr for u~ndcntandingtlic net\. Icaniing sihiation.
Insight : During tllis process Ilic lear~icrrecog~li~cs
[lie relationships anlong the net\.
cxpcriellccs.
Creation : It deals wit11the formation of ncw mental pattenls.
Criticism : It is tlic process of c\,aluation of tllc feasibiliv of tlle sollition found by
fonning nc\v mental pattenls.
Le;iming is tr;msfer;rble : Whcn kno\vlcdge gained by interacting with some sihiation is
applicd to dcal wit11 a new situation meaningfi~llg.\ve say that lcanling is transferred. You
sllould note that tra~lsferispossiblcbetween the two situations, ifthere is identity of the context,
idcnlit! of procedurcs and identity of attitudes and ideals. For example. when nleasurelnellt is
taught in tlie classroom. the problems. escrcises or examples of everyday life arc used to
csplain the concept. This nlay be the \veiglit or the cost of vegetablcs in the market place. it
nxjy be tllc area c o ~ ~ e r ebyd a square piece of furniture in your roonl and so on. All these
exainplcs represent the transfer of learning. Transfer of leanung nlay take place from one field
of study to anollier and fro111the classroonl situations to the real life situations, and thus this
cliaractcristic leads to econonly in leanung.
9.3.3 Behaviours not Attributable to Learning

We 1w.e discussed that a nlodification or change in beha\,iour is called 'leanung'. However
thcre are sonie bellaviours which are due to one or the other type of modifications yet these
are not tcnned 'learning'. For example. whcn a pi11pricks our finger. we withdraw it fro111the
pin. Sinilarlg. ~vhena very bright light falls 011 our eyes, we inmediately close our eyelids.
Such bchaviours are instant and we even do not feel that we are putting in any special effort.
These bcha~.ioursdo not fall undcrthe Icanling categoq .rather these are called 'reflex actions.
Thcrc is anotllcr catcgon of beha\iours con~nionlykno\vn as 'biological instincts'. For
example. a cluld starts c n i ~ i gwhen lie feels Ilungq: \ve feel like taking rest \\phc~i
tircd: \\e are
attracted towards the opposite sex. Such bchaviours are natural and not Icanled, thercforc \ye
do not call tllcm leamcd beha\.iours
Sometimes niodiricatio~lor change in beha\.iours takes place due to accidents or ps,-cl~ological

dcfects. For esamplc liinpi~ignlovenlc~ltsof a ~ C T S O Lafter
I ~ileetingan accident or stammering
in spcecll due to some dcfect in tongue. Wc again exclude such beluviours from the category
of learned beha\.iours. Si~lularly,there are some motor actio~lsivl~icha child can perfon11 only
at a ccrtai~lage. For instance, to sit with propcr posture. to ~valk\\,it11 steady steps, etc., ilre
attained after a speclfic age. The beliavioun \vl~ichare the outcomcs o r maturity of the child
arc not called Icamed belia\~iom.Ho\\,ever, in most of such cascs. mafurit! and learning both
play their roles simultaneously and therefore it becomes difficult to dctcmline \vllich of tlie
two should be hold responsible for the behaviour. We \\;ill discuss tlus point in details later in
this Unit.
i
Check Your PI-ogress1
Notes : a) Write your aiwvers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers \tit11 those given at the end of the unit.
i) Why is kno\vledge of the 'leanung process' useful for a teacher ?
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ii) Sclcct Boaz dcrinitiom of the lcanling process. and explai~lwhich of tlie characteristics
or lcaming i t c~npll;lsises.
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'Hie Nature of the Leanlull Yrcwess
9.4 THE LEARNING PROCESS
Uilderstandi~lgthe leanl~ngprocess is one of the most i~nportantareas of study of educational
psychology. Tbe process of leanling continues througliout life. All human beings lean1 one
kind of behav~ouror the other. There are various leanling processes tluough \vliicl~we acquire
bclicfs. attitudes. and skills. The effect of leaning can be seen in our behaviour. our
pcrroimances at the stage as a musician a dancer or a speaker. Our success in the jobs we are
cnguged in depends on the quality of l e ~ m i n gwe have gained tlwough our professional trailling.
You nugllt 1~al.eobserved tllat a cluld begins to leanljust dter lus birth. At birth lie is practically
l~clplessand depends to a great extent on lus parents and other meinbers of the fanlily for his
suni\:al. But as llc grons;lie acquircs skills.,through the process of leanung. wluch ~ l u k lei ~ l l
indcpcildcnt. and in duc course of time, a supporting member to lus family too. His early
cliildliood nio~.cnrcntsarc not \ t r y distinct and specific but in due course of time these
nio\~c~nents becon~cdirection-specific a i d ineaiungful. He soon learns that some objects, if
not Iwndled propcrlj-. will cut or piilcli or bum lus fingers. He leanls to respect his elders. In
fact he continues to Icnr~ithroughout his life, and the quality of his learning detenlunes lus
personality.
9.5 PRINCIPLES OF LEARNING

Various theories o r lcariuilg have been proposed to explain the process of leanling as a result
of se\,eral cspcrilne~ltsconducted on aiumals. Of these. the theories based on Thorndike's
connectioiusm Gutheric's contiguous conditioiuilg and Wertlurner's gestalt have gained
popularit!- in the ricld of education. Here we shall discuss the principles of leanuiig deduced
from these lcanung theories.
Li~wof effect : The principle of law of effect is called thc 1;nv of satisfaction. According to
this principle. \yhen a modifiable coilnectio~ibehveen a situation and response is made and is
;~ccompanicdor rollowed by a satisfying state of affairs, the strength of the link with that
is increased. When tlic colu~ectionis liladc in such a way tllat it is accoillpaiied or
sit~~atioll
l'ollo\ved b!. an aluioying state or afrairs its strength is decreased. To uilderstand the tenw
'satisfii~igslate' and .aniio!;iilg state', let us take an esainple of rhymes and poeins leanled by
children in the classroom. You ~iuglltluvc noticed that the teacher accomplisl~estlus task
tlirougll action-rccilation. In fact. ~ ~ o u ncliildren
g by tlieir very nature like nlo\~enlentsand
aclioils and \\Iiate\,cr is taught b!, imolving thein in sollie kind of game or action gives theol
pleasure or satisfaction. On thc other hand if the! are illade to lean1 something after restricting
{heir usual uiovelncnts and i~ltcrcsts.their lcanung is delayed and luimpered. l'his situation
bccoliics quite 'a~uio!.ing' to t h c ~ ~ i .
1>;1\\ of intensity : Thc satislying situation gives pleasure to the leanlcr aiid thus it rewards
him. Espcriments 1ial.e established that Ilie greater the reward the inore it facililalcs leanling.
It points to tlle fact tlut the more the reward, the stronger is the inoti\lation ; I I I ~stronger the
moti\,ation. the Faster and surer is the leaning. This is called the lirw of intensit?. The time
gap between thc rcspolise and re\vard is an iinportant factor in detemliiung tlie crfect of reward
on lcanling,.T l ~ csliortcr the timc bet\veen response and reward, stronger is tlie learning.
i
i : You uught have heard a popular saying that 'practice inakes perfect'. Tlus
L i ~ nof ~)ri~cticc
pro\.crb is the gist of the principle of leanling kno\vn as the la\\, of exercise. Tllis law siinpl!.
points toiiards thc fact Illat if the tlungs leanlt are. repeated tiille and again. tlic!~ gain
pennancnce in thc lear~~er's 111emoq7. On the other hand, if the leanier does not inake use of
his learning. lic forgets it in due course of time. You iiuglit luve by now uiiderstood \vh! we
ask our students lo rcpcat the mathematical tables agaiii and again or write a amis-spelled word
corrcctl! . ;I nun~bcrortilllcs.
L;IWof rei~diness:Therc is another principle called the law of readiness. Tn siinple words. the
;issualptioo behind this law is that \vithout a will lo learn there cannot be true leamiilg. The
\\,ill lo lc;~niis. in Tact. tlic preparedness or readiness of nuild. It is also tenlied as motivation.
Tlicrc is a colnlnon sa!.ing 'j-ou can lakc a horse to water but you caiulot make him drink'. In
tlic salnc way. iI'a stl~dc~it is rorced to do a thing tvhcnhc is not ready to do it' we cannot expect
good rcsults i r o ~ uliini.
I ' ~ ~ c l e ~ . s t athe
~ ~L~ el i: r~ ~n ~ hPrcress
~g Besides the pri~iciplesdiscussed above, there are other guiding priiiciples which you can usc
for encouraging learning in your students. Let us take a quick look at them:
a For efficient leanling the ~ilaterialto be learnt should be presented in Iogrcnl ur?it.\ irnd riot
piecemeal
a Tlie lnore logical the sequence in the leanling activities or events. is the morc efficient is
tlie learning.
a Leaning is facilitated if the material is ~neaningfulto tlie students
a The inore t l ~ eactive participation of the students. the more efficient is learning, wliicl~is
always usehl for retention.
You should note that all the principles are pofcnt In themselves. but m a classroo~nsituatin-.
they operate alniost simultaneously.

Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given below
I b) Conipare your answer with the one given at the end of tlie unit
A one-day cricket niatch between India and Anstralia is being played at Bonlba!. and is co\crcd
I
by TV and AIR. Tlic students are feeling restless in your class. Explain their belia~iouron tlic
basis of the principle(s) of leaning.
9.6 CONDITIONS AFFECTING LEARNING

Leanling does not take place in a \.acuum. It is in the context of some content (Icarni~rg
~naterial).When we say that a student is learning, we just gi1.e an inconiplete statc'n~c~~t. \Vi'
should say a student is leanung ~vhat?And tlie answer to 11us 'what' indicatcs to\\ ilrds tllc
colilent a student is expected to lean1 or the ob*jecti~,es
he is going to acliie\,c. Besidcs Ical.ncr
and conte~it,ina conventiollal classroom. there is a teacher who through [lie act of his tcaclii~lp
helps the students leani. Thus there are three categories of co~lditions1v11icl1affec~Ical-ning
namely the conditions related to contcllt. the teacher and the learner. Let us discuss tlrcsc ~ l ~ r c c
categories of conditions.
Fig. 9.1 : Conditiol~srcl:~tedto Content, Tei~cher; I I I C ~St~nlellt
U~llessyou lulow 'what to teach' and the st~ideiitknows 'what to learn', i t will bc impossible
to c a p 011 the process of learning. The answers to these tsvo questions specify tlic contcnl or
the curriculmn. The activities, the objectives and the organisation of tlie curriculu~ndetcnl~inc
the ~latureof the learning process.
Though Llle d~rect~vesfor stn~cturingleanl~ngs~tilationsin the classroonl are made available TheN*lture Lr:lnlillz
to \oil b! the cumculuni. ~t 1s you who 'through !,our resowcefulness' can nmke intelligent
use o i thc cumculum Thus your resourcefulness is yet another factor affecting the leanung of
!our sh~dcnts
The conditions related to students are perhaps the most importanlt in facilitating efficient
learning. This is the reason why cducationisls stress on providiiig a favourable leanung
em:ironnlent to the students. Whether in school or at llonle the student shouldbc given a calm,
c1e;in I iglited and well-ventilated space for h s study and related activities. Tlus creates a proper
p11ysic:il and psychological ern.ironnlent for leanling.
Tlle physical and mcntal llealtli of the student also affect his lcanung. Oidy a pli!;sically and
nlcntally alert student can lean1 properly. Sometimes. students s l ~ o \ deficiency
\~ in learning.
sinlpl! bccause tlley may not be properly nlotivated, or they inay not be interested in what is
bciulg taught to thc~n.It may bc because you nugllt have used defective nlethod of teaclung or
thc leanling acti\.itics !.ou ha\ c cljosen are beyond their maturity level. It is also possible that
tlie student is over-burdened due to heavy home assignnieilt given to him in one or more
ac;rde~nicsub.jccts. Sucli il p~icticecreates ululecessaq tension in the nund of the student and
;I( tlie sanic tinic encroaches upon lus playing or relaxillg time. Conseque~itly.the student feels
tired and bored in his study.
9.7 LEARNING AND MATURATION

111 the preceeding sec~iollsyou have seen that maturation is an inlportant factor ~vluch
influences learning. Though maturation and learning processes are closely related, yet these
rernls sliodd not be used interclangeably-. Maturation is a natural process. For nlaturation an
c\Ternal still~ulusis not necessap. and its sequence is biologically predetermined. On the other
hand leanling is a change in tlie indi~.idualand is not a result of geiietic inheritance. It is a
process \ ~ l u c htakes placc as a result of 'stinluli' from '~vithout'.Activity, cxperience and
training lead to changcs in the bellaviour in the process of leanung.
The beha\-iour is said to have matured if a bellaviour sequence develops through regular stages.
(irrcspecli\.e oTintcn.eniiig practices or training). Iftrailling procedures do not modify or speed
up chc bcl\a\.iour. suclr proccdures are not inlportant and the changes are not classificd as
lcarning.
l'hc s\vi~nmingof tadpoles and the flying of birds can be attributed priillarily to maturdtion.
Bnl in thc casc of liulnan beings it is not easy to decide whether the activities result fro111
niaturatioi~or leanung. The niost si~npleexample is that of a child. The cluld learns to talk
only when lic rcaclies a certain stage or age in maturation. It is also equally true that he does
~iotlcar~lthe language just becausc he attain that age. The langiage is ta~igl~t to him. l'hc
1:lnguage \vliich he learns is that \ ~ l u c hlie hears. It is v e n clear that the h ~ proccsscs
o
~~raturation and leanling are closcly related to each other. Maturation the process of
1c;rrning.Learning is effective if appropriate maturity has been attained. Lcarning takes place
onl!. i f tlie stage for that type of learning has been aclue~.edthrough a proccss of maturation.
You. ;is a teacher, should k n o \ ~how to dlfferenciate between uiaturational development with
that of clla~igesdue to leanling. For esanllple. 1.011have a typical human brain wluch develops
\\.ill1 agc. It is a matur,ition process. But \.our kno\vledge, your habits wlucli are due to some
kind oI nlodificadon of your brain-function, are acquired tluough stiini~lus-responseactivities
or ill othcr words. leaniing. A iriore silnplc example canbe -your biceps depend on maturation.
but tlicir sirc also depends 011 llle alnouilt of pllysical esercise you do. The modificition in size
is tlius not the product of inatumtiou rather it depcnds upon stiniulus by.cxerciscs and respollse
of tlie muscle to this esercisc.
121atriration is i~nporlantfor learning. Beforc we leanlanytlung. our sensor?.,illolor and iienToais

srnlccurcs sllould atlaill a certain lc\.el of maturity. We cannot make an infant drive a bicycle
siniply becausc hc lras not acquired thc appropriate maturity Sinularly. it is practically
i~npossiblelo nlakc a six-month old bab\- learn ~liultiplicationtables. So until a certain level
ofiiint~~ratio~i is acq1111cdby the cluld. training (or lcaming) (nay bc of 110 avail. So you should
bear iu 11u11dthat (i) driring thc carly development period oltlie child. grcater lc\.el of nlatl~rit-y
brings morc cfficicut Icanliug. and (ii) leaning of complex skills require a lughcr lc~zelof
~natui-it!.
-
I ~ l t l e r s k t ~ ~ dthr
i l ~ I,c*;rrlbig
e I'rt~ess Check Your Progress 3
b) Conlpare your answer with the one give11 at the end of the unit.
At the time of adilussion Madan was tested and found to be a cluld of abo\.c-a\,cr;~gc
intelligence. He has always been praised by lus teachers for lus acadeiilic progress in the c1;lss.
But, recently the teachers have obsewed that lus achievelllent in the class is not t~ptoIlicir
satisfaction. What. in your opinion, can be the reason'?
...................................................................................................................................................
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9.8 VERBAL LEARNING

Verbal learning 1.e. teaching through talk or lecture is a conlmon pfilchce in classmo~llaround
the norld. It entails unparting of lulowledge by the teacher on any topic through d~scoursc
Yet. verbal learning is considered by most nloderncognitive psycl~ologistsas either lnadcquatc
or ineffective in ellsuring learning in students. For, verbal leanung is often constdcred a passl\ c
leanling experience. as the action is colllpletely undertaken by the teacher The studcnls arc
therefore. looked upon as inactive or passive recipients of knowledge.
David Ausubel disagreed with tius view of verbal learning and instead held thar ir was a
meaningful tfiinsaction of knowledge. According to him. the students attending to a \,chal
discourse is not passively listening to but is actively incorpofiiting into hisher exisring
cognitive stnlch~rewhatelrer is being presented.
9.8.1 The Nature of Verbal Learning

According to Ausubel (1963 ; 1977) learning is equivaleilt to subsumption wluch is the
inclusion of new information illto an existing cognitive stn~cture.Tlus entails the follon ing
process: '
a Recognising (of the verbal infonnation),

a Relating (new illfomlation to what already exists in the cognitive sti~~cture).
and
a Meaningful learning (as a result of the above).
For esainple. if you want to teach students about 'i~loths'.The pattern oC Icarning according
to Ausubel would include, the recognition of the orgaiuslll as an 'insect' or -slnall \\ iilgcd
creature' i.e. placing the new information in some existing catcgon of child's cogniti\pc
stnicturc. The second step would then be to related this infornlation with what already cs&ts
in his stnlcturc. Tlus is done in t e r m of coinparing (he new infonnarion 'moth' to \vhat is
already known about insects. in terms of sinularities and differences. This results in meaningCt11
learning for the cluld.
Ausutbcl argues tllat organising and explaining relationslups. both old and new. is the (ask oC
the teacher, and not of the student, such that it becomes meaninglul for the student. Tli~sis 111
contrast to the proponents of discox~evlearning like Bnlner. who held that t11c task oC
organising information should be uildertaken b3 the students. only tlleil will leanling becomc
mncalungful. Verbal learning, proposed by Ausubel. entails struchlring kno\\ ledgc b thc
teacher in its final form for the students. The advantage of verbal learning over disco\ cn
learning is that it (verbal learning) would:
a il~cludea larger body of infonnation.

a requirc less rcsourccs. and
a be econonlical in tenlls of time.
'The Nature of the Leanii~izProccss
9.8.2 Process of Verbal Learning
Ausubel explains the process of meaningful verbal learning with the help of the following key
concepts:
Suhsumer :The subsumer is akin to Piaget's concept of schema. It is a conceptual framework,

~vhereinhigher 1e1-el concepts include (subsume) other ideas. Subsunling involves
incorporating new inaterial meaningfully, wit lun this conceptual framework.
Suhsumption : The process of building the cognitive structure (subsumer) by subsunung new
i~lfonllatioilillto it takes place in two vital ways:
I) Derivativesubsumption :When the new infomlationis derivedfrom the already existing

stricture. the process of derivative subsunlption takes place. For instance, if a general
category of 'nlanunals' is already present in the cognitive structure, the specific example
oT a horse. elephant, etc., even when presented as new information is derived easily and
therefore is easily learned. This is comparable to Piaget's concept of assimilation.
ii) Correlative suhsumption :Whenthe new information requires that the existing structure
be altered. corrc1ati1.e s~lbsunlptiontakes place. In the earlier example, if the new
i~lfonllatioilwas .wllale'. The existing structure will have to change to acconunodate the
ilen kind of mamlullal. Tlus kind of Ieaming is more challenging, yet when acquired. is
better reme~nbered.Tlus is coinparable to Piaget's concept of accommodation.
Dissociative suhsumption : Remembering is dissociative subsunlption i.e., it requires the
ability to separate new learning from the old. Ausubel holds that recall is facilitated or
enhanced, according to the dissociability of the new information. Information which is sinular
to wllat already exists, will be learned faster yet paradoxically because of the simil'arity with
the existing structures. learning is low in dissociability and therefore difficult to recall. When
infonnation is unique or different, the reverse occurs. Because of the change required in the
cogniti1.e structure. these are llarder to learn, but are easily recalled once learnt or subsumed.
For instance, because of the sinularity in inforn~ation,students would learn easily the
colnparison of organ systems of various aninds? i.e. of the cockroach, frog, rat, and human
being. At the same ti~lleit would be difficult to recall the infonnation for the same reason, a
lug11 dcgree of overlap in infonnation. On the other hand, ifyou were to teachall organsystems .
of a particular orgaius~ilsay. llunlan being, it would be difficult to learn the concept due to the
degrcc of difference in inforillation but easy to recall once learnt for the same reason.
9.8.3 Implication for Classroom Practice

Tlle major iillplication of Ausubel's theory of verbal learning for classrooill practice is the usc
oT an adl-anced organiscr. Ausubcl subscribes to the notion that new ideas are best introdllccd
from the general (abstract) to the specific (co~icrete).This implies that students illdst be
provided with a conccptutill franrcwork on wluch they can anchor new ideas being elaborated
later. Thc advanced orgaluser scn.es tlus vety purpose. It introduces the inain ideas and makes
all the relationslups between these ideas explicit. It is like an overview of the lesson or the
leanliag poimit(s) to follow. To aid leanung and retention of information, the advanced
orgtuuser nlust e~llplrasiseboth sinularities and differences.
There are two types of advanced orga~users:
Coml)a~-ative atl\.iinccd orgiiniser :Tlus type of the advanced organiser is based onderivative
subsunlption and im.olves direct conlparisons. For example. comparing the digestive system
of aninlnls and h~unanbeing before introducing the human digestive system.
E s p o s i t o ~iid~;~ncctl
~ o~~giiniser
: This type of the advance organise is based on oblique and
not on direct conlparisons. For example. when two systems, such as the circulatoq and the
respirator! are compared. a new subsu~neris sought to be established as an offslloot of an
existing one.
Other inlplications o r \ e h a l learning are as follows:
The lecture mctl~odis neither ineffective nor passive iforg~usedbasedontheoryofverbal

leanling.
It is nccessan Tor the teacher to assess the cllild's existing cognitive structure before
introduci ng ilen inTom~ation
Ueclerslanding the Leanling Process
a Since leani~ngis facilitated when new information is similar lo the esisting one. points
of siiililarity inust be established.
Since recall is facilitated wheil differences are distinct, differences bchveen ncw and
existing knowledge nlust also be highlighted.

Note : Compare your answers with those given at the cnd of the unit.
i) Verbal learning is
a) Lcanling a new laiiguage
b) Oral practice
c) Understanding verbal idonnation
ii) Verbal learning takes place through

a) S~~bsunlption
bj Dis~ociation
c) Subsumer.
iii) Learning through derivative subsuinption is .......................(easy/difficult) but recall is
...................... .(easy/difficult).
iv) Advanced organisers must build knowledge from......................(abstract/concrete) to
........................... (abstractkoncrete).
- -
9.9 LEARNING OF CONCEPTS
Bruner in his book,A Study of Thinkmg, points out that "concepts help us to identify the objects
of the world around us" and thus reduce the complesity of our environment This is thc reason
that paramount inlportance is attached to the learning of concepts in our school cuniculuni
What is a concept? What is it that we learn? And low is it attained? we shall try to answer
these questions in this section.
9.9.1 Nature of Concepts

For Hilda Taba, concepts are complex systems of highly abstract ideas which canbe built only
by successive experiences. We define a concept as ordered infonnation about the
characteristics of one or more objects, events or processes. This infomntion enables us to
differentiate a particular object or class of objects from other objects. I11 facf concepts refers
to sonie identifiable public entities and also mental constructs of individuals.
Concepts as public entities are described and defined in the fomi of organised inform;ition in
encyclopedias, dictionaries and books. The meanings of concepts are accepted by the p~blic,
or a gronp of persons who speak the same langt~age.
It has bccn also found that we acquire concepts according to our unique learniiig experiences
and matmtional patterns. The coiicepts thus acquired are used in thinking about the social and
physical environment around us. In t h s sense, we define concepts as mental constructs or
ideas cohstructcd in the ~ninddepending lipon perception. Obv~ously,a particular concept i.e.,
an object, event or process is restructured as we acquire more maturity and more experience.
For instance, a five-year old child and a botanist both have a concept of tree. and both can
recognize a fcw clramples of trees, yet their concepts of tree differ to a large extent.
In psychological temunology, a concept is a class of stimuli whch have common attributes.
By stimuli here we mean objects, events, orpersons. The stimulus is apicture, a word (spoken
or written) and so on. We usually designate a concept by its name. like student, teacher, bright
students, dedicated teachers, good schools. etc. All these concepts referto some categories (or
classes) of stimuli. However, there are some stimuli which do not refer to concepts. For
example Arun (a student), Discovery of India (a book), and Miss Dorijya (a teacher). These
stimuli are particular and not classes or categones. The difference between a particular stimuli
and a concept can be understood by the simple logic. The concept 'student' undoubtedly
includes Arun as also many other students; but Arun is a case in itself, it does not foml a
categoly or class or studcnls. Wlicn \\.c talk about conccpts. jvc should reiiicmbcr llut ~ v cdo
1101 rcfcr to a particular stilnuli but lo a class or c1;lsscs of stimuli.
9.9.2 Process of Concept Attainment

It is neccssag t11;1t 11c sliould know tlic salicnt features of a conccpl wliicl~Inay Iielp us in
d~stinguisliiligit fro111 otlicr co~~ccpts. Conccpt attribute is a distincti1.c fc~~turc of a collccpr
and so it \ uries Trolii coliccp~to co~iccpt.Lct us tikc a co~iccpt'lake'. Tlic ~nainatlributc \\.111cli
distinpisl~csit L'rolii otlicr allied conccpts. like - ocean. sea, pond and well. is its s i x . Tlicrc
;ire otlicr attributes o r lake likc Ivatcr. dcptli, etc.. but tlicsc are conmionto otlier all~cdco~lccpls
also. Tliereforc tlic sizc bccoiiics an attribute \vlucli helps in distinguishing I;ikc froiii otlicr
conccpts (lakc is sniallcr tllun ocean and sca, but bigger in size as conipared to a pond or ;I
well). Herc the size llas become tlle concept attributc.oflakc.
Attributc \,slues arc tllc p;~rticularcharigcs an attribute may undergo. We 11aI.eestablislied sizc
as an attlibute in tlie case o r concept of lake. It may have severid ~ ~ a l ufrom
c s ;In appreciable
to a \.e% large din~eiision.I11 tlic same way. anothcr concept, say a liu~iianbeing. call tu\.c o~il!.
t ~ i~ttribule
o valucs-a inan or a woman, dead or alive, single or mamcd. Wlien an altriburc lias
a wide r,lngc of \.slues. we call usc othcr attributes to identify tlie concept.
I
The number of conccpls ma!, v a n from concept to concept. An orange lias I'our
attributes-shape. s i x . colour ;lnd texture. Co~ilplcsconcept like beautiful and dcmocr;lc!~ may
have a dozcnor more atlribr~lcs.It lias been obsened that as the number of attributes increases,
the difficulty of leaniug thc coilccpt increascs. Tlus is tlie reason tl~atto save 1i11icand to reducc
tlic aiiiount of strain. \vc ofic~iignore soluc oT1.h~attributes and try to combiue old!, a few into
\.arict\, or pattenls.
J.S. Bn~ncrdemonstrated hou ;i person attains a concept by using tlie abo1.c ~ i l e ~ ~ t i o ~ i c d

clla~ictcristicsof tlic concept attribute. For this purpose lie used a set of cards. All thc cards
had pictures of various sliapes - squarc, circle or cross; colours - red. grccli or black. and
nunlbcrs - single. doublc ortriplc. Each card thus combined fourattributcs - f i ~ y r shape.
e figurc
number. figure colour. and preselicc or absence of borders. The esperi~lleiitercliosc a concept
- say a black squarc altd kcpl it in liis nlind. Tlie subject was asked to identify this conccpt by
sclccti~iga card. Tlic cspcri~iientcrasked the subject \vhether or not tlic card was ail insta~~cc
of the concept. On tlie basis of tlie iilfonl~atioiipro\:ided by the esperi~neiitcrtlie subject
selccted anotlicr card to deteniuilc unidcntified attributes of tlie concept and continued doing
d corrcct answer i.e., tlie card with black square. By using tlis experiment
so till 11c f o ~ ~ ntlic
Bnlncr tried to esplaiii explicitly tlie process of co~iceptleanling.
Checli Your Progress 5

Notes : a) Write your answer in tlie space given below.
I b) C01iip;irc !.our aIls\ver 1~1ththe one given at the end of the unit.
In Sectio~i9.4 we ha\ e tried to develop the coilcept of leanling. Go througli tlis scctioi~
I
carefull!. and identify tlie concept itttribute, and attribute values of the concept leanling.
1 Hint : i) Coiicept attribute : a distinctive feature of a concept.

I
I ~ i l Attribute values : particular change an attribute might ~111dergo.
I
I ~~tlcrst;~nding
the L c a n ~ h ~Process
g
9.10 MODES OF LEARNING
Right from birth itself we lean1 many skills. like reaching for and graspiitg toys. standing up
and stepping fonvard unfaltered and unaided. speaking, etc. Laterwe learn more conlplex skills
and acquire the ability of solving various types of problelns. Thus there is a gradual change
from the simplerform of learning to the conlplex ones, like problem solving. There is no single
way of acquiring all types of learning However. here we slull discuss three important inodes
of learning. By understanding hon nltich each mode operates. you should be able to design
your classroom teaching more effecti\ ely.
9.10.1 Learning by Observation

Observation is a basic requisite for all kinds of leanling. By observation, here. we do not illeail
sinlpl! 'seeing' a tlung. rather. it refers to the act of perceiving or obsening tlie stimulus. Thus
in the process of obsen~ationwe not o d y take the help of our eyes alone (as for 'seeing') but
we also use all our sense organs. Tlie presence of a stimulus can be recorded with the liclp of
our capability of perceiving. seeing. listening, smelling, tasting and touching.
It may amuse or take you by surprise if it is said that "we have eyes yet we are blind". Such
a statement may confuse you unless it is clarified. The point of emphasis here is that there are
so many things or objects around us, but we tC&enotice of only a few of them and others are
left unheeded. Just ponder upon tlus explanation and you will realize the underlying truth. In
fact we pay attention to the lllings of our interest only. But we can never be certain nhether
interest precedes attention or it is attention which gives rise to interest. It is because the two
are inseparable. Interest is the feeling side of attention.
By nature, all living beings are interested in something or tlie other. Tlus interest is aroused as
a result of the in~pulseevoked by instincts. The greater the impulse the inore is the amount of
interest.attached to it. And the greater the interest. the more tlie attention paid to the object.
Therefore it is said that interest is latent attelltion: and attention is interest in action. Howe~~er,
the necessary condition of both interest in and attentioil to any object is that tlle mind is so
organised, either iiulately or tluough experience. tllat it can tllil* about the object. and nlaiiitaill
a desire to know nlore and nlore about it. This e p e of ulental or psycl~omotoractivity lead us
to learning about tlle object.
We often use 'observation' in order to foster leanling in our students. We evoke interest 111
children by presenting concrete objects, illustrations, pictures. models. etc., in class and
relating the topic to them. However. tlus interest is of primitive nature and we should 1101 be
satisfied with this kind of interest only. The interest c;ul be sustained only if the studenrs are
given the opportunity of observing new tlungs and new phenonieiia. and bring variety to our
teaclling. Ifwe tv to keep their attention on old objects for a long tinie. it becomes boring for
the students. If tliey are encouraged to obsene various aspects of the concept to be learned.
we can help them sustain their attention for a longer time and thus help them learn more about
the concept.
'The following steps can be folloived in learning througl~obse~ation:
i) Grasping the nleaniilg of the deillo~~stratioil

of an action
ii) Trying to fix images of how the model looks in each step of the demonstration
iii) Fortuulating silent vehal directions for the stcps im.011 ed in the perfonnance/demo~~tra-
tion
i ) The learner may also deri\re some benefit of slight imitative n~ovementsof arms. legs and
other parts of the body.
9.10.2 Learning by Imitation

Living beings can learn a great deal by observing but tliey sliould also tq to copy others for
perfecting their perfonnances and learning. Like observation, imitation is also an innate
tendency of the chld. Inutation is the tendency to repeat the obsened actions ofothers. 111 ilie
beginning the child learns his movenients. actions and gestures by inlitation. Tlie capaciw of
imitating is i Z e vmuch pronunent in children and you must have observed that thev take delight
in inututing. As they grow. they learn Inany athletic. industrial and professional skills by
imitating moving picture denlonst~itionsof skilled perfoniiaiice. Modelling also has a great
value in learning. Modelling includes inlitation of special personalities such as a student
mutates the actions inlmediately of the well knowncricketer Sachin Tendulkar. Inutation also The Nature of the Leanlhlg ~ r o c e s s
means the inventiorlof new things or actions. Teachers should give opportunities to the students
for selfdevelopment. Their creative tendencies should be exploited or highlighted.
Trever has reduced all kinds of imitation into two broad categories : (a) unconscious, and
(b) deliberate. Under the first category, the individual imitates what he sees, quite unwillingly.
In deliberate imitation the individual copies an act with a definite deliberateness to inutate,
because of his interest in the act itself, or due to the result hc expects to secure on account of
imitation
9.10.3 Learning by Trial and Error

In many situations we learn by trial and error. Here we make a number of attenlpts for a
particulartask or problem and find some attenlpts rewarding. The satisfying feeling of rewards
strengthens particular stimulus - response connections wlule the unsuccessful attempts are
stamped out through practice. This type of learning is based on Thorndike's theory of
connectionism.It implies that through conditioning. specific responses are linked wit11specific
stinluli. These connectionsbetween stimuli and responses are foxmed through random trial and
error. The law of trial and error was formulated after experimentations on a hungry cat
imprisoned in a cage. Wlien the cat could press the lever of the cage through several trials, it
would get food as the reward. The number of unsuccessful attempts reduced through practice
and successful attenlpts got strengthened. The law has significant implications in classroom
learning. When used appropriately by the teacher, they can help in developing the slulls,
vocabulary and nieniorizing abilities of children.
Throndike conducted an experiment in which exercise was made the independent variable
while other factors were held constant. He experimented upona college student who was asked
to draw a 3-inch line wllile blind-folded. Mere repetition did not bring any change or
improvement. Some subjects were given more than a thousand trials. On an average, there was
no iinprovenlent fro111the first to the final trial. Practice without knowledge of results failed
10 produce any result. some of the laws underlying trial and error learning are:law of readiness,
law of effect, and law of exercise. As regards the law of exercise, Throndike began to think
that reward and punishment were not equal and opposite in effect. Reward strengthens the
connection considerably whereas puiushment does not weaken the connection to the same
degree. The intensity and speed of reward in influencing learning are greater than that of
puiushnent. Reward also brings healthy and desirable improvement in the personality of the
cluld. In this way. TluonQke began to give more importance to reward and praise in place of
puiusllment and blame.
9.10.4 Learning by Insight

Most of the l e m n g in 111imail beings takes place not only through observation or imitation,
but also by solviilg problems wluch they come across in their day-to-day life. While solving
a problenl if an iildividual reaches the solution a11 of a sudden, we say that he has learned by
insight. In fact. the person reaches the solution by understanding the relation between different
aspects of the problenlatic situation. In our daily life we describethis mode of learning by using
phrases like seeing the point, or getting the idea.
Learning by insight was introduced by Gestalt psychologists. Gestalt means shape, form or
configuration. To understand the process of insight the learning we describe here KoNer's
famous experiment of chimpanzee and bananas.
A chimpanzee was placed in a cage. Outside the cage, on one side were put some bananas. The
chimpanzee was hungry. Its long arms could not reachthe bunchofbananas. Some sticks were
placed near the door inside the cage. The chimpanzeefirsttried to reachbananas withits hands.
It did not get success. After several attempts and failures, it sat in a comer, seem to brooding
on the problem. Suddenly, it juniped, seized a stick and pulled the bananas toward itself.
Kohler repeated the experiment by bringing somevariations in the design On the basis of his
experiments he described the process of learning by insight as follows:
0 The learner perceives the situation in its totality.
0 He ailalyses the ~.ariousaspects of the situation and tries to establish a meaningful

relationship anlong them. On the basis of this new perception he redefines the situation.
\ , ' l l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ tt\lL'
~ t l~ l, !L~' l; l~ ~~ 1'I'lN'l'h-
ll~ll~
Tins proccss gocs on till lie solves tlie probleniatic situation all of iI sudden. Tliat is what
\\.e illcall I\ licn \ve say tlmt a leamcr sudden& gets an insight into the solution.
Chedi Your Progress 6

b) Coinparc your answer with tlic one given at the end of the unit.
Give csaillples froni classroon~situations for tlie various rnodes of Icarning.
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9.1 1 TRANSFER OF LEARNING

Onc of thc in~portaiitcharacteristics of leanung is that tlic acquired skills, habits. knowledge
i~ndartit~~iics,intlocncc the acquisition of new leanling due to some kind of carry-over effect.
'nie cam -over of fccliiigs. habits, skills. and kiiowlcdgc from one leanung area to another is
called transfer of Iraiiui~gor leanling. Ps~chologistsexplaiiled the nature of the transfer of
leanling proccss. \Ve shall l q to understand t l ~ eilature of the transfer of learning with the help
of vario~~s~ . i c points
n of psycl~ologistsas reflcctcd in Ilieir theories.
9.11.1 Meaning and Nature of Transfer of Learning

According to tllc oltlcr \,ic~v.transfer of leanung iiiiplies tllat training in one faculty of the nund
map 11clp in t l ~ cfunctioning of otlier faculties as well. Various faculties of nund - memo~y,
reasoning. j!~dgcment. obscnation etc..--are discipliiled or mined through various acadenic
subjccts. Langni~gcsand inatl~cniaticsgive training to tlie nilid wluch helps in leanling other
subjects, A person wllo possesses a good knack for language: can lean1 and retain any fact
c:isil!
Throndikc. by proposing tltc theoq of identical elements took the stand that reseniblence arid
siinilarit! belwcen sitilatioiis lias a considerable effect on the amount and kind of transfer of
learning that can be carned over from one situation to the other. For instance, take
inemorisation. When a str~dentpractices ~neinorisationin one subject area?11e beconies capable
of ~nelnorisingother subjects as well, to some extent. Andit is quitepossible that he memorises
tlie content of sonie other subject area quickly. According to this viewpoint, this plienomenon
1s not due lo an improved faculty of memory, rather it depends upon the extent to which the
two situations share identical elements of content, attitude, method or aim.
Judd says that transfer of leanling is notlung but a generalization. According to the principles
of generalization proposed by Judd tlie development of special skills, the mastery of specific
facts. forniation of particular liabits and attitudes in one situation have transfer valne only if
the sk~lls,facts, luibits, etc.. are svsteni;itised and related to otlier situations in which they can
be utilized.
In tlie opinion of Hilgard. transfer of learning is possible o d y when a person develops the
abilihr of finding out the identity of relationslups and using it to solve problems in new
situations and for this. insight is necessan
Anailalysis of the above mentioned views of psychologsts leads us to the followingi~~ferences
in regard to the nature of transfer of learning:
Transfer of learning can also bc vicwed as problem solving, in which experience in one
task influences performance another.
Transfer of learning comes from similarity of contents, similarity of techniques, similarity
of principles. or a combination of tliese.
UNIT 13 PERSONAL ADJUSTMENT AND
EMOTIONAL MATURITY
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Adjustment
Maladjustment
13.4.1 Characteristics o f a Maladjusted Person
13.4.2 Causes of Maladjustment
Fmstratioll
13.5.1 Concept of Conflict
13.5.2 Tvpes of Conflicts
13.5.3 Measures Ibr Resolving Conflicts
13.5.4 Defence Mechanism
Sentiment
13.6.1 Self-regarding Sentiments
13.6.2 Formation of Character
13.6.3 Types of Character
Educational Implications
Let Us S u n ~ U p
Unit-end Exercises
Suggested Readings
Answers to Check Your Progress
13.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 12 of Block 3, y ou have studied the various factors which influence the student in
specific learning situations. However, effective learning depends not only on the learning situ-
ations, but also on ]lo\\ \\ell the student gets adjusted to different contexts such as home and
school. In this unit you will learn the meaning of healthy adjustment, definition of and causes
for maladjusted behaviour and measures that can be adopted to resolve conflicts and frustra-
tion. Further, you will also learn about sentiments, fornlation of character, role of self-regarding
sentiments in character formation and its educational iinplications.
13.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to:

explain the meaning of being a well-adjusted person,
identify the characteristics of a healthy/well-adjusted person,
explaili the elements involved in adjustment,
explaiil/discuss the causes of n~aIadjustment,
list the measures of resolving conflicts, and
discuss the inlplications of conflicts among students in the classroom situation.
13.3 ADJUSTMENT
You are aware that a person passes tluough various stages of growth and development before
he reaches adulthood. Invariably. at every stage of one's life, the person tries hard to fulfil his/
her biological, psychological and social needs and gears hirnself/herself effectively to meet the
existing demands of tlle society. Biogenic needs such as hunger, thirst, tempedure, rest and
Facilitating Learning and sleep are conditioned in the organism of an individual right from infancy as appropriate to the
Development culture and geographical conditions in which he lives. To cite an example, people from the
North of India are conditioned to eat wheat,-but people from the South prefer rice as their
staple food. Generally, there is no difficulty in fulfiling these needs. A need which is satisfied
with little effort doesn't affect adjustment. For example, availability of sufficient air and water
seldom leads to maladjustment. At times, these needs may be thwarted by natural calamities
like floods, droughts, earthquakes, epidemic diseases, only then does it become difficult for
individual to adjust.
The concept of adjustment is originated from the biological term 'adaptation'. Biologists used
the term 'adaptation'strictly for the physical demands of the environment but psychologists use
the term 'adjustment' for varying conditions of social or inter-personal relations in the society.
Adjustment means the reaction to the demands and pressures of social environment imposed
upon the individual. The demand to which the individual has to react may be external or inter-
nal. Psychologists have viewed 'adjustment' from two important perspectives. For one, adjust-
ment as an achievement and for another, adjustment as a process. The first point of view em-
phasizes the quality or efficiency of adjustment and the second lays emphasis on the process by
which an individual adjusts to his external environment.
Adjustment as achievement :Adjustment as achievement means how efficiently an individual

can perform his duties under different circumstances. If we perceive adjustment as achieve-
ment, we have to set criteria to judge the quality of adjustment. No universal criteria can be set
for all times to come because criteria involve value judgements which differ from culture to
culture and from generation to generation within the same culture. Four criteria have been
evolved by psychologists to judge the adequacy of adjustment. They are
8 Physical health
8 Psychological comfort
8 Work efficiency, and
8 Social acceptance.
Adjustment as process :Adjustment as a process is important for teachers. Students' adjust-
ment largely depends on their interaction with the external environment in which they live.
They always try to adjust to it. Piaget has studied the adjustive process from different angles.
He uses the term assimilation and accommodation to represent the alternation of oneself or
environment as a means of adjustment. A person who canies his values and standards of con-
duct without any change and maintains these in spite of major changes in the social climate is
called assimilator. The person who takes his standards from his social context and changes his
beliefs in accordance with the altered values of the society is called accommodator. In order to
adjust sdccessfully in society a person has to resort to both the devices i.e. assimilation and
accommodation.
The problem arises when socio-psychological needs are not fulfilled and it often results in
maladjusted behaviour. However, when these needs are completely satisfied, a temporary state
of equilibrium is established in the organism and the activity towards that goal ceases. .
Thus, healthy adjustment is a process whereby an individual meets his biological, psychologi-
cal and social needs successfully and establishes a balance between his inner needs and exter-
nal demands of the society through appropriate behavioural responses.
Characteristics of a well adjusted person :A healthy and well-adjusted person should pos-
sessldisplay some observable behavioural patterns. These behavioural patterns must be ac-
cording to the social expectations of an individual. These patterns are as follows:
8 Maturity in thinking
8 Emotional balance
8 Warm and understanding towards others
8 Free from tension due to routine events
8 Independent in decision making
. .
6
Elements in adjustment : There are certain prime elements for fulfilment.of needs necessary Personal Adjustment and
for healthy adjustment of a person. They are as follows: Emotional Maturity
8 Satisfaction of needs
8 No obstacle in achieving needs
Strong motives in realising needs
8 Feasible geographical atmosphere to fulfil needs
Before we proceed, let us recall what you have studied in the previous section.

List any four characteristics of a well-adjusted person.
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13.4 MALADJUSTMENT
By now we hope you have got a clearcut idea about the characteristics of a well-adjusted
person in the society. Now let us understand the meaning of 'maladjustment'. It is exemplified
in the following situation. Nasreen is a 16 year old girl belonging to a middle class family. She
has an average I.Q., but the family members have very high expectation of her scholastic achieve-
ment and expected her to get the first rank in the final examination. Since then, her anxiety level
has increased. She takes longer time to complete school work, repeatedly cleaning and washing
things, taking baths for long hours, pouring more water on her body and relating it to securing
high marks in the examination. If she does not d o these activities, she starts sweating exces-
sively and becomes anxious. Nasreen is maladjusted.
In the above example, you find that low I.Q. but high societal expectation led to maladjustment.
Hence, Nasreen suffered from both psycho and socio-genic needs of drawing recognition and
securing social status respectively.
Thus, maladjustment is a process whereby an individual is unable to satisfy his biological,

psychological or social needs successfully and establishes an imbalance between his personal
needs and expectation of the society resulting in the disturbance of psycho-equilibrium.
13.4.1 Characteristics of a Maladjusted Person

As a school teacher, you might have noticed a few such maladjusted students in your classroom
too. At times, you might have even thought of seriously the reasons for their maladjusted
behaviour. There are numerous reasons in and out of the school which create frustration, that
lead to maladjustment. Let us analyse the symtoms one by one. If a students is:
8 Withdrawn and timid : Frequent withdrawals from difficult situations may make indi-
vidual timid and weak in facing real life situations.
8 Shy and self-conscious :Shyness is usually associated with the self-consciousness, con-
cern with the impression one gives to other people, and concern with their negative evalu-
Facilitating Learning and ation. A shy individual has low self-esteem and tends to anticipate'adversities, thus often
Development
keeping silent and avoiding eye contact.
Fearful : Fear is a strong emotion involving perception of danger, unpleasant agitation
and often a desire to hide from meeting students of higher classes, being alone in a room,
and fear of dogs, strange noises, the dark, etc.
Anxious : Anxiety is a personality trait. It results from conflict, which is an invitable part
of life. Anxiety describes the individual's level of emotionality.We see many students who
are tense and worried (highly anxious) and those who are cool (hardly anxious). Since
anxiety is an inferred emotional state of an individual, it cannot be directly observed. It can
be measured through psychological testsltechniques.
Delusions : Delusion is an irrational and obstinate belief that the individual actively de-
fends, e.g., a child does not work hard for the final examination and thinks that it is the God
only who can get him through the examination and he fails. This shows the delusion in him
which makes him maladjusted.
Extremely aggressive : Aggressive students show enterprising or energetic behav~ouror
tendency to be dominating in the class or the school. Sometimes an individual fails to show
the tendency of dominating in a social situation and hurts herself instead k.k., a child beats
her doll, kicks the dog, or other objects.
Tension :When a person does not feel a kind of inner freedom, the strain which results
from muscular contradiction and through which muscles, tendons, etc., are stretched under
a threatening situation.
High aspirations :A person has high hopes and aspirations for his future life. When the
hopes are not achieved, he becomes unrealistic in life.
Feelidg of inferiority :A feeling of inferiority, arising from the sense of imperfection and
incompletion in a particular sphere of life, which motivates the individual to strive for a
higher level of development and as such, are the cause of all improvement in life situa-
tions. Each time a new level of achievement is reached, inferiority feelings reappear, con-
tinuing to stimulate upward movement. If inferiority feelings become exaggerated by ad-
verse conditions at the home, physical or mental disorders on inferiority complex may
develop which makes an individual maladjusted.
Emotionally disturbed :If the internal and external adjustment of a child are not achieved,
he becomes emotional e.g., weeping, quarreling, nail biting, thumb sucking, etc. and be-
comes maladjusted.
Isolated : Maladjusted children suffer from a feeling of isolation. This feeling doeshot
allow them to mix and interact with other members of class, school, family or society. In
families where parents are extremely busy and neglect their children, the children develop
a feeling of isolation or dejection. This makes them maladjusted.
Sensitivity :Maladjusted children are very sensitive. They get hurt easily e.g., on being
teased by teachers in the classroom or parents in the family, sacrastic remarks by peers,
unwelcome advice by others, etc.
Temper-tantrums : When there is a bad-tampered out-burst, this is known as a temper
tantrum e.g., if a child does not get fair treatment, sympathy, cooperation and freedom of
action within reasonable limits, he feels maladjusted.
13.4.2 Causes of Maladjustment

We can classify the causes of maladjusted behaviour of adolescents under five main categories.
They are as follows:
Causes of Maladjustment
\1
\L .L .L J/ J*
Family Personal School. Teachers Peer group
.L
J/ J/ JI
Social Jkonomic Psychological
Let us explain each of the above causes in brief: Personal Adjustment and
Emotional Maturity
i) Family :It is obvious that the family as an institution has various functions to perform.
By discharging their duties, parents indirectly fulfil the needs of their children. There are
certain significant causes: social, economic and psychological, which contribute immensely
to maladjusted behaviour in children.
Let us be very clear that this distinction is only for a better understanding of the concept. In fact,
it is very difficult to separate out social, economic and psychological causes of maladjustment.
There is a high degree of relatedness among these factors.
a) Social causes :Gibbian says that the social problem of one generation is the psychologi-
cal problem of the next generation. Children coming from homes that have been broken
due to death, divorce, desertion, separation, etc., are Often maladjusted in their behaviour.
Drunkard parents, strained marital relationship of spouses, quarrels and fights between
spouses are also responsible for developing frustration in children. Such children feel
insecure and become maladjusted. Another common factor that one can easily observe in
the Indian situation is the large size of the family. With the tremendous growth in popula-
tion, it is extremely difficult for parents to provide even the basic necessities like food,
clothing and shelter, to their children. It invariably results in greater degree of frustration
and hostility amongst them. A research study indicates that anti-social adolescents come
from large families.
b) Economic causes : The occupational status of parents, problems of unemployment, pov-

erty and low-economic status breed maladjustment amongst children. Under such cir-
cumstances, parents are unable to satisfy the needs of their children which eventually
leads to frustration, aggression and hostile behaviour in growing children.
C) Psychological causes: It is significant to note that the psychological instability of par-

ents is directly responsible for maladjusted behaviour of their off-spring. If parents are
over-possessive, highly authoritative, unrealistic in their expectations, incompatible, abu-
sive and prejudiced, this will have a deleterious effect upon their children. When the
psychological needs are not met, children get frustrated and develop problems like nail-
biting, day-dreaming, fear of dark, lack of self-confidence, flickering of eyes, etc. Those
parents who threaten, nag, punish and humiliate their children before others are directly
responsible for their children's isolated and rejected behaviour. You might have observed
that such children try to seek the attention of other people through other means.
The birth order of children in the family and their relationship with siblings also influ-
I
ence the mental instability of children. Case studies show that psychoneurotic adoles-
cents are from families where there is large a number of siblings.
iI ii) Personal causes :It is observed that individuals who are physically, mentally and visu-
ally handicapped react abnormally to the situation. Even children with partial deficiency,
such as defective eye sight, poor hearing and impaired speech may find it difficult to
adjust under normal situations. When they can not score well academically compared to
their peers, they develop an inferiority complex. Finally, they isolate themselves from
others and indulge in day-dreaming.
I iii) School-related causes : Children spend roughly seven hours a day in the school. When
I growing children do not find ways and means to channelise their energy in a purposeful
manner in the school, they exhibit in maladjusted behaviour. The school authorities, in-
cluding teachers should organise various curricular and co-curricular activities to suit the
needs of the growing children.
iv) Teacher-relatedcauses :An imbalanced personality in the teacher has its impact on the
behaviour of the children. If the teacher is unfair, biased or not involved with the stu-
dents, it certainly affects the mental health of the children in the school.
v) Peer-group related causes : Another important factor that disturbs the psycho-equilib-
rium of students is an unhealthy relationship with their peer group. Normally, students
ask earnestly for recognition from their peer group during later childhood and adoles-
cence. However, popularity among the peer group depends on various factors, such as
good looks, athletic abilities, social class, academic performance, and special talents. If
Facilitating Learning and the student lacks these qualities, he may fail to get status amongst hislher peer group and
Development gets frustrated and maladjusted.
Before we move on to the next section, you should check your progress.
Notes: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

Read the case-study presented below and identify the causes of maladjusted behaviour of
Kapaor.
Kapoor is an eleven year old boy. He has parents and two siblings. They belong to a
family of middle socio-economic status. The father is just the nominal leader of the home
and does not take responsibility of either the home or the needs of the children. The
mother is very ambitious and expects high academic achievement from her children. She
is over-protective and highly ambitious. Often she vents her anger on Kapoor for his
stubborn behaviour. The parents pamper the youngest child very much. Kapoor beats his
sister and hates her very much. In the school, Kapoor disturbs the other children and
pinches them. When the teacher questions such behaviour, he tells lies and blames others.
The teacher too punishes him severely for his misconduct. He seems to be disinterested
even In studies.
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FRUSTRATION
The v~riouspossible reasons for the maladjusted behaviour of students have been discussed in
the preceding section.
One major element of maladjustment that was consistently repeated 'in almost all the causes of
maladjusted behaviour, was frustration. Frustration may be due to familial conditions, school
atmosphere, personal inadequacy or peer group relationship.
In this section, we shall discuss the meaning and types of conflict which leads to frustration.
Before proceeding further, let us quickly understand the meaning of frustration. Frustration is
the hollow state of mind which occurs, when a goal response is blocked. In other words, it
occurs when satisfaction of needs is interfered with or blocked.
Frustration could take place under two circumstances:
When the biological, psychological and social needs of the students are not fulfiled or
satisfied, or
When the individual faces conflicting situations or moral dilemmas.
13.5.1 Concept of Conflict

There is a difference between conflict and frustration. The latter is the product or the conse-
quehce of the dissatisfaction of needs, whereas, the former is the process, or one of the factors
responsible for causing frustration.
Conllict is the operation of two incon~patibleaction systems, it may be drives; needs, values, Personal Adjusb~~ent
and
tendencies and inlpulses. The individual finds it difficult to make a choice between two con- Er~otiol~al
Maturity
flicting situations.
A conflict is caused under two situations. One, it arises when there is an urge to fulfil the two
equally important objectives, needs, drives, values, tendencies and impulses. This situation of
conflict is exenlplified in the following situation. Mr. Singh is a Police Inspector. He is quite
sincere and honest in his work. He has a good reputation in the community. Like any other
responsible father, he too arranges his daughter's wedding. Unfortunately, the marriage ex-
penses exceed the budget and he finds it difficult to manage. At that moment, his wife advises
hili to borrow nloney from his friends. But Mr. Singh can not even think of borrowing money
from others as he gives much importance to self-respect. So, the situation may create a conflict
in his mind. In this exanlple, you find that the psychological need of self-respect is incompat-
ible with the social need or social status in the community.
Second, conflict arises when two different goals are set to fulfil a single need. For example, a
young girl wants to establish herself as a social scientist. There are many ways through which
she can get recognition. She can work hard as a committed researcher and achieve her objec-
t tive, or can seek the influence of the higher authority in the department and get the academic
recognition, without working on it. She is in a dilemma, whether to seriously work or achieve
I the goal through easy iileans. Often, people find easy iileans to come up in life, eventually gain,
but this leads to tension and anxiety.
There are two ways of achieving good grades in the examination. One, you may do a detailed
study of the subject or second, you just do a superficial study. A detailed study will lead to
better knowledge. But time is a constraint for a detailed study. Therefore, a conflict arises inthe
mind of the student aiming for deep knowledge. In this example you find that the student faces
conflict in order to achieve the goal.
13.5.2 Types of Conflicts
Conflicts are classified into three types. Read the illustrations given below to understand the
different types of conflicts.
i) An approach - approach conflict : An approach-approach conflict is a situation, wherein

the individual is caught between two niutually exclusive goals which are desirable and
I also are difficult to realise sinlultaneously.This is exemplified in the following situation.
A student prepares for his examination, is keen to secure high marks but at the same time, -
I wishes to attend the wedding of his best friend, both due on the same day. Similarly a girl
who is eager to marry her fiance, and also wishes to co~npleteher computer course in the
I same semester itself. In these illustrations, you find that the boy and girl should move
towafds the other goal in order to achieve one.
Fig. 13.1 : Approach-Avoida~~ce

Co~~flict
ii) An approach - avoidanceconflict : Let us consider a common example : A girl of twenty

five wishes to marry a boy who is highly qualified and well placed. She hesitates to
I achieve her goal because the life style of the boy is totally different from the girl. He
smokes and drinks. Similarly a boy wants to approach his father to obtain grace marks in
two subjects. However, he hesitates to approachhim, as he had assured his father that he
would secure a rank in his class. This situation creates conflict in the student's mind.
These examplesreveal that at some point of time the person wishes to realise the goal and
at the same time avoids the goal.
I Facilitating L e a n l ~ gand Thus, approach-avoidance conflict is a situation wherein the individual is motivated to
Develop~l~el~t achieve a goal and at the same time develops a tendency to avoid it.
Fig. 13.2 : Approach-Avoidance Conflict
iii) An avoidance-avoidance conflict : An avoidance-avoidance conflict is a situation,

wherein an individual is motivated to avoid both the goals. Observe yet another dilemma.
Karan is forced by his friends to see anew movie, which he is reluctant to watch. At the
same time, he does not want to displease his friends by saying that be would not accom-
pany them for the movie. In this situation, he wants to avoid both the goals and finally
faces a conflicting situation.
Fig. 13.3 : Approach-Avoidance Conflict
Notes :a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Conlpare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
i) Read carefully and identify the type of conflict involved.
A girl of 14 yCars from class X of your school, approaches you with a problem. She is
anxious to take part in the Inter-School Badminton match but fears she may lose the
game, because in the previous year she lost against the same teain.
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ii) List any four characteristics of a well adjustedperson.
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13.5.3 Measures for Resolving Conflicts Personal Adjustment and
Emotional Maturity
Every individual faces a conflict in life sometime or the other. But it is not necessary that every
time, it leads him to frustration. Whenever he meets frustration in life he develops tolerance
towards that situation. Thus, every individual develops a certain degree of frustration toler-
ance. A person who has low frustration tolerance may live in a maladjusted manner.
If an individual is intelligent and has an insight into the problem, he will find ways and means
to solve it. In such situations, he may adopt the direct method or an adaptive mechanism, to
solve his problem. On the other hand, if he is timid and weak in understanding the problem, he
may adopt the indirect method or a defensive mechanism to escape from the conflicting situa-
tion. You, as a teacher, have to develop in the students the skills to resolve conflicts.
Some of the adaptive mechanism of resolving conflicts are as follows:
Accepting reality : Most of us live in a superficial world : we tend to move far away from
reality. We set our targets beyond our capacity to achieve. Instead, if we change our goals and
re-set them according to reality, it may be feasible for us to achieve the goals and thus solve the
conflicting situation.For example, a teen-age girl aspires to study medicine in the United States,
but her financial position forces her to re-set her goal and takes up the course in one of the best
colleges in the city or country.
Analysing problem situation : Whenever we face conflicts in life, we usually think of only
one alternative solution. If that alternative is not a viable one to help us arrive at the solution,
we stop at that point itself and start worrying about it. An intelligent person will not react in
such a passive manner. He may think of as many alternatives as possible for a given problem
and analyse the pros and cons of each of the alternatives and may find a better solution.
Prioritising the goal : At times, you might have observed that individuals meet with conflict-
ing situations, where more than two goals are involved. In such situations, one should work out
positive and negative aspects of achieving each one of these goals and choose the best. For
example, a student may want to finish an assignment in time but there is a very interesting
movie on television he does not want to miss. Here he may face a conflict which may be
resolved by prioritising the goal.
Developing value-judgement : One should develop the ability to judge values when one is
facing a moral or value dilemma. Study the following situation.
I
'Gopu is an honest and sincere boy. He has a friend named Shamu. Both like each other very
1 much. In the final examination Shamu copies all the answers from Gopu answer scripts without
his knowledge. The teacher finds that both the answer scripts are identical. He questions Gopu
and threatens to punish him if he does not admit the truth. Gopu is in a dilemma : whether to be
honest in admitting the fact or be loyal towards his friend in the interest of friendship.
Diverging one's interest : Open mindedness could help solve one's problems easily. Narrow-
ing down our interest to one specific act leads to conflict. For example, heethi is good at
drawing. She is keen to take up Architecture as her specialisation because of her interest to-
wards arts. Unfortunately, she fails to obtain a seat in that course. Immediately she switches
over to Mechanical Engineering. She further utilises her talent by developing interest in free-
lancing artwork, calligraphy, advertising, etc. Thus, changing one's interest also solves the
problem to some extent.
13.5.4 Defence Mechanism

So far we have discussed the different adaptive mechanisms that are employed to solve the
problem intellectually. But defence mechanism is quite contrary to the adaptive measures.
Defence mechanism may not assist an individual to solve his problem in a constructive way, but
may impede the constructive activity and become disruptive. Defence mechanism is a tech-
nique adopted by individuals to cope with tension, stress and anxiety that are mainly aroused by
conflicts. When an indivjdual meets with such a problem, instead of developing an insight to
solve it, he may find an easy way to escape from the problem and give a totally different
explanation for it. However, psychologists are of the view that a defence mechanism rescues
Facilitating Learning and the individual from maladjusted behaviour. Nevertheless, excessive use of such techniques
Development may again lead to maladjustment.
You may like to go through the various types of defence mechanisms along with suitable illus-
trations given in the following paragraphs.
Repression is a tension-reducing device and is temporary in state. Human tendency is to retain

the pleasurable experiences in mind and push aside the undesirable one's to the sub-conscious
mind, or one may force oneself to forget such unpleasant experiences by repressing it. This is
true even with growing children.
Reaction formation is a technique wherein an individual reacts in an extreme way for the one
he is already in conflict about. It is just switching over from one end of reaction to the other end.
For example, a child who has been very notorious during his early school becomes cooperative
later on and helps in the study of his classmates.
Rationalisation is a mechanism wherein the individual gives false reasons, other than the ac-
tual one in order to reduce his guilt feeling raised out of conflict. A student, after successfully
completing his Senior Secondary School education, eager to seek admission at the Indian Insti-
tute of Technology, could not succeed in the test or interview. He conveniently blames the
authorities for their defective testing or interviewing technique.
Similarly students who score less marks may blame teachers for their poor achievement. This
type of rationalisation is known as sour grapes mechanism. It gets its name from the story of
Aesop's fables, who secured his pride by saying that the unattainable grapes are sour and hence
not worth attempting. However, this technique could be used even in the reverse way also by
rationalising, with a sweet reason. A simple illustration could be, a senior teacher who has lost
the chance of promotion may proclaim that she is happy with the present job, as it does not
demand much commitment. But, internally she might have longed to become the headmistress
of the school and felt sorry for not getting the post.
Identification is a technique by which an individual fulfils his basic needs by associating him-
self emotionally with famous,persons or popular institutions. By allying himself with popular
persons he gets the satisfaction, thereby overcomes his limitation and shortcomings. Through
this technique he glorifies himself, when his own goals are not fulfilled. For example, Varun
feels proud to boast that he resides in the same street where Sachin Tandulkar does. A person
who hails from Merkara may proudly proclaim that General Cariappa is his grandfather's nephew.
By identifying ourself with famous personalities, one reduces one's inferiority complex.
Sublimation is a type of mechanism, wherein the individual compensates for the socially
discredited behaviour in a socially accepted way. In other words, one may try to substitute for
what is not achieved in life when a person's physical urges are not fulfilled, he substitutes his
energy by involving himself in a socially acceptable manner. For an example, a person who is
biologically not satisfied may resolve his frustration by developing interest in sports, scientific
research or social services.
Compensation is a mechanism in which an individual substitutes attainable goals for the goals
which are difficult to attain in their life, for some reason. There is a difference between subli-
mation and compensation. For example, a student who is weak in studies, may put extra effort
to develop a beautiful handwriting. similarly a student who cannot fare well in athletics may
develop her ability in dancing. In such situations you find that students try to prove their ability
in order to save their ego or self-esteem. Those students who suffer from inferiority complex
may feel secure by adopting such mechanisms. The compensation mechanism is a vulnerable
aid to adjustment. It reduces tension and anxiety and promotes good mental health. However,
you should remember that compensation can be done in the negative direction also. A highly
complexled student may turn out to be a truant or delinquent student.
Ego-ceatrism is another type of defence mechanism employed by insecure students. You might
have seen some ego-centric type of children in your classroom. Such children ask a lot of
irrelevant questions, talk loudly, play mischievous pranks and try to be witty, mainly to draw
the attention of others. You might have come across instances when an older student bursts
crackers in the class, when you were teaching the lesson. A case study of the particular boy may
reveal that he is very poor in mathematics and continuously fails in the monthly test. By indulg-
14
ing in such an act, he wants to draw the attention of not only his classmates but also wants to
satisfy his ego.
Negativism is similar to that of ego-centrism. Negativism is another ego-enhancing and atten-
tion-seeking device employ'ed by thwarted students. They express their reactions in a negative.
way by sulking, rebelling, refusing to eat, talking and behaving in 8 stubborn way.
Aggression is a form of reaction to frustration. The ftustrated students may transfer their emo-
tionston others. The pent-up emotions such as hatred, hostility, initation or annoyance will be
passed either on human beings or on inanimate objects. Let us understand this concept with the
help of an exa~nple.An employee who is insulted by his boss, vents his anger on his wife, she in
turn, may pass it on to her son, by beating him for a petty reason. The boy who is hurt by his
mother, represses his feelings and runs to the ground to play, While playing he loses at games.
Annoyed by this he kicks his friend badly and brings out his repressed feeling. The chained
reaction of frustration is exhibited in various forms e.g. destroying, damaging, retaliating, hurt-
ing, humiliating, insulting, and threatening.
Emotions are aroused out of the instincts during the early life of children. These instinctive
feelings in children create excitement and develop special interest towards an act. Children are
impulsive in their behaviour and this is often expressed through specific modes. The positive
emotions like love, attachment, gregariousness, possession, happiness and joy are conveyed
through overt actions like hugging, kissing, shaking hands, clapping, smiling and laughing. To
cite an example, a three year old child sees an acrobatic performance of a clown in the circus
and claps with excitement. The same child at the age of eight, is thrilled to see a beautiful doll.
as a birthday gift from her mother, she hugs and kisses the doll. That act may be momentary, she
may not hesitate to thraw away the doll after some time, when she gets torn of it. These impul-
sive reactions of children are quite Gammon during the childhood stage. But the same girl
expresses her emotion in a different way at the age of 16 years. Her father is abroad on a job.
She is very much attached to her father. On her birthday, he sends a beautiful card. The girl
preserves it, as it has been sent by her beloved father. Similarly she develops attachment to-
wards an object, because of her emolional bonding with it. She files all the letters of her father,
enjoys wearing the dress sent by h i l l prays for his good health and respects him by behaving
properly. At this stagelage she shows a maturity in her behaviour.
A sentiment is a combination of various emotions clustered around some important persons,
4
objects, ideals and values. These sentiments form one's permanent emotional disposition. In
the initial stage, these sentiments are centered around family members. Later these are d ~ v e l -
oped around one's comm~nitymembers and are based on caste, religion and language. Gradu-
ally they are transformed into abstract ideals of cooperation, gregariousness (fond of com-
pany), honesty, truthfulness and justi~e.For instance, one person from Bihar gets excited to see
another Behari in Kanyakumari, be~ausethay belong to the same state. But the same Behari
may be h a ~ p yto see qny Indian in Canada, because they belong Lo the same nation. This is how
sentiments we centered around absmaot ideals-religious, moral, social aesthetic, patriotic and
finally towqds one's awn self, that is the sentiment of self-regard.
13.6.1 Self-regarding Sentimenb

Before we discuss the cowept of relf-regarding sentiments we should understand the term
'self' clearly: 'Self' means '~nesel4'-ane'a Identity, one's personalitJi i.e. what one is. Self can
he defined roughly as rho elaboration of such slatemants as -'I am this sort of a person. These
av my strengths and weaknesses.....'. Thus 'self' r&;m ta the image of total personality of an
individual, including bodily self and the Sense of IdW.iity. Self is the central point of personal-
ity. It directs the process of individualisation through which the useful and creative aspects of
the pncanscious we made conscious and channeled into productive activity.
Self-concept : human being is awm of himself. HGis aware of his past and future, and of
other people, friends, enemies and striggers. As he is aware of his own life and ultimate death,
he must establish %lingidentity and a purpose and meaning for his life. Without an adequate
concept of himself, he will feel anxious and may fall into saxial isolation and despair. &If- 15
Facilitating Learning and concept ib the totality of the perceptions that one has about himself, his attitude towards him-
Development
self, the language he uses to describe himself.
Self*esteem: The child's self-esteem is, especially, his self-judgement of his own abilities,
influence and popularity. To a certain extent, it is a mirror image of the judgement of others. His
degree of self-esteem will affect his behaviour - either by limiting or extending the range of
things he will attempt,whether in academic tasks, sports or friendships. Low self-esteem makes
the child less original and more imperative, whereas high self-esteem brings out initiative and
independent judgement. S o self -esteem is a positive attitude toward oneself and one's behaviour.
Quite often it is a lasting personal disposition.
Self-image : The perfect and ideal self which the individual imagines himself or herself to be
after identification with an idealized conception of what he or she should be.
As the child grows, he develops an understanding about his likes and dislikes, distinguishes
between right and wrong, discriminates good and bad mainly through the external sources like
parents, teachers, peers and relatives. Gradually he develops an image for himself and attaches
special regard for himself. This is known as self-regarding sentiment or master-sentiment. For
example, a student may develop a feeling that 'I am a person who cannot tolerate injustice', 'I
cannot speak lies', 'What will my teacher think, if I don't submit the assignment on time'.
These are the self-regarding sentiments or master-sentiments which give stability to a student's
whole life. The fulfilment of such self-regarding sentiment gives satisfaction, and failure leads
to confliat and frustration. A person who has a strong self-regarding sentiment often experi-
ences conflict in life. Consider the example of Gandhiji who promised his mother that he would
not eat meat and drink liquor in England. When the situation forced him to perform such acts,
he was in conflict. His complex sentiments of keeping the promise, honesty and sincerity, re-
spect for parents clashed with one another. But, he had the strong will-power to overcome the
conflicting situations in his life.
Whenever a child experiences conflicts in master-sentiments, he should develop the will- power
to overcome the temptations of lower order or mean acts. Such a child is considered, a person
of character. Thus character is judged through the kinds of sentiment a person has.
13.6.2 Formation of Character

The basia units of character are the sentiments. The character is the system or organisation of
sentiments. Hence, sentiments are directly related to the formation of character.
Possession of multiple sentiments combined with strong will-power, ability to judge and sensi-
. tivity to social norms, forms the character. A person who possesses a good character will be a
self-disciplined person and will act according to his own principles and consciousness. His
decision to solve a moral dilemma is based on his rational judgement rather than the fear of
punishment or regards for reward. The character of such persons is reflected in their conduct.
13.6.3 Types of Character

Peck has identified five types of character. These types fall in line with Kohlburg's six stages of
moral reasoning. You have already studied Kohlburg's six stages of moral reasoning in Unit 2
(Section 2.5).
Amoral : Such type of students are self-centered and act on impulses. There is no sense of
discriminating right and wrong, no feeling of guilt, mere self-gratification. They may conceal
and give P charming appearance to other.
Expedient : Such types of students are self-centered and always strive to gain reward and
avoid punishment. They are inconsistent in their behaviour and concerned about their own
welfare only.
Conformist : Some students act in accordance with social demands. They are basically imma-
ture in nature, but superficially appear to be conforming to societal norms and pretend to be
model citizens.
. Irrational conscientious : Such types of students have a set of standard and moral code of
their own, but conform quite rigidly. They are bound to their conscience and feel guilty if they
violate it.They have a sense of right and wrong, and certain acts may be considered right'and
certain wrong.
16
Rational altruistic : Such students have a stable set of morals, principles. They understand, Personal Adjustment and
evaluate, accept and habitually act upon principles. They may tend,to change their principles Emotional Maturity
according to their insights and welfare of other human beings. They may act in a socially
constructive way but in accordance with their personal convictions. They are unselfish persons.
1
i) Explain the role of self-regarding sentiment in the formation of character.
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ii) . List five types of character.
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EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
After studying the different techniques of adjustment, both adaptive and defensive, you might
feel that at least once or twice, you too have employed some of these techniques to overcome
conflicting situations in your life. However, as a teacher, what is your role towards your stu-
dents when they face such problems or situations? The implications are analysed and discussed
as follows. Your role is to :
! identify problem and maladjusted children : Children with personal inadequacies and
who are maladjusted in the school environment should be identified / recognised. Problem
children require special attention in the school in general and in the classroom in particular.
Students who suffer from physical disabilities should be asked to sit in the front row so that
they are under direct observation of the teacher. Moreover they should be referred to phy-
sicians for appropriate medical check-up, if so required.
reinforce the isolated : Special care should be given to students who isolate themselves
from others. Regulated boosting of their ego may help them overcome the feeling of isola-
tion. School activities should be designed in such a way that every student receives due
attention from the teacher and acclaim for creditable achievements.
reform the inferior : You should identify the students who are poor in specific subjects
like maths and science, and diagnose their specific problems. At the same time you should
identify the special abilities of such students and provide them maximum opportunity to
excel in their special abilities. By compensating for their shortcomings you can help them
cope with their inferiority complexes.
transform aggression : The mission of converting the aggressive and hostile feeling of
maladjusted students lies in your hands. The socially useful outlets for energy as that of
atheletic contest, painting, dramatics and stage plays will assist the aggressive students to
overcome from the repression and anxiety.
Facilitating Learning and a encourage healthy development of self :If you, as a teacher, possess values ltke honesty,
Development truthfulness, sincerity and perseverance, naturally the students will develop same senti-
ments towards you and admire you. By emulating the perqonality of such teachers, they
develop master-sentiment in themselves. Apart from this, you should encourage the stu-
dents to read autobiographies of great personalities like Mahatma Gandhi. Vlvekananda,
Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Ambedkar, etc.
train in will-power : The family as an institution is undergoing changes in the value sys-
tem. The generation gap between parents and children creates conflicts In the family. Ado-
lcscents often experience conflicts/dilemmas, whether in observing the traditional familial
values or in adhering to new emerging values. In such a situation you can play your role
effectively You can adopt certain new approaches to develop value judgement amongst
students. There are certain interesting approaches like value analysis, value discussion and
jurisprudential inquiry through which students can reach the solution. These approaches
develop will-power, reasoning ability and rational judgement amongst students.
refurbish the skills of counselling : You are expected to be motivated to acqulre extra
knowledge about counselling and refurbish it. The National Institute of Mental Health and
Neuro Sciences (NIMHANS) in Bangalore, has been actively engaged in orienting and
organising counselling programmes for the benefit of school teachers. Participating In use-
ful programmes of that type will help the teachers to counsel the problem children in the
classroom. The intervention programmes conducted in NIMHANS are open for all tcach-
ers. The orientation programmes focus on the nature and causes of various problems, disor-
der of emotions such as extreme shyness, over-anxiousness or depression, disorder of con-
duct such as lying, stealing and truancy. As an effective teacher, you should enrich your
knowledge by attending these programmes.
refer to counsellors :Teachers who do not have scope to enrich themselves with the knowl-
edge of counselling by attending various programmes may refer the problem children to
professional counsellors. The trained counsellors may diagnose the case and provide ap-
propriate guidance and counselling to students.
13.8 LET US SUM UP

--
In this unit, you have studied:
the elements involved in shaping and moulding the well adjusted behaviour of an ~ n + -
vidual.
the decisive factors like family, school, teachers and peer group responsible for cawing
maladjustment in an adolescent.
conflicting situations that one encounters in life and the application of direct and indirect
mechanisms to overcome frustrations in life .
the formation of character and its relevance to master-regard~ngsentiments, and
the role of the teacher in helping the student to adjust well in society.
1. What do you mean by adjustment?

2. Describe in brief the characteristics of maladjusted pupils.
3. Discuss the causes of maladjustment.
4. What do you mean by self-regarding sentiment?
5. Discuss the role of self-regarding sentiment in the development of character.
6. Define conflicts. What are the various types of conflicts?
Personal Adjustment and
Emotional Maturity
UNIT 14 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Social Adjustment
14.3.1 Nature of Social Adjustment t
14.3.2 Perception and Social Adjustment
14.3.3 Impression Formation and Social Adjustment
14.3.4 Other Processes in Social Adjustment
Social Maturity
14.4.1 The Nature of Social Maturity
14.4.2 Social Adjustment and Social Maturity
Social Adjustment and Interpersonal Relationship
Adjustment in School
Group Dynamics and Teachers' Role
14.7.1 Group Processes and Group Dynamics
14.7.2 Group Relationship in the Class
14.7.3 Teachers' Role in Improving Group Relationship
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
Suggested Readings
14.1 INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this unit is to introduce you to the concept of social adjustment so that you can
help your students adjust in school and society. In Unit 13 you have studied about personal
adjustment and emotional maturity, and the role of school and the teacher in the process of
adjustment.
You know that the teacher is the central figure in school and classroom. Helshe influences the
behaviour of students both directly and indirectly. Hislher behaviour can also motivate the
students to form groups as well as to break up groups formed on the wrong basis. You will also
study the concept of social maturity and its relationship with social adjustment. The role of
teachers in group dynamics is also explained in this unit.
14.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to :
describe the concept of social adjustment,
explain the concept of social maturity,
illustrate how social adjustment promotes good interpersonal relations,
state the process of adjustment in the school environment, and
explain the teachers' role in group dvnamics and social adjustment.
14.3 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT
Adjustment is a popular expression used by people in day to day life. For example, while
traveling- in a bus Or a train, we often hear or use this term; even when a guest comes to stay with
us for a few days we have to adjust him/her in our house. Though sometimes we face problems
in making these adjustments, they are important to maintain personal as well as social peace Social Adjustment
and harmony. Thus adjustment maintains peace and harmony in home, school, society and in
the country.
S o ~ , aadjustment
l can be defined as a psychological process. It frequently involves coping with
new standards and values. In the technical language of psychology, getting along with the mem-
bers of the society as best as one can is called adjustment.
14.3.1 Nature of Social Adjustment

As social beings we live in a society, we form opinions about others and others have opinions
about us. Everybody wants acceptance and recognition from and within society. We try to
behave according to the norms of the society so that we can adjust with others. But it is not an
easy task as the personality of each individual is a unique organisation. This organisation has to
make special efforts to adjust with others unique organisations, which we call society. Actually
adjustment is a wider term used in various spheres of life. For example, if an individual is well-
adjusted in his family environment, his family adjustment will be good. So before defining
social adjustment it is necessary for us to restrict the area of social adjustment. In other words
we can say that social adjustment is the direction we, the teachers, try to instil adjustment skill
in our students. As teachers we should emphasise on the adjustment of the student in the school.
It is the teacher's responsibility to help the student cope with the existing situations of the
school. For this we should contribute to improving the social environment of the school.
Psychologists use the term adjustment of varying conditions of social and interpersonal rela:
tions in the society. Thus we see that adjustment means reaction to the demands and pressures
of the social environment imposed upon the individual. Whenever two types of demands come
into conflict with each other and resultant in an adjustment being made, a complicated process
for the individual, then some special problems of adjustment arise.
14.3.2 Perception and Social Adjustment

Impartial perception is needed for social adjustment. The processes of behaviour e.g. learning,
maturation, sensation, perception and motivation are significant in our life because they con-
tribute to the process of adjustment. The way we interact with people depends to a great extent
upon how we perceive them and how we interpret their behaviour. The perceptions about people
- what we think, what they are like - influence the way we respond to them. If you perceive that
a student is hostile, you are unlikely to interact or adjust with himlher. Your behaviour in a
group is certainly different from the behaviour when in alone. Group affects an individual's
behaviour. The mere presence of others affects our performance.
How do we come to kpow about other people? Our social perceptions of others are initially
based on the information we obtain about them - in some instances the attribution(inferences)
we make about the causes for their behaviour. It is, of course, important to have accurate knowl- .
edge of others before deciding on the kind of possible interactions with them. Our perceptions
of others' personalities and feelings guide us in deciding the way we respond to them and what
sort of relationships we have with them. Knowledge about others influences our adjustment
with them.
14.3.3 Impression Formation and Socia1.Adjustment

We shall first discuss 'impression' as a cognitive process. Impression formation is the process
by which information about others is converted into more or less enduring cognition or thoughts
about them. When we first meet someone, we usually have access to information how the
person looks and where he/she works and what helshe says. These categories and their per-
ceived interrelationship form the basic cognitive framework by which we understand others
and try to adjust with them.
14.3.4 Other Processes in Social Adjustment

There are certain other processes we can use for social adjustment. Let us discuss the main
processes in the following paragraphs.
i) Stress and adaptation : The efforts to live and be satisfied is called adaptation:
Environmental factors which make it hard for an individual to live are called stress. At
21
Facilitating Learning and the most elementary level of life, stress is experienced as irr~tat~onor dlscomfor~A, a
Development slightly more advanced level, stress is explained as the anticipation of harm. In human
beings certain kinds of stresses produce anxiety. Anxiety sometimes produces defensive
response which are mental efforts to reduce stresses. Defenses are generally regarded as
poor methods of adjustment. Actually adjustment means reduction of tension or satisfac-
tion of motives.
ii) Social influence : The process of social influence contains two critical elements-
(a) someone's intervention, and (b) inducing change in other person. The FP (Focal Per-
son) is one who is influenced by the source of intervention is termed as the agent. The
following table classifies agents, types of intervention and related concepts.
Table 14.1 : Intervention by an agent to bring about influence
Characteristics Types of Intervention Concepts

of Agent
Stranger (S) Physical presence Social facilitation
A Person Modelling of behaviour Imitation
Group Modelling of behaviour Compliance of others
Norms Situations that incre'ase Conformity to norms
salience of Norms
Authority Commands Obedience
Imitation, conformity and obedience is known as a promoter of social adjustment. The phe-
nomena of influence, which also includes imitation conformity and obedience, always contain
an agent which has caused a change in the focal person (FP). Influence situations can be differ-
entiated by noticing the different characteristics of the agent and of the behaviour that makes up
the intervention.
We shall discvss the-five concepts presented in Table 14.1 to help you understand the process
of social influence better.
Social facilitation : In a group situation, the presence of others would always influence per-
formance and thus the efforts to bring changes in performance of an individual are called social
facilitation. The presence of other increases an individual's arousal level which in turn en-
hances performance of well learned responses but decreases performance of poorly learned
responses e.g, a well trained musician would, according to this theory (social facilitation),
perform bettet when others are present but a beginning would make more mistakes when giving
a recital in front of others than when practicing at home. The social facilitalon effect indicates
that the mere presence of other people does not always result in improved performance but they
must involved in any action to bring about improvement. Social facllitatlon IS most likely to
occur when the people in a group are involved in the task being performed. The performance of
the trained musician in the above example would probably not be enhanced lf the people in the
audience were not listening to the musician and evaluating hislher performance. In other words,
social facilitation occurs most readily for strong responses in situations where the presence of
others is motivating.
Imitation : Jmitation involves change in focal person's behaviour that matches or copies
others' behaviour. Students imitate a variety of behaviours in many different settings. They
imitate the behaviour of social personalities for getting the recognition.
Compliance to others : Human being as a social being has to adjust himself in the social
environment. He works everyday according to his daily schedule e.g., eating, drinking, bathing,
sleeping, working, etc. But practically in his daily life he commands others and works accord-
ing to his own or others' rules and regulations. In a family, every member is dependent on each
other; sometimes even parents also obey the rules of their children and this type of situation
influences them to adjust in social environment.
Conformity to norms : Conformity refers to the situation in which individuals change their
behaviour so [hat they become more similar to those of the other members of the group. In
22
conformity situations the agents have at least some interest in changing the focal person's Social Adjustment
behaviour. Every group has its own norms and rules to follow. These norms or rules are agreed
upon by the group members and these exert a powerful influence on social behaviour. It is
necessary for the focal person to be aware of the norms and rules to be subject to its pressure.
Norms and rules can be formal agreements such as laws or contracts, or there can be informal
agreements such as an agreed upon time to begin a meeting. No group exists without rules that
regulate the members' behaviour. And every member has to show compliance to rules. What do
the members gain by their willingness to be regulated? The chief advantage of rules and norms
is that these serve to co-ordinate behaviour i.e. rules are established to avoid conflict and to
govern behavlour.
Obedience: Obedience refers to situations in which the agent has the legitimate right to influ-
ence the focal person and the focal person has the obligation to obey. Such reciprocal role
relationships are most clearly demonstrated when the agent has a higher status than the focal
person and the roles are part of a social system in which a higher status clearly influence over
the lower status, such as ranks in the military.
14.4 SOCIAL MATURITY
Social maturity is a long process. A student's best bet for being socially mature is to be exposed
to those people who are socially mature so that he can pattern his behaviour accordingly. The
student can try to reach the expectations of the societal system : parents, teachers, siblings and
peers who matter to him. Thus, knowing what to do and striving for it are essential for reaching
the desired level of social maturity. In this context, providing appropriate role models to the
student goes a long way in helping him to what is desirable and expected of him. If a student
sees adults around him creating scenes and tantrums, it would be unrealistic to expect patience,
forbearance and tact from such a student. A student who has always been kept waiting for
simple things everyday will be unable to face situations where one has to live with uncertainty.
In social situations, by and large, students tend to react the way they have been treated.
14.4.1 The Nature of Social Maturity

As stated above, the maturity of a student is influenced by various social factors. Some of the
important factors are as follows:
i) Concept of dependence-independence : Dependence-independence - patterns of

behaviours are acquired by students in the course of day-to-day interaction. An indi-
vidual is required to modify his behaviour in terms of asserting his independence and
seeking succourance (aid or relief) in the socio-cultural context.
Age variations are important consideration with reference to dependence-independence.
ii) Self-control : Self-control, as part of social maturity, is necessary for decision-making

and faclng the consequences. Too many impositions on students results in developing
either a rebellious or subservient attitude. Acquiring self-control is partly maturational
and partly learnt behaviour. The students studying in a secondary school understands that
society does not expect him to regress to childhood behaviour at this age. He tries to
come upto theexpectations of the society and this he achieved by controlling his behaviour.
iii) Stress : Stress IS part of everybody life and everybody has to over come stresses. Every
time there is a stress situation. A mature individual mobilises the available resources and
util~sesthem to the best of his abil~tyto overcome the stress. Stress sltuatlons help 1nd1-
viduals learn to put forth their very best to resolve stress. Students have to learn to cope
w ~ t hstress and competition in the course of development but this stress should not ham-
per the process of their adjustment.
iv) Social maturation : Socially mature are aware of their roles. During the process of so-
cial growth students learn to live up to the expectations of the society in which they live.
In every society the male and female roles are different. Individuals who violatc tlicsc
Facilitating Learning and expectations and do not take the appropriate roles are often ridiculed. To play appropri-
Development ate roles are the sign of socially mature persons.
Ability to size up a social situation : Another component of social maturity is to size up a

social situation and reaci-foit appropriately. A mature student is able to perceive a cuelhint in a
social situation and accordingly modify his behaviour. He understands his mother's behaviour
by observing her facial expression or change in her tone. He will understand that she does not
approve his actions. He can amend his behaviour accordingly. This ability increases as the
student matures and this is desired for social adjustment.
14.4.2 Social Adjustment and Social Maturity

The behaviour of the individual depends on maturation and learning. Maturation is also helpful
in the process of social adjustment. Studies have indicated that the socialisation plays an impor-
tant role in social maturation, social learning and social adjustment. Much of the behaviour of
a child determined by the process of socialisation - a process in which the environmental
forces determine or influence the learning of accepted and approved ways of behaving. Through
socialisation individuals prepare themselves for life in a society at a given time. A child is
called socialised when he behaves in accordance with certain stardardised ways or norms of
the group in which he is raised. These modes of behaving (from family to society) continue to
exert a controlling influence on his behaviour and help him in his social adjustment.

What do you understand by a) social adjustment, and b) social maturity?
a) ....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
b) ....................................................................................................................................
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14.5 SOCIAL ADJUSTMENT AND INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIP
In the preceding section, we discussed social adjustment and social maturity. Now we shall
discuss social adjustment and interpersonal relationship. We can say that our social adjustment
depends on the type of relationships we establish with other people. Social psychologists have
studied a number of factors which help determine the formation and maintenance of interper-
sonal relationship. Why are people initially attracted to each other? What processes are in-
volved in shaping the nature of relationship in social adjustment? The society in which we live
consists of various types of persons. There are some persons for whom you feel a strong attach-
ment. There are probably a few whom you dislike. Why do you like some people more than
others? The general answer is that we like people to the extent that our interactions with them
are rewarding or reinforcing. With such people we adjust ourselves.,
Proximity as a basis for interpersonal relationship : One factor which affect the interper-
sonal relationships is physical nearness or proximity. You may agree that increase in the fre-
quency of contact between individuals also increases the likelihood that friendship would de-
velop. Perhaps we simply prefer pleasant interactions with those individuals whom we encoun-
ter frequently and make special effort to ensure that our interactions with them run smoothly
and we adjust with each other.
24
Interpersonal relations and similarity in attitude : One of the factors which influences our. Social Adjustment
relationship is the similarity in attitude. The relationship between similarity and attraction is so
reliable that it can be represented by a mathematical formula. Similar attitude and attraction are
directly proportional to each other.
Proportion of similar attitude
Social exchange theorists have been especially successful in providing a framework to describe
the nature and dynamics of interpersonal relationships. They emphasised the interdependence
of social relationships. The quality of the outcomes experienced by two persons engaged in a
relationship depends on the behaviour of both the participants. Satisfaction with a relationship
increases if the outcomes are satisfactory and decreases if the outcomes are not satisfactory.
The growth of interpersonal relations starts with the stage of unilateral awareness and ends at
total unity. The stage of total unity shows perfect adjustment among the individuals. If we want
adjustment among the members of a group, the outcomes of the group should be equally dis-
tributed among the participants. This statement proposes that when individuals find themselves
in an unfair and inequitable relation, they experience distress and problems of adjustment. You,
as a teacher, should keep this fact in mind while dealing with your students.
14.6 ADJUSTMENT IN SCHOOL

In this section you will study factors related to adjustment in school. You, as a teacher, are more
concerned with the adjustment of students in school because the primary purpose of educarion
is to train students to be successful in their social life. They are trained to face social and
economic problems. The process of adjustment start right from the birth of the child and con-
tinues till death. Human beings have the highest capacity to adapt to new situations. They not
only adapt to physical demands but also adjust to social pressures.
Teachers have important role in modifying and shaping the personality of students in accor-
dance with natural objectives of life. The greatest contribution of teachers will be to channelise
the energy of students to reconstruction in their social life. One of the challenges hurled at
teachers is to maintain the mental and physical health of the children and youth of the nation.
The teacher has to emphasise on the harmonious development of students' personality so that
they can contribute to the welfare of the country. You can facilitate their adjustment in their life.
You can also help them in maintaining their mental health because proper mental health leads to
social adjustment.
There are some school-related factors which influence students' adjustment in school. Impor-
tant factors are as follows:
I Proper training to teachers : Teachers who are pioperly trained in educational psy-
i)
chology may help students in their adjustment. Teachers' personality and democratic
attitude are also important factors which can promote adjustment in students.
ii) Adequate curriculum :Curriculum should be planned,and transacted in such a way that
it should fulfil psychological and social needs of students. Needfulfilment leads to better
adjustment.
iii) Adequate recreational facilities : Facilities, such as sports, library, debate and excur-
I
Facilitating Learning and sion may help students in their adjustment. We should provide propcr ~ c ~ ~ e a t l ofac111-
nal
Development ties to them in the school.
iv) Classroom climate : If the classroom climate is affectionate and cooperative enough, it
can facilitate better adjustment in students.
V) Proper relationships between administration : Cordial relations between the Princi-
pal and teachers, and teachers and teachers, and teachers and office staff also play an
important role in creating harmonious and congenial environment in the school.
vi) Evaluation system of the school :Evaluation should be rigid cum flexible. Too much
subjectivity and unreliability should be avoided. Numerical marking should he avoided
and grades should be given to students. Due to low marks, students lose confidence in
their life which then affects in their mental health. The world 'fail' should not be used by
the teachers.
An adjustment mechanism is a habitual method of overcoming blocks, reaching goals, satisfy-

ing motives, relieving frustration and maintaining equilibrium. Every individual uses his own
mechanism to maintain a balance in his own personality. This mechanism. also known as de-
fense mechanism, is discussed at length in Unit 13 (sub-section 13.5.4).Besides what has been
presentedldiscussion in sub-sectionl3.5.4, the following measures can also help students in
adjusting to the school environment:
The school environment should be free from partiality and should provide the feeling of
security in students, irrespective of their socio-economic status.
School environment should be democratic. Students' representation on varlous commit-
tees should be made.
School should organise various curricular activities for students.
Teachers should know the fundamental principles of human behaviour to solve students'
problems. They must be emotionally stable and have positive attitude towards teaching.
They should create conducive school climate.
Students should be encouraged to express their views and feelings on various issues
related to school freely.
Teachers should develop a variety of interests in students so that they can satisfy their
emotions.
Day-to-day problems can be discussed in class.
Sex and moral education should be an integral part of the school curriculum.
School can organise guidance services for students.
There should be flexibility in school activities to accommodate the individual needs of
the students.
Notes : a) Write your answer in the space given beIow.

Give an example of improved interpersonal relations through social adjustment.
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
Social Adjustment
14.7 GROUP DYNAMICS AND TEACHERS' ROLE
Before we discuss the role of teachers in shaping group dynamics in the school environment,
we should clearly understand he concept of group dynamics.
Dynamics means change. Group dynamics means the change of behaviour through interaction
In the group. It refers to the forces which operate in group situations. It studies the structure of
the group and other phenomena which emerge out of group interaction. The behaviour of mem-
bers who constantly interact undergoes continuous changes because human behaviour is not
static.
A group may be defined as two or more persons in dynamic interaction. The group demands
reciprocity arnong its members. Every social system influences, to a great extent, the behaviour
of its constituents. Students are not an ~solatedisland. They interact with the environment for
their development. This development depends on social interaction. It is ~mpossibleto imagine
the harmonious development of a student without proper socialisation. Social interaction plays
an important role in the development of intellectual and other abilities in the students. Students
interact in groups in the school, in the classroom, on the playground and so on. To deal effec-
tively wilh social groups one must study the dynamics of soc~albehaviour.
Need to study group dynamics : Why should a teacher study group dynamics? A teacher
deals with groups of students for five to six hours everyday. In order to make your teaching
effective, you should study group dynamics. A class is a group of students with different socio-
economic background. You, as a teacher. should have a thorough knowledge of the interaction
process among the students. If you are well-equipped with the basic knowledge of group dy-
namics, you can provide appropriate guidance to students for their adjustment. By doing so you
can also improve the emotional and social climate of the class.
The teacher must know how adolescents form groups and what is the structure of groups and
other mechanisms operating in the group situation. Students seek love and motivation from
their groups. Smooth functioning of the group is important for effective learning. If there are
conflicts and stresses in the group, learning will be disturbed. A teacher's knowledge of group
dynamics can improve the social and emotional climate of the school/class. Shethe can im-
prove group relations to maintain proper mental health of the individual members and group
relationship In the class.
14.7.2 Group Relationship in the Class

Analysis of sociometric studies shows the following patterns of relationship among the stu-
dents of the class:
Stars : Stars are the students in the class whom majority of the students like.
Isolates : The students whom no member of the class likes or wants LO associate. They are
rejected by all.
Mutual pairs : There are the students who like each other. There is reciprocal relationship
among mutual pairs of students.
Chains : There are chains of relationship among students where A chooses B and B chooses
C. There is a closed circle where A likes B, B likes C and C likes A.
You will study.about group dynamics in Unit 14 (Section 14.7) of the Course ES-333.
14.7.3 Teachers' Role in Improving Group Relationship

In a classroom situation, generally two types of roles are indentified: teacher's role and student's
role. In group dynamics the teachers can provide a leadership role. The role of the leader is now
shifting from authoritarian to a democratic and participatory one. Teachers must, therefore,
encourage participation of students in all the school activities. To improve the climate of the
classroom students should be taken into confidence and decisions taken democratically.
Facilitating Learning and Teachers' role is to facilitate the learning process. They are no more the instructor and the
Development director of learning; they are facilitators of learning of their students. In teaching-learning pro-
cess teachers should act as guides to promote learning. They should motivate students to par-
ticipate in learning activities. Students' participation in learning activities individually or in
groups enhances their learning.
Effect of group on adjustment : The classroom climate should be one in which students' in-
volvement is ensured. A teacher's direct and indirect behaviour influences the personality de-
velopment of students. Democratic leadership provided by the teachers develops positive traits
in students, which help in their adjustment. Group relationship plays an important role in learn-
ing.
You can create conducive and cohesive climate in class. Today, education for all the sections of
society necessitated teachers to think and develop interest in group dynamics. This has now
been incorporated as an integral part of the teacher education programme.
The following measures can be used to improve the classroom climate.
Teachers' behaviour : Teachers are models for the students. Their behaviour should be
impartial. The whole climate of the classroom as a social group can be charged with emo-
tion$.
Discussions : To Improve the classroom's emotional climate, free discussion should be

occasionally arrmged for the group. Suggestions should be invited from students to im-
prove upon thc cxlsting classroom climate.
Effective coml~~unication: Lack of proper communication causes disruption in class. You

should help students understand each other in formal and informal meetings. 'They can be
encouraged to meet each other and also the teacher freely. If there is any misunderstanding,
it should he immediately clarified. The classroom communication should be a two-way
process.
Cohesiveness : You can encourage feelings of cohesiveness among students through effec-
tive communication.
Counselling : Recent research studies on group dynamics emphasise the role of counsel-
ling, Proper counselling can improve the emotional climate of your class.
Tours and visits :Co-curricular activities such as tours, etc., give students opportunities to
understand each other and improve the emotional and social climate of the group.

Discuss the role of a teacher in influencing group dynamics.
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Social Adjustment
14.8 LET US SUM UP
Adjustment is a life-long process which helps individuals manage or cope with the various
demands of the environment. As social being we live in a society and want acceptance and
recognition by the other members of society. We try to behave according to the norms of the
society so that we are able to adjust with others.
Social adjustment depends on students' interpersonal relations and their interaction in the
group, say in the classroom or the school.
Social maturity is also important in the process of social adjustment. In the process of social
maturity the student tries to reach the desired level of maturity expected by the society he lives
in. A socially mature student has the ability to size up the social situations and react appropri-
ately.
Your role, as a teacher, is important in the process of social adjustment because you have to
train your students to face personal, social and economic problems in their life. Students' ad-
justment with society or in school largely depends on their interaction with the external envi-
ronment in which they live.
A class as a group gives students opportunities to interact with each other. Students in social
situations mostly interact in groups in classroom and on the playground. To deal effectively
with social-groupsone must study the dynamics of group behaviour. Dynamics of groups means
changing behaviour of the individual in group. But here a question arises: why should teachers
study group dynamics? As you know you have to deal with groups of students from five to six
periods daily. In order to make your teaching effective you must study the group dynamics of
the class.

1. What is social adjustment? What are the other processes in social adjustment? '
2. What are the important factors for adjustment in the school climate?
3. Define a group and discuss the place of a teacher in the group formation.
4. What do you mean by group dynamics? Why should teachers study group dynamics?

Aggarwal, J.C. (1995) : Essentials of Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi.
Chauhan, S.S. (1988) : Advanced Educational Psychology, Vikas publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Kakkar, S.B. (1989) : Educational Psychology and Guidance,The Indian Publications, Arnbala
Cantt.
Kundu, C.L. & Tutoo, D.N. (1985) : Educational Psychology, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,
New Delhi.
Richard, J.K. Ofshe (Ed.) (1973) : Interpersonal Behaviour in Small Group, Prentice Hall,
New York.
29
Facilitating Learning and
Development 14.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
1. i) Social Adjustment is an effort made by an individual to cope with standards, values
and needs of a society in order to be accepted.
ii) Social maturity means knowing what to do and striving for it by following role models
to reach the desired level of acceptable social behaviour.
2. The example should refer to the following aspects:

i) Proximity as a basis for interpersonal relationship,
ii) Interpersonal relations and similarity in attitudes, and
iii) Growth and decline of relationships.
3. Learning process in a school happens in a group with teacher as a guide of that group.
Mental health of a group is an important factor in the process of learning. As a leader, the
teacher can be autocratic, democratic or participatory. The teacher's rejection or accep-
tance of a group behaviour can actually steer group activities in the right direction.
UNIT 15 CHILDREN WITH SPECIAL NEEDS
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Classification of Students with Special 'Needs
15.3.1 Physical lmpairment : Students with Locomotor Disability
15.3.2 Students with Visual Impairment .
15.3.3 Students with Hearing and Speech lmpairment
15.3.4 Students with Low Mental Ability
15.3.5 Students with Learning Disability
Understanding Students with Special Needs
Gifted and Talented Students
15.5.1 Defining the Key Terms
1.5.5.2 Areas for Teachers' l n t e ~ e n t i o n
Socially Disadvantaged
Education of Girls
Understanding Special Needs of Children from the Deprived Sections of the Society
15.8:l Students from ScheduIed Castes
15.8.2 Students from Scheduled Tribes
Let Us Sum Up
Unit-end Exercises
Suggested Readings
15.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous units you have learnt about the principles of growth and development. You have
to acquire necessary information and skills to understand the student as a unique individual in
terms of individual differences in learning levels. These differences among individuals may be
attributed to a number of factors. These factors force us to understand the learning process in
the broader context rather than as an isolated phenomenon or process. One of these contexts is
the 'characteristics' of the students themselves. This unit is directed towards understanding
these characteristics of the students and their impact on the learning as well as on planning and
managing the learning process. Here we shall talk about the nature of special needs of students
and also discuss the various groups of students with special learning needs.
15.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:
define students with special educational needs,
explain the special needs in relation to the conditions within or outside the student,
discuss the social, psychological and educational adjustment of children with special needs,
work out future educational programmes for children with special needs, and
describe the teacher's role in meeting the educational, social and psychological needs of
students.
Development 15.3 CLASSIFICATION OF STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS
Students with special needs can be classified into five categories :
Physical impairment
Visual impairment
. Hearing and speech impairment
Low mental ability
Learning disability
Besides, there are giftedltalented students who need special treatment in the classroom. Female
students also have special needs. We shall discuss these categories of students in the subse-
quent sections.
Let us discuss cach of these categories in detail.
15.3.1 Physical Impairment :Students with Locomotor Disability

Children with physical disabilities may have locomotor problems. Locomotor problems are
related to muscles and joints of the body which affect mobility of limbs and extremities. The
students with such impairment may find difficulty in attempting those learning activities which
need physical movement. Though they possess learning capability similar to other children,
they may have some specific problems in learning. For example, a student with rigidity in the
finger muscles may have writing problems. Such students may also have postural problems,
which bring in fatigue and limit their performance in certain learning activities. Such students
develop adjustment problems because of non-acceptance or ridiculed by the~rpeers.
Identification of physical impairment is easier as the disability is usually observable. You can
identify physical disability with the help of the following check-list :
Table 15.1 : Identification of Physical Disability

- -
I. The student has deformity in

Neck,. ...................................................................................................................................
Hand.. .............................................................................................................................
Fingers.................................................................................................................................
Waist .............................................................. :.....................................................................
Legs.. ...................................................................................................................................
2. Has difficulty in
. .
slttlng...................................................................................................................................
standing................................................................................................................................
:
walking......... ......................................................................................................................
3. Has difficulty in
picking up.............................................................................................................................
holding objects, ...................................................................................................................
putting them at the appropriate Place....................................................................................
4. Frequently complains of pain in joints .................................................................................

5. .....
Has difficulty in holding the pen to write......................................................................
6. Walks with jerks ................................................................................................................
7. Involuntary movements of limbs........................................................................................
8. Has amputated limbs.............................................................................................................
You can play an important role in helping students to overcome physical impairment. Parents' Children with Special Needs
support can be sought in this regard. In case of severe disability, the students can be referred to
District Rehabilitation Centres or Primary Health Centres (PHCs).
According to the type of disability, suitable seating arrangements should made in the class-
room. For example, students with crutches and wheelchairs should be provided a seat on the
right front space in the classroom, so that the movement of the other students is not blocked1
hindered. This placement can also provide space for keeping crutches against the wall. The
arrangement should be such that it allows independent movement of the students.
It has been observed that because of their disability. recreational needs of these students are
ignored in the school. You should ensure that they get adequate opportunities to participate in
physical and recreational activities in the class and the school. Other students should be encour-
aged to join them in such activities.
Students with rigidity in limb movement need a lot of praclice. For example. while writing, the
use of adjustment aids has an impact on the quality of work attempted. Thus, this disability
needs to be taken into consideration while grading their papers. If they have difficulty in writ-
ing, they may be provided with extra time and, if possible audio cassetles. For example, in a
history paper where spelling mistakes are not accounted for, the answers can be recorded on an
audio cassette. Wherever available, they may be provided with the facilities of a word proces-
Notes : a ) Write your answer in the space given below.

b ) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
If you come across some students with locomotor disability. Describe how you will
adjust your teaching and classroom arrangement for :
i) Students with problems of movements from one place to another.

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ii) Students with problems of posture arising out of musclar disabilities.

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iii) Students with problenls of rigidity interfering with their academic learning/skills.
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15.3.2 Students with Visual Impairment

There are children who have visual disability. They cannot read the usual text and may need
some learning aids, such as braille in case of blindness. Then there are partially sighted stu-
dents. The vision of some of the students can be corrected. But some students can read only
large print, say for example, 14 point and above; some require magnifying glasses to read.
Some children have restricted field of vision. The teachers should identify such students and
provide them special help in their study. Identification of visual impairment results in several
learning problems. Such students can identified by observing their behaviour as follows:
Facilitating Learning and Table 15.2 :Identification of Visual Disability
Development
Observable deformity in the eye(s)
Rubs eyes frequently
Frequent reddening of eyes
Covers one eye and tilts the head forward
Holds objects including the book close to his eyes
Asks other students for help when taking notes from the blackboard
Blinks frequently-squints eyelids together
Watery eyes
Complains of headaches
Bumps into people or objects
If you observe that the child displays any of these types of behaviour, you may refer him to the
PHCIhospital for eye check-up.
You, as a teacher, should pay special attention to the students with visual disability. You should
allow such students to sit in the front rows so that they can read the blackboard with ease. They
should be encouraged to glance out of the window now and then while reading from the black-
board. You should write in bold letters which are legible. You should read aloud when you write
on the blackboard. Books with bold letters (14 point or more) should be available in the library
to cater-to the needs of these students. The District Rehabilitation Centres and hospitals may be
approached for hand lens, magnifying glasses, etc. for students whose disability is beyond the
spectacle lens.
In order to reduce the reading load on the students with visual problems, we can train them in
listening skills. They may be provided audio cassettes and audio tape recorder-cum-radio and
encouraged to learn from audio medium. Audio cassettes will be very useful for such $tudents.
Institutions such as the State Institutes of Educational Technology, State Institutes of Educa-
tionlstate Councils of Educational Research and Training, the Central Institutes of Educational
Technology, etc., can be approached for audio cassettes in different curriculuni areas.
The teacher should not accept different standards of behaviour from these children. They should
be expected to clean up the work area just like other children. When they acquire mobility, they
should be sent on errands like their peers. Remind them gently to correct mannerisms as soon as
you notice any abnormality in their behaviour. Provide them opportunities for participation in
physical ducalion programmes. A bookstand may be arranged for the partially sighted child.
15.4.3 Students with Hearing and Speech Impairment
Listening plays a significant role in academic communication and learning. Hearing problems
interfere with learning and performance. Hearing problems may also cause speech problems. It
is, therefore, desirable to identify such students and take steps to meet their cducational needs.
Identification of hearing disability : The level of hearing is measured by audiometers in

terms of decibles (db). Mild loss is within the range of 20-30 db., marginal 30-40 db., moder-
ate 40-60 db.,,severe 60-75 db. and profound loss is above 75 db. Some students have mild
hearing loss. Same may develop the impairment during school years and go undetected. Nor-
mally students with severe and profound hearing loss from birth do not develop speech unless
their speech is developed through speech therapy.
The students with hearing problems can be easily identified by observing their behaviour. S ~ L
Table 15.3.
Table 15.3 : Identification of Hearing Impairment Children with Special Needs
Has observable deformity in the ear(s)

Frequent discharge from the ear(s)
Complain of pain in ears frequently
Scratches ear(s) frequently
Turns head on one side to hear better
Frequently requests teacher to repeat directions and questions
Makes many errors in taking dictation
While listening to the teacher watches his face carefully
Displays speech difficulty
The student displaying any of these behaviours may be referred for a medical check-up. It is
important to get the help of the professionals to identify the degree of loss and suitability of the
hearing aid. The parents also need to be informed.
B Education of disabled students : Students with hearing problems should be asked to sit near .
the teacher for improved listening. You should use a reasonable level of pitch (voice) while
speaking. Avoid mumbling and speaking too fast. While reading from the textbook, your lips
L. should be visible to the students so that they are able to supplement listening by lip-reading.
Similarly, while speaking or writing on the blackboard, you should face the students.
Peers may be encouraged to interact with these students and help them in learning. Three di-
mensional models of teaching aids: may be used to supplement general teaching points.
In case students are using hearing aids, they should be persuaded to use the aids all the time in
the school as well as at home.
I Speech defects arising out of hearing problems can be corrected through speech training, using
i reinforced drill and practice. If speech disorder is due to an organic defect in the speech mecha-
nism, medical help is required.
15.3.4 Students with Low Mental Ability

. The performance of the student with low mental ability is less than the performance of normal
students. They may not have any physical problem but they are poorly adjusted in the class-
room. Some observable behaviour for identifying such students is as follows.
I
L
Table 15.4 :Idedtification of Students with Low Mental Ability
The low mental ability student :

L
displays poor academic achievement
forgets what s/he has learnt after a short time
is inattentive and distracted
shows too much reliance on presentation of concrete objects
seeks ~mmediatereward
displays fear of failure
has poor self-image
lacks self-confidence
has restricted communication
has poor muscular coordination
has d~lficultyin doing things for himself like eating, dressing, bathing and grooming
has problem in following what he has been told
I
learns at a slow pace
seeks more repetition and practice as compared to other students
i avoids active participation in classroom activities
1 shows too much dependence on concrete examples
Facilitating Learning and Teaching students with low mental ability : You have to provide concrete experience to
Development such students. They require repetition and more practice than the normal students. Learning
tasks should be presented in small steps. Their attention is to be drawn to important points of
the learning tasks. Simple questions may be asked to give them a feeling of success. Immediate
feedback or reward should be the watchword for such students.
These students need training in communication skills. You should plan learning activities in a
way that these students participate along with their peers.
The curriculum has to be transacted through simple and interesting learning experiences. Spe-
cial efforts have to be made to help students absorb as much as they can. As they have a short
span of attention, activities have to be varied in order to sustain their attention.
15.3.5 Students with Learning Disability

Some students may have specific learning problems such as in reading, writing, spelling or
arithmetic. For example, you might have observed that some students always read and write 'b'
as 'd', 'was' as 'saw', '21' as '12'. Such problems are due to impairment of their psychological
processes, like perception and memory. These students are said to have a learning disability
which arises out of the problems in psychological processes. These students should be pro-
vided special help in learning.
Identification of disability : The following are some of the observable behaviours for identi-
fication of learning disability.
Table 15.5 : Identification of Learning Disability
Does not read well although his oral answers are intelligent
Makes mistakes in spellings, especially omits letter in words or changes their place e.g.
'pat' instead of 'tap', or 'felt', as 'left', 'rember' in place of 'remember'
Writes numbers wrong e.g., '12' as '21' or write '69' when asked to write f79'
Is distractible and cannot remember his time-table
Is always untidy and late in submitting homework and coming to class
Does not perform well in examinations although he is clever and has no physical disability
.Is so excited that he is unable to complete any task
Omits words or lines in reading
Reads individual letters in the words but has difficulty in putting the sounds of the letters
together. For example, he may say the sound blelg and say 'Bad' or sound flolg but say
'frog'
Education of students with disability : Such students need help in areas of their disability
such as reading, arithmetic, etc., as the case may be. You should adopt suitable teaching strate-
gies to support their learning. You should not criticise the student unnecessarily. Corrective
feedback is most important at this stage.

b) Compare your answer with one given at the end of the unit.
Do you feel confident to cater to the special needs of children with disabilitieslimpair-
ment in the regular classrooms? If yes, how?
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36
Children with Special Needs
15.4 UNDERSTANDING STUDENTS WITH SPECIAL
NEEDS
You, as a teacher, might have come across a large number of students. Some of them we remem-
ber; others we forget over a period of time. If you try to remember students of, say last one or
two years, there is a great chance that you would remember only those children who have some
special characteristics. These characteristics may be those of appearance, mannerism, perfor-
mance or even of your special relationship triggered off by some important incident. You may
like to refer to them by some grouping nouns. Try to recollect some such ctiaracteristics and use
one word/phrase to explain some of these groupings.
I remember students who can be referred to as :

- Gifted - Handicapped
- Slow learners . -
- Intelligent -
Now you will see that students are characterised by some speciality. This 'special' characteris-
tics calls for considerations from you so that these children may be able to learn without any
strain. In other words, if you consider education to be a process of developing every individual
to the best of hisher capability, you need to facilitate the'process of capability building in each
child, more so in those who need such consideration because of special characteristics. For
example, a student with short height needs to be seated in the first row. The student with hearing
problem needs to be nearer to the teacher. The differences in students are much more complex
than what generally seem to be, on the surface. Special needs refer to reflecting the special
requirements of a student calling for specific adjustment in the regular education prograqme.
These adjustments may be in terms of the size of the letters, height of the furniture, lighting
arrangement in the classroom or quality of communication.
Special needs may arise out of a child's body/physique, mental level at which a child operates,
attitudes or any disadvantage which may effect the student.
15.5 GIFTED AND TALENTED STUDENTS

So far we have discussed special characteristics of students that make them different from other
students in the classrooms or in our experiences as teachers over a period of time. Sometimes
the special needs of students arise not the so-called deficits either in their personality behaviour
or performance but from their high mental level.
Gifted children are those who show consistently remarkable performance in educational
endeavours. They possess superior intellectual ability within the range of the upper two to
three percent of the population. According to some psychologists, academically gifted students
are those who are within the top 15% to 20% in the schools.
In your teaching career, you might have seen some students who were gifted or talented. Such
students are different from average students. Gifted students may have the following character-
istics:
Learning commensurates with that expected of older students, often reading at an earlier.
than average age
Knowing about things of which other students are unaware
High ability for abstract and symbolic thinking
Curiosity indicated by asking serious questions
Large vocabulary and mature expressive ability
Requiring llmited exposure and fewer repetitions to learn
Facilitating Learning and Extra-ordinary memory
Development
Ability to apply knowledge to unfamiliar situations.
Good problem-solving ability
Attention span long for age
Dislike of rigid time schedule
Annoyance with details
Intense interest in one area
Spontaneous and diverse interests
High energy level (physical and intellectual)
Unusually high standards and goals
Often thinking faster than they write (can result in sloppy work), or
Poor study habits that may result in careless work.
Those students who show some or many of the characteristics mentioned above either in aca-
demic tasks or in ~nforrnalsettings are referred to by many adjectives such as gifted, talented,
~ f n i u setc.
, It may also be mentioned here that such types of behaviours need to be observed in
a variety of settings rather than being limited to the classroom situation only.
15.5.1 Defining the Key Terms
You need to understand the terms generally used with reference to gifted or talented behaviour
of students.
Intellectual giftedness : Intellectual giftedness can be described as an unusual ability to deal

with abstract and symbolic learning. Individuals with intellectual superiority are able to relate
facts and ideas about numbers, time, and space in unusual ways. Students with intellectual
superiority may or may not do well in school.
Academic giftedness :Academic giftedness involves the skills and abilities necessary to per-
form well in school-related tasks. Among these skills and abilities are memory, logical reason-
ing, and ability to make meaningful associations of facts and ideas. Facility in convergent thinking
is the characteristic of this group of students.
Creativity :Creative children are those who exhibit creativity. Creativity is the ability to adopt
an innovative approach to solving a problem, to'cope with ideas that are both relevant and
unusual, to go beyond the immediate situation to redefine the problem. Creativity can be re-
ferred to as unique or original production of ideas or products. Creative thought process results
in responses that are unexpected and may be regarded as novel or peculiar. Ideational fluency,
flexibility of thinking, originality, and elaboration are elements of creativity. Ideational fluency
involves being able to generate a flow of ideas,while flexibility means the ability to modify the
flow of information. Originality is the ability to come up with unique findings or new uses for
products. Divergent thinking is associated with creativity.
Talent :Talent can be defined as an unusually high aptitude, ability, or level of performance in
a particular field. The most commonly mentioned talents are artistic, musical, physical, me-
chanical, social and leadership. The great masters provide examples of the artistically and
musically talented, while professional and Olymplc atheletics exemplify the physically tal-
ented. Mechanical talent is illustrated by youngsters who have expert problem-solving abilities
in tackling mechanical problems. The socially talented are those who have instructive sense of
appropriate behaviour in varied personal interactions. Charismatic qualities are evident in those
with leadership talents. They have a trick for influencing followers.
Most of these terms specially 'intellectual giftedness', 'academic giftedness' and 'talent' are
used interchangeably. There is often a controversy on the relationship between creativity and
intellactual giftedness. For example, talent involves a specific ability while intellectual gifted-
ness m d creativity are more global. A student can have all the characteristics of being talented,
intellectually gifted and creative. All such students have strong as well as weak areas. It is very
uncommon that they may be superior in all the areas. At times some of these characteristics lead Children with Sp
to under-achievement or these students are ignored because they may be 'problem students'.
The areas in which these students need your support and counselling are discussed in Sub-
section 15.5.2.
I 15.5.2 Areas for Teachers' Intervention

The following are the major areas where your intervention will prove useful for gifted students.
1 Removing the feeling of isolation : Since these students are different in physical, social and
mental developments, they may feel left out. At times the fielings of superiority works against
their personality adjustment.
Self-criticism :Many gifted students have high goals and become self-critical. They may also
be communicated expectation on the part of teachers, parents as well as peers. Teachers may
expect them to always give the correct answer or be outstanding in class. This induces anxiety
and stress in students.
Convergent vs divergent thinking : Mostly school work is evaluated on conformity to one
right answer. Such evaluation rewards convergent thinking but can be harmful for divergent
8
thinking, where different answers of a problem are possible.
Moral and social issues :At times we do not expect students to be concerned about moral and
social issues. It is not unusual to .?nd students with superior abilities to have very strong opin-
r ions on moral and social issues.
I
Self-concept :Self-concept refer:.io one's impression about oneself. Students who generate or
express unusual ideas are sometimes criticised in the group. This may result in poor self-con-
i cept.
Emotional problems : Students with superior abilities are subject to same type of emotional
problems. Their unusual abilities and other characteristics may lead to emotional problems.

b) Discuss your answer with your counsellor and peer group at the Study
Centre or in the Workshop.
Now you know about the characteristics of the children with superior abilities and the
problems that may arise because of tne superiority. Can you make a list of activities
which may provide opportunities for developing talent in students? List three activities
and specify your role in nurturing talent/creativity/giftedness.
S. No Activity Teacher's Role
i)
ii)
iii)
15.6 SOCIALLY DISADVANTAGED

Besides the special needs arising out of the factors working at the individual level, there are
factors which work at the level of society. These factors generate special needs amongst stu-
dents. Even though our Constitution is committed to equal educational opportunity, this oppor-
tunity is not available to all the children of school age. Measures like increasing the access of
schools to children either by opening new schools, providing residential facilities to them or
opting for open learning systems (open school, non-formal education centres) may be used for
the socially disadvantaged children. Inspite of these measures, economic poverty can still be a
constraint in the educational development of educationally backward sections of Indian soci-
ety. Factors such as social and psychological limitations, lack of motivation in parents and
children towards education, low self-concept of the parents, inadequate educational facilities
Facilitating Learning and and the low expectations by the teachers from children from backward communities are re-
Development sponsible for anxiety or personality problems among socially disadvantaged group of students.
Such students need acceptance and recongnition by their teachers, besides accessibility to edu-
cational opportunities.
15.7 EDUCATION OF GIRLS
Though the Constitution of India has provided for equalisation of opportunities across gender,
girls continue to be a disadvantaged group of the society. Society continues to discriminate
between boys and girls. The National Policy on Education, 1986,recommended that provisions
should be made for equal educational opportunities for girls with a view to removing dispari-
ties and attending to their specific needs. Let us discuss factors that contribute to a negative
attitude towards the education of girls in our society.
Women by and large are still considered incapable of competing with men, specially in
areas of leadership, initiative and boldness.
It is considered that women cannot be independent and are not capable-oftaking their own
decisions.
There are certain stigmas attached to women because of the discriminating perception of
the society. For example a widow, a spinster, an issueless woman and a working woman are
treated differently from a man with the similar characteristics.
There are many social evils such as dowry system, bride price, prostitution, child marriage,
etc., in the society which contribute to lowering the self-concept of the girls. Due to these
evils, society view women as a burden.
Based on the role expectations boys and girls are discriminated. For example, girls are
identified more with house-based functions, at times even younger girls are expected to
substitute for 'women' in the home. In the economically poor families with working women,
young girls look after households and take care of younger children. This results missing
opportunities for education.
All these factors contribute to certain biases in the society which are unfortunately reflected in
the school curriculum, textbooks and even in our behaviour with the students in classroom,
irrespective of our being a male or a female teacher.
You, as a teacher, deal with children in a classroom situation. You may like to reflect on the
areas of discrimination between boys and girls in textual materials. Have you noticed any dis-
crimination in the textual material that you are using?
The following are the three areas of discrimination in textual content.
Thematic content :You might have seen more topics dealing with men and their heroic efforts
than women. The treatment of a particular theme may even lead to providing an inferior and
stereotyped image of women.
Linguistic content : In language textbooks the elements of language are the main point and
the theme serves just as the means. Some of these expressions degenerate the status of women,
for example "do you cry like a girl". The thematic content also reflect social stigmas and taboos
attached to girls.
Teacher behaviour :Sometimes through very subtle behaviour we also contribute to the mis-
conceptions. For example, we may tell in a co-education class or boys' class that they should
not behave like girls or in a girls' class we may remark that it does not suit a girl to be a
'tomboy'. By doing so we also contribute to stereotyped behaviour of discrimination between
girls and boys.
As a teacher you may like to reflect on the following to contribute to conveying a positive
image of girls.
Highlight the capabilities of girls
Encourage them to be self-reliant and provide opportunities for preserving and fighting for
self-respect
Encourage healthy competition
*
There is nothing Ilke 'men's work' or 'women's wok' Children with Special Needs
Cm?s.atenot a burden, bridegrooms need not be bought and brides sold

rkte. Lould be fair representation of women's image and role
exemplary tips. More can be added in view of your own perceptions and commit-
ments As a teacher you need to (a) sensitize yourselves so that you do not promote discrimina-
tion, (b) be aware of educatie-:school related factors that contribute to discrimination, and (c)
to advocate the cause of girls' education so that they are not discriminated against in society.

Do you find any difference in the method of meeting the special needs of female students
vis-a-vis those of male students? How would you, as a teacher, explain these differences
and work towards creating a positive image of girls?
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*-
You have already studied about gender issues in Unit 7 of Block 2 of this course.
- - - - -
15.8 UNDERSTANDING SPECIAL NEEDS OF CHILDREN

FROM THE DEPRIVED SECTIONS OF THE
I* SOCIETY
Another group of children with special needs belongs to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled
Tribes. At times both these are grouped together. But in this unit we shall discuss their educa-
tional needs separately because the historical, political and economical reasons for their educa-
tional backwardness are different. Though the manifestation of deprivation may have some
similarities, it is important to understand the following, specific points in order to appreciate
the special educational needs of children of these two groups:
I Reasons for educational backwardness amongst Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes
Reasons for unequality in educational development as a result of social deprivation and
poverty during the pre-Independence period
Behavioural discriminatiori towards this section of students in and outside the classrooms
leading to a negative self-image, and low achievement
Role of teachers in building'a congenial social and educational environment inside and
outside school
Need for sensitisation of children, parents, and community as regards special incentive
schemes for such students to promote literacy and provide vocation.
Facilitating Learning and Though the special needs of students from scheduled castes and scheduled tribes are bang
Development discussed separately, some measures would be applicable to both the situations.
15.8.1 Students from Scheduled Castes

The Scheduled Castes represents one of the most traditionally downtrodden and socially and
educationally backward sections of Indian society. The Constitution of India has sought to
rectify this by providing for positive action for their upliftment in "The Directive Principles of
State Policy". Scheduled castes is a term given to those castes in India which were untouch-
ables, mainly because they were involved in petty, 'unclean' occupations like cleaning, sweep-
ing, scavenging, shoe making, etc. They were considered to be outcastes and were earlier re-
ferred to as Antyajas, Pariahs, Adisuras and the likes.
They are engaged in occupations which other (upper) castes abhorred. Further they were not
permitted to use public amenities, tanks, wells, rivers and were prohibited from going to temples
and the worst of all they were denied any kind of education. This led to further deterioration of
their condition as regards opportunities for social mobility by acquiring other job skills other
'
than the traditional work meant for them. This resulted in this community becoming backward
in all spheres of life.
Education in India is a state responsibility. In accordance with the social mobility of the sched-
uled castes, various welfare and developmental schemes such as free tuition, scholarships,
books, hostel facilities, etc., have been provided. Through education and related measures the
state can provide requisite facilities and opportunities for the betterment of the deprived sec-
tions of our society.
The term scheduled castes is an expression standardised in the Constitution of India which
provides a schedule for listing the castes deprived of social and economic justice and charges
. the state with an obligation to take special measures for these castes to help them get rid of their
backwardness. The concept of equality finds a place in various documents on education such as
the National Policy on Education, 1986 (revised in 1992), the Programme of Action (POA-92),
the school curricular framework for teachers, etc. With the advent of the National Policy of
Educatipn, 1986, it is envisaged that provisions will be made for equal educational opportuni-
ties to SCs, STs and other backward sections with a view to removing disparities and attending
to their specific needs.
The POA- 1992 states that the "the drop-out rate among the SC and S T students continues to be
very high at all levels of education". The POA has detailed various strategies for assessing the
rate of enrolment and retention of most sections of the society. It also states that, despite the
policy imperatives, the implementation of various schemes has not been commensurate with
the goals set out for each scheme.
The document speaks of various centrally sponsored schemes for the SCs, STs and other back-
ward sections. It proposes strategies as regards with access, enrolment, participation, and achieve-
ment in elementary education. Incentives which includes free books, scholarships, free coach- '
ing and training and the like have been recommended in the document. It also recommends the
need to raise educational standards of SCIST persons and to inculcate an understanding among
. teachers and students about the richness of their culture and their contribution to culture and
economy.
There are three identifiable stages in the spread of education of the scheduled castes:
opening of separate schools for SCs,
struggle for equality in joint schools, and
introduction of special incentives for education of the SCs.
Education plays an important role by preparing the individual for occupationslvocations and
thereby creating a self-confidence in earning ones' own living and secondly giving a better
standard of living to the disadvantaged groups.
An individual's upward mobility in society may be hindered by various factors, of which per-
sonality is one of the most important.
It has been observed that students from the upper castes are motivated by their family and Children with Special Needs
friends to do well in their studies and try to be high or at least average achievers. Scheduled
castes children, on the other hand, are made to feel that education is not for them and their
'upward mobility is not possible, even though they are bright. They are discouraged and as a
result they either drop-out of school or show poor results. Various studies support the observa-
tion that students belonging to upper castes or classes have high achievement motivation. They
are more likely to endorse items showing an activistic, future-oriented,individualistic (i.e. self-
centeredness) point of view, which facilitate achievement and also social mobility. It is also
proven that the youth from upper strata of society may not need strong personal motivation for
mobility. The students live in an environment where high aspiration is encouraged. This is not
so in the case of students from lower castes or economic strata. We need to change this percep-
tion and shoulder more responsibility towards this section of society.

i) Have you, as a teacher, ever experienced any form of discrimination against sched-
uled castes students in and outside school. If yes, describe in 25 words as to how
you dealt with such a situation.
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ii) What roles are you expected to play to ensure a congenial, non-discriminatory envi-
ronment in and outside school? List them.
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15.8.2 Students from Scheduled Tribes

Scheduled tribes in India generally live inaccessible areas in small and scattered villages or
Dhanis. As a result, providing facilities such as food, clothing, shelter and education to these
tribes is difficult.
There are various factors to be kept in mind while teaching the tribal students. Article 350 A
lays down that it shall be the endeavour of every State and of every local authority within the
State to use the mother-tongue as the medium of instruction for students at the primary educa-
tion level. Due to one or the other reason, the children belonging to scheduled tribes have not
yet been able to avail educational facilities. The following are the main factors responsible for
poor educational status among scheduled tribe children.
Textbooks should have local specific examples from their local environment and not the
examples which the children find difficult to relate to. It is the responsibility of the teacher
to transact the lessons in such a manner that there is no communication gap between the
students and the teacher. Teaching should based on the local environment so that students
are motivated in their study. They should be able to link teaching-learning activities with
their environment. Unfortunately our schools are not able to provide the type of education
trible students are interested in.
Facilitating Learning and Low enrolment ratio, sparsity (thinly scattered) of educational instiiutronh s e p ~ n ~ ~ n b a l
Development habitations, high wastage and stagnation, absence of teachers Trom tht:shoois-area few s f
the educational problems in the tribal areas. It is therefore imperative that the teacher
should become responsible for the developmental activities both educational and Social in
the tribal areas. Considerable improvement in education among ~ r ~ b a1s l gpossible if the
teachers are appointed from and located within that reglon.
The backwardness in education of the scheduled tribes is due to their apathetic and indif-
ferent attitude towards education and lack of motivation in them. There may two main
reasons for this. First, the formal education system being alien, is not adjusted to their
socio-economic and cultural needs. Secondly, tribals have prejudices and suspicions to-
wards the sincerity of non-tribals.
Studies have revealed that there is a social distance between the teachers and students in
tribal areas. They should be taught by teachers from amongst thenlselves (as in Shiksha
Karmi Scheme in Rajasthan).
Findings from studies reiterate that education of the tr~balsshould be need-based so that
students are able to see the relevance of what they are taught as. t h ~ sma) be the main
reason for tribal students are being interested in studies.
Tribal students are more interested in working in thc open environment and close to nature
and not in a classroom situation. Have you ever held classes outside the classroom. under
a tree, etc.? If yes. was there a difference or improvement In thc students' behavlour. attl-
tude and learning?
Tribal children remaln absent from the school because they are requ~redlo help thelr par-
ents In the household work and in agriculture operations T h ~ reason
s 1s correlated to In-
creased absenteeism among tribal students during the per~odswhen agr~cultureoperations
are at the peak.
These children come from poor families. They use local dialects for communication. Their
usuage and vocabulary of the standard language may be poor. It is therefore important that
teachers provide and ensure a non-discriminatory attitude and environment in class and
school. In this way teachers' behaviour would be the most powerful tool to build a conge-
nial atmosphere in the classroom.
A teacher has a major role in motivating parents and the comn~unityfor sending the~r
children to school and they should be informed from time to time about special schemes
and incentives available for them.
Since these children have come from a very different environment and most of them are first
generation learners (children whose parentslgrand-parents or elder siblings have never been to
school), they have special needs which have to be catered to. For example they might be defi-
cient in scholastic areas which would require extra compensatory tuitions or remedial educa-
tion pregrammes on a short or a long term basis.
-/ ---

i) What role do you perceive for yourself as a teacher for educaling the first genera-
tion learners of the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes'? Discuss in brief.
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ii) What type of an instructional plan would you prepare for these students so as to
I
enahle them to develop a healthy and a positive self-concept and image?
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iii) How would you teach your subject so as to enable the students in a mixed class to
have an unbiased attitude towards the underprivileged sections of society? (You
may take an example from the textbook of your class).
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You may be wondering whether all these interventions for meeting special educational needs
are applicable and possible in a normal school. The answer is yes. The policy decision is in
favour of mainstreaming policy integration. However resource support has been envisaged to
facilitate the integration for children with disabilities. Navodaya Vidyalayas are an attempt to
facilitate education of talented children from rural areas. Similarly, children from SCIST popu-
lation are provided with a number of incentives: monetary as well as in terms of opportunities
(e.g. special classes) for developing skills at par with other. Special schools are also advocated
for children with severe disabilities.
15.9 LET US SUM UP
In this unit you have studied that:
It 1s important for a teacher to understand the special needs of the child in relation to his1
her appearance, mannerism, performance, etc.
Special needs can be categorised as physical impairment, visual impairment, hearing or
speech impairment, low mental ability and learning disability. Specific remedial action
should be taken by the teacher for each of these categories.
Gifted students have a specific set of characteristics that are useful in identifying them.
Giftedness can be in the filed of intellectual capabilities, academic excellence, creativity,
talent, etc.
Teacher's intervention is essential to realise the potential of each learner. Therefore, the
leacher should take an active interest in meeting the demands of every personality type.
The teacher should be alert to the special educational needs of the socially disadvantaged
groups: education of girls and other sensitive sections of the society. The textual content
must be clear about thematic content and linguistic content.
Teacher's behaviour with the students should be free of bias and the interaction amongst
the students should be normal.
Facilitating Learning and In this unit, you have been provided with information and opportunities for consolidating your
Development experience on the following aspects of teaching:
It is important to understand the learning process in the context of characteristics of learn-
ers.
Special educational needs reflect the special requirements of a learner calling for specific
adjustment in regular education programmes.
The spacial needs can arise from physiological, inteliectual, social and economical rea-
sons.
The learner should be given importance as an 'individual' rather than as a disabled, a girl
or a scheduled caste or tribe learner.
Educational adjustment can be in terms of curriculum related decisions, classroom man-
agement, special teaching aids, etc.
Most important is the teacher's sensitiveness and attitude. The training in addition to these
characteristics can facilitate learning of children with special needs.

1. Take a case of a student with special needs as observed by you. Describe the methods you
could adopt to meet the special social, psychological and educational needs of this special
child.
2. Critically discuss the existing educational programmes for students with special needs.
3. Discuss your role as a teacher to bring the special child psychologically at level with a
normal child.

Blankenship, C. (1981) : Mainstreaming Students with Learning and Behaviour Problems,
New York : Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Jangira, N.K. and Mukhopadhyay, S. (1987) : Planning and Management of IED Programme :
A Handbook, NCERT: New Delhi.
Kirk, S.A. and Gallagher, J.J. (1979) : Educating Exceptional Children, Haughton Mifflin
Company Boston.
, Pollway, E. A. et. al. (1985) : Strategies for Teaching Retarded and Special Needs Learner.
Toronto : Charles E. Merrill Publishing Company. House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1987.
Sharma, P. L. (1988) : A Teacher S Handbook on IED :Helping Children with Special Needs,
NCERT: New Delhi. /
1. There cannot be a standard answer. However, you are moving in the right direction if you
are able to think of adjustments and adaptations in the Curriculum Materials, your own
teaching style, your attitude, sitting arrangements, etc. to facilitate the learning of children
with special needs. At the very beginning point is your sensit~venessto such needs. You
will discover it to be 'continuous learning experience' as teacher of children with special
needs.
2. This answer is also going to be quite varied, you are progressing well if your answer is on
the foll~winglines.
S.No. Activity Teacher's Role
i) Organising independent Facilitator for indentifying the topic

study projects locating resources to carry out the study
determining the end products of the study.
evaluating achievements
As Facilitator :
ii) . Literature : "Think of Possible Reading the story to a critical point and
Endings to this story". then providing it as an exercise to be done
individually or in groups:
(You can think of subject specific as well as general activities like brain - storming session on
cument issues. word games, puzzles, quizs, etc.)
3. The following arethe differences between male and female students:

Females are still considered incapable of competing with males specially in the ar-
eas of leadership, initiative and boldness.
Famales cannot be independent and are not capable of taking their own decisions.
Females are identified more with house-based functions.
As a teacher you may treat female and male students equally in classroom situations. This
reflects the positive attitude towards girls.
Encourage them to be self-reliant and provide opportunities for pressuring and fight- '
ing for self-respect.

There should be fair representation of women's image and role.
4. First part is a matter of individual experience.

Role of teacher :
lncreasing confidence : Highlight capabilities, give more opportunities for partici-
pation.
Increasing motivation : Expressing expectations, being sensitive to attendance, per-
formance and paying individual attention.
Facilitating development : Providing enough opportunities but not as 'Sympathy' or
'Pity'.
s-
Beware of providing negative signals - 'The poor child', 'Let's help because he
comes from not so good background'.
(You can think more on these lines.)
5. i) Having a close link with parents to ensure regular attendance. Increasing awareness
of available facilities and schemes and encouraging 'education' for its own sake
rather than immediate material ends.
Watching out for deficit areas in knowledge and skills which can later on have cumu-
lative effect on achievement e.g. vocabulary, confidence, etc.
ii) May be group activities facilitating development ofindividual capabilities can help
develop self-concept and positive image.
iii) Being cautious about using 'right' and 'unbiased' language and adopting posi-
tive attitude.
Supplementjng text material with additional information to provide the back-
ground of issues e.g. 'Right to Education' and incentives by way of scholarships
or 'reservations'.
UNIT 16 GUIDING STUDENTS
Structure
Introduction
Objectives
Guidancc : The Concept
16.3.1 Mean~ngof Guidance
16.3.2 Basic Assumpt~onsof Guidance
16.3.3 Relation between Guidance and Education
Domains of Guidance
16.4.1 Educational Guidance
16.4.2 Vocational Guidance
16.4.3 Personal Guidance
16.4.4 Procedure for Educational and Vocational Guldance
Counselling : The Concept
Types of Counselling
16.6.1 Directive Counselling
16.6.2 Non-directive Counselling
16.6.3 ' Eclectic Counselling
Differences between Guidance. Counselling and Psychotherapy
Guiding Students
16.8.1 Guiding Backward Students
16.8.2 Guiding Gifted Students
16.8.3 Guiding Creative Students
Organisation of School Guidance Services
16:g.I Types of Guidance Services .
16.9.2 Role of Teacher in Guidance Programme
Let Us Sum Up
Uhit-end Exercises
Suggested Readings
16.1 INTRODUCTION
You have studied in the foregoing units (Units 13, 14 and 15) of this Block that many c r ~ t ~ c a l
situations occur in a student's life in which important and far reaching decisions must be taken
through Informal advice. Too often informal advice, without a clear understanding of the prob-
lem ~nvolved,is likely to be not only ineffective but harmful and m~sleading.During the past
decade the term guidance has become increasingly popular in school. Perhaps no othcr aspect
of education has acquired so much importance and has been a matter of such concern to educa-
tionists, reachers and administrators as that of guidance and counselling of studenls. The need
for guidance and counselling has always been present for several reasons such as social and
economic changes, changing conditions of home, increasing numbcr of aspirants for all sectors
of education. expansion and diversification of courses of study. mismatch between curr~cula
and individual's characteristics, poor study habits, lack of interest in specific subject areas,
change in the focus of the disciplines of psychology and educat~dn,and chang~ngeducational
objectives. . .
Not only educational problems but also the constantly growing co~r~plexity of' induslry and
business with more and more different kinds of occupations. the necd 1.01.assistance in choosing
suitable occupations increase year after year. Students have major problems in choosing and
preparing for vocation. Many students suffer from an uncertainty about their future plan and
vocational interest. They feeLthat there is too much of a gap between their abilily and voca-
tional aspiration. Uncertainties in career and higher academic purs~iitshave clearly demon-
strated the need for guidance services in schools.
Personal woblerns of the children cannot be ignored in schools. Students with hostility, fear.
I
II
'lem and to control their emotions. Such personal problems generally involve emotions and are Guiding Students
I
hence difficult to deal with. Solving such problems mostly require an application of psycho-
therapy approaches which can ~ n l ybe handled by psychologists and psychiatrists. This does
not mean that teachers do not have any role in personal guidance programme. They have to
identify such students who have such emotional prnblems and show empathy to them. Thcy can
also counsel them.
It 1s clear that all the conditions of modern life point out unm~stakablyto the increasing neces-
sity for organised gu~danceservices particularly for youth. What is needed is professional help
to enable a student to help himself. Such help can be provided through guidance and counsel-
ling services. In this unit we discuss the concept guidance and counselling, domain of guidance,
process of guidup students and the organisation of guidance services in your school.
16.2 OBJECTIVES
After going through this unit, you should be able to :

define the concept of guidance,
explain the relationship betwccn guidance and education,
describe different types of guidance services,
4
i
I state different types and procedures of counselling,
I describe the method of providing guidance to under-achievers, gifted and talented chil-
l dren. and
I
discuss the role of teacher in educational guidance.
16.3 GUIDANCE :THE CONCEPT
Generally we use the term guidance in a sense of helping someone in solving problems related
to different aspects of one's life. Let us elaborate on the concept of guidance in the school
setting.
16.3.1 Meaning of Guidance

Guidancc can better be understood by contrasting it with what is not guidance. According to
Crow and Crow, "Guidance is not giving direction, it is not the imposition of one person's point
of view upon another person. It is not making decisions for an individual which he should make
for himself. It is not carrying thc burden of another's life". What, then is guidance? In this
definition Crow and Crow observe that guidance is an assistance made available by a qualified
and adequately trained person to another person to help him manage his own activities, develop
his own point of view, and make his own decisions. It IS clear from the above definition that
guidance cannot be given by everyone and anyone; the person should be a qualified practitio-
ner. Whcncvcr a person is aided dir5ctly or indirectly by a qualified person in knowledge.
emotional fitness, mental acuity, social and civic adjustments, guidance increases individual's
ability to think and act independently or follow his own initiatives.
I There are many expressions used to mean guidance. These expressions are to lead, to steer or to
direct. But in all these terms we find compulsion, indoctrination and direction. In general, to
guide implies help that is more of personal nature than either to steer, to direct, to regulate, or to
conduct. The focus of guidance is on the individual and not on the problem. Its purpose is to
promote the growth of an individual for self-direction. This help may be given to a person as an
individual or in a group.
A clearer picture of guidance emerges from the definition of Emery Stoops: 'guidance is a
continuous process of helping the individual develop to the maximum of his capacity in the
4 direction most beneficial to himself and to soc~ety".An analysis of this definition indicates that
1 the concept of guidance includes several significant characteristics. Some important character-
iIl istics arc listcd as follows :
Development
It is given by technically and professionally trained persons

Guidance leads to discovery of needs, assets, plans of action and adjustment of emotional
blocking
Guidance focuses attention on individuals, and
It is an assistance rather than direction, imposition or compulsion.
Nature and types of guidance : The nature of guidance can be understood clearly by the
functions it performs in the adjustment of an individual with relation to h ~ environment.
s There
are many problem areas where students require assistance. As a matter of fact the types of
guidance are as varied as the problems confronting students. It is, of course. difficult to make
any hard and fast rules for classification of the problems students are confronted with. They are
often inter-related and over-lapping. However, researchers have identified several areas where
students need your assistance. These areas can be classified as educational, vocational, per-
sonal, social, health, religious, home and family. These areas can be used to designate different
types of guidance. The ways in which the guidance practitioners help students are :
Professionals help students seek the information needed to make decisions and choose the
best alternative out of various choices.
They assist them to secure adequate information and develop techniques that wlll enable
them to develop desirable information as and when they need 11.
They assist them to develop desirable attitude, interest and ideals.
They provide tryout and exploratory experiences.
They assist in choosing an appropriate vocation.
They assist students in attaining emotional stability.
They assist them in becoming progressively responsible for their own development.
They help students in developing leadership qualities.
They assist students in making effective use of their study time.
They encourage students to follow a balanced programme of physical activities.
16.3.2 Basic Assumptions of Guidance

Guidance and counselling programmes in community and other institutional settings represent
a wide range of approaches for delivering services. The development and implementation of
guidance services is based on certain underlying assumptions and basic principles. Arthur J.
Jones discussed seven basic assumptions which are given below:
Variations within the individuals are significant.
Abilities already existing in individuals are not usually specialised.
Race, colour and sex have little or no relation to aptitude and abilities.
Many crises cannot be successfully met by students without assistance
The school is in a strategic position to give the assistance needed. I
Guidance is not prescriptive but aims at progressive ability for self guidance.
16.3.3 Relation between Guidance and Education

Some educationists regard education and guidance as separate processes. How is guidance
related to education? Let us discuss this relationship.
To understand the relationship between guidance and education let us analyse the meaning of
education as conceived by the various writers. If we look into the various definitions of educa-
tion, we can group them into three broad categories.
a. Education has been defined as a process that goes on in the individual, consisting of
change that take place within him. -I
Education has been defined as teaching or instruction.

In its broader concept education is a conscious effort of society to guide and direct the
growth of its immature members.
16.4 DOMAINS OF GUIDANCE
There are three major types or domains of guidance. They are educational, vocational, and
personal. Let us discuss each domain.
16.4.1 Educational Guidance

Educational guidance is concerned with the assistance given to students in their choice and
adjustment with relation to school, curriculum, courses and school life. Emphasis is given to
assistance to students to perform satisfactorily in their academic work and optimally utilise
institutional resources.
16.4.2 Vocational Guidance

Vocational guidance as defined by George Myers is a process of assisting the individual to
choose an occupation, prepare them for it, enter upon and progress in it. It is not concerned
with doing things for the individual but with helping the individual to do certain things for
himself. If is a process rather than merely a body of methods by which the process is carried
on.
16.4.3 Personal Guidance

Personal guidance is an assistance given to students to solve their emotional problem and to
help them cpntrol their emotions and feelings. Several emotional problems have been identi-
fied during adolescence. Hostility, frustration, anxiety, fear, jealousy, fear of favouritism, etc.,
are common emotional problems which have their origin inside or outside school. The aim of
personal guidance is to help students in such a way so that they do not involve themselves in
anti-social activities. They should be given help to overcome prejudices and negative
attitudes.
Personal problems are mostly emotional in nature and hence are difficult to handle. Guiding
students to solve personal problems require the special type of techniques and training. Trained
counsellors or clinical psychologists can handle personal problems. But this does not mean
that teachers have no role to play in solving emotional problems of their students. They have to
identify students who have personal problems and show empathy to them. We shall discuss the
role of teachers irl guidance programme in Sub-section 16.9.2.
16.4.4 Procedure for Educational and Vocational Guidance

The following procedures are generally adopted for educational and vocational guidance
a In providing educational and vocational guidance several orientation talks are organised
for choosing a right type of education and vocation. .
Students are encouraged to participate in groups in academic, vocational and recreational
activities in order to know their interest, ability and aptitude.
Psychological tests are administered in order to know their personality and abilities.
In order to provide educational and vocational guidance school examination results are
also taken into consideration.
Teacher's assessment about individual's ability and other characteristics are also consid-
ered.
Parents' opinion about their wards are also taken into consideration.
51
Facilitating Learning and Occupational-oriented talk and visits are also one of the steps for educational and voca-
Development
tional guidance.
Interviews are alsoconducted in order to know the educational and vocational plans of the
individual.
: Explain, with examples, the impact of guidance and counselling on the education of a
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16.5 COUNSELLING :THE CONCEPT
It has been discussed in Section 16.3 that there are many problems which cannot be solved by
an individual alone. Individuals need help of a trained person for solving their emotional prob-
lems. Such help in school is provided by the counsellor. Counselling has been defined in
different ways by different people. It implies a personal relationship between two individuals
in which one gives certain kind of help to the other. Counselling is. thus, the activity where all
the facts are gathered together and the experiences of the student are focused upon the particu-
lar problem to be solved by him, where he is given direct and personal help in solving his
problems. Counselling is aimed at the progressive development of the individual to solve
problems. Carl Rogers is of the view that counselling is definitely a structured. permissive and
dynamic relationship which allows the student to gain an understanding of himself to a certain
degree which enables him to take positive step in the light of his new orientation. The help
must be given in such a way so that it encourages the growth in the individual for self direc-
tion.
16.6 TYPES OF COUNSELLING
There are three widely known view points that are influential in the practice of counselling.
They are directive counselling, n6n-directive counselling and eclective counselling. Let us
discuss these three types of counselling.
16.6.1 Directive Counselling

This counselling is also known as prescriptive, informative or counsellor-centred counselling,
E.G. williamson is the chief exponent of this type of counselling. In the directive counselling,
it is the counsellor who plays the major role in the process. He gives advice to the student. He
is the leader of the situation. He does most of the talking. The problem and not the individual
is the focus. The function of the student who is being counselled is to cooperate with the
counsellor in the whole process. He works under the counsellor and not with him. In this
approach the counsellor is supposed to be an authoritative person or 6ne who passes judge-
ment over the student's behaviour. Directive counselling gives more importance to the intel-
lectual rather than to the emotional aspect of the individual's personality. The directive nature
of counselling lies in the fact that the counsellor employs varying degrees of directions in Guiding Students
helping the students arrive at sound decisions through the conscious use of intellectual e-
sourees. The following are the six steps of directive counselling as described by Williamson.
Analysis of the problem
Synthesis of the problem
Diagnosis of the problem
Discovering the causes of the problem
Prognosis or predicting future development of the student's problem
Counselling or prescribing remedial measures
Follow up
16.6.2 Non-directive Counselling

This type of counselling is also known as client-centred counselling. Carl Rogers has been the
chief exponent of this type of counselling. The steps in this counselling process, according to
Rogers, are as follows:
The individual comes for help
The helping situation is usually defined
The counsellor eniourages the individual for free expression of his feelings
The counsellor accepts and clarifies negative feelings
Negative feelings or impulses are followed by faint and tentative expressions of the posi-
tive impulses
Counsellor accepts and recognises positive feelings of the individual
This provides a basis on which the individual can go ahead to the new level of integration
Counsellor clarifies possible decision or course of action
Counselling develops further insight, a more complete and accurate understanding of the
problem
This facilitates integrated positive action
This develops a feeling of increased independence.
These processes are not necessarily in serial order and mutually exclusive.
16.6.3 Eclectic Counselling

The main exponent of the eclectic approach in counselling is F.C. Throne. He is of the view
that counsellors should not limit themselves to one method but should attempt to vary their
approaches in keeping the needs of the individual students in vlew. Throne stresses the impor-
tance of counsellor relationship. He further emphasises that it is possible for a counsellor to
alternate between directive (problem-centered) and non-directive (client-centered) methods
even in the same interview without disrupting the student. The eclectic counsellors select their
counselling procedures according to their predicted effect on the student rather than on the
basis of theoretical allegiances.
16.7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GUIDANCE,

COUNSELLING AND PSYCHOTHERAPY
There is a lot of confusion in understanding the concept of guidance, counselling and psycho-
therapy because these expressions are often used synonymously. To avoid semantic confusion
it would be better tr, understand clearly the uses of these expressions.
Guidance is a relat~velybroader term than counselling. Counselling is supposed to be one of

the services under the broad scheme of the guidance programme.
Facilitating Learning and These terms can clearly be understood by an example of a continuum scale on which the first
Development point of a continuum scale of the problem is an indicative of the need for guidance. The second
point of the scale is an indicative of the need for counselling. The third point of the scale is an
indicative of the need for psychotherapy.
a 111 Need for Psychotherapy

Psychotherapy is
needed to help
regain the balance
between self and the
environment.
, I1 Need for Counselling
Counselling is needed
to overcome emotional
tension leading to
maladjustment.
I Need for Guidance
Problems can be
solved by
providing
information.
The first point of the continuum scale indicates that an individual has a minor problem which
can be solved simply by providing information. The second point on the continuum scale
indicates that an individual has a problem, may be charged with emotion. He may be unable to
adjust with environment because of emotional tension. In such a case he needs counselling in
order to overcome emotional tension. The third point on the scale is an indicative of the need
for psychotherapy. Psychotherapy is needed when an individual has lost an integration be-
tween id, ego and superego. There is no control over ego and superego. Techniques of guid-
ance and counselling fail to make an adjustment between the individual's self and environ-
ment. Psychotherapy is the treatment of a problem characterised by an extreme form of emo-
tional nature where the intellectual powers of the individual fail to work.
The techniques used in these three fields are different. In psychotherapy the treatment used is
quite often physical, that is, it is either through the administration of drugs, electro-convulsive
therapy or psychosurgery. On the other hand, in counselling, psychological techniques are
adopted to help the client gain insight and confidence. A further distinction is made in terms of
the nature of the problems. Reality-oriented educational and vocational problems have been
ons side red as the province of guidance and counselling. Personality problems of the indi-
vidual are the province of psychotherapy.In short a guidance practitiqner works with a normal
individual, counsellor works with the normal but emotionally charged (normal anxiety), and
psychotherapists with patients who have neurotic anxieties.
- - - -
16.8 GUIDING STUDENTS

One of thie most important responsibilities of the teacher is to createlprovide conducive envi-
ronment in the school for optimal learning. It is agreed that education should reach to all ,
children irrespective of their caste, creed, and religion. Everybody should get an opportunit)
to develop his potentialities and maximise learning. By and large in India this does not happen.
A large number of children do not get an opportunity to develop their potential for optimal
learning. If we don't make special provision for their learning, their potential will remain
underdeveloped. These exceptional learners require special attention from teachers. They do
not profit much from learning in average group situations.
You have! already studied about the students with special needs in Unit 15. Such students need
special attention of the teacher.
In order to provide guidance to special learners it is important to identify them systematically

based on teachers'observation, academic records, creative activities and performance in men-
54
tal ability tests. The following strategies are suggested for providing guidance to those stu- Guiding Students
dents who have learning difficulties.
Administer specially designed diagnostic test.
Tdentify the student for guidance purposes.
Analyse the causes of learning difficulties.
Plan cooperatively the approaches for removing the difficulties.
Implement the approaches.
Evaluate the approaches.
16.8.1 Guiding Backward Students

After identifying the backward children, you should first decide one of the three possible ways
for the -d,.sation of backward children:
Whether they should be given education in a regular class, or
They should be taught in a separate class within the same school, or
They should be provided education in a separate school.
The following principles of learning must be kept in mind while teaching the backward chil-
dren in classroom;
BaL,kwardchildren should be taught in simple steps so that they can achieve mastery in
the17 learning at their own pace.
They should receive immediate reinforcement for their success.
They should receive a variety of stimulation.
They should be provided with immediate knowledge of results.
They should be given the opportunity to practise knowledge and skills.
16.8.2 Guiding Gifted Students

The following steps may be follbwed while guiding the gifted children:
Identify the gifted children on the basis of observation of their characteristics, interaction
styles, quality of assignment and participation project work.
Administer intelligence test.
Select the most appropriate approach for catering the gifted children. Thes'e approaches
are :
- Segregation of gifted children and arranging classes exclusively for them.
- Acceleration through which the gifted children may be allowed to complete the pre-
scribed course of study in a shorter period.
Enrichment programme through prescribing enriched content and suggesting additional
books and journals for their study.
16.8.3 Guiding Creative Students

The teacher in the class and outside the class may encourage the spirit of enquiry in the stu-
dent. Full freedom should be provided for coming out with new ideas. Psychological freedom
and psychological safety are essential for creative expression. The technique of brainstorming
or creative problem solving can be conveniently used in small groups of students. They should
be given full freedom for the development of their imagination. You may use special
programmes designed to facilitate their thinking. They should be encouraged to think on the
courses and consequences of an action. They should also be encouraged to think different
approaches and alternatives.
Development 16.9 ORGANISATION OF SCHOOL GUIDANCE SERVICES
You have studied in Section 16.8 that students face a lot of problems both in schools and at
home. Thase problems cannot be solved effectively by untrained and unqualified persons.
Schools are in a strategic position where appropriate guidance can be given in an organised
and systematic manner. Therefore, it is essential to organise guidance services in schools to
assist students in their adjustment with the environment. How should guidance services be
organised?There are certain fundamental components of organisation of guidance programmes
Let us discuss important components underlying organisation of guidance services in schools
The purpose to be achieved
The functions to be served
The allocation of responsibilities
Methods of evaluation of the programme
After indentifying these four components of guidance certain fundamental questions must be
asked. If the answers of those questions are in "Yes", the guidance services should be organised.
The following are some of the questions which must be addressed before deciding whether or
not guidance programmes should be initiated. These are known as pre-organisational consid-
erations. At this stage we have to find suitable answers to the following questions.
i) Are qualified persons available for guidance services?
ii) Are staff members ready to cooperate?
iii) Will additional staff be available?
iv) Are Principal and staff willing to devote required time?
v) Is Principal interested in this programme?
vi) Is there an appropriate space available?
vii) Are the parents interested in the guidance programme?
viii) Is there any budgetary provision for the guidance programme?
ix) Is cooperation of other community/agencies available?
Once answers to these and many other such questions are obtained, a guidance committee can
be formulated.
The guidance committee in an average secondary or higher secondary school can have the
following members:
Principal : He will be the Director of the guidance committee.

Tkaiaed counsellor :He will be the Secretary of the committee.
Members : All the class teachers of the different classes will be the members. Chief-
warden, Sports Officer, Guardian's representatives, community representative can also be
members of the committee. The committee will offer help students adjust in school and
society.
16.9.1 Wpes of Guidance Services

A comprehensive programme of educational, vocational and personal guidance services in the
secondary school will be concerned with eight types of different services. If we want the
programme to be effective, provision should be made not only for all of these services but also
each service be performed in an efficient manner.
Let us discuss each type of guidance services in brief.
i) Infbrmation services : This service is concerned with aiding the individual to obtain
needed information concerning education and occupation. For example information
-
needed to choose a career for engineering.
ii) Self-inventory services : This type of service is concerned with aiding the individuals Guiding Students
to obtain equally needed information pertaining to their ability, aptitude, limitation and
personality characteristics, their personal assets and liabilities. For example selecting a
line of occupation which is very special like the Fine Arts or the Defence Services.
iii) Personal data collecting services : The purpose of this service is to provide the basis
for the effective counselling.
i v) Counselling services : This service is concerned with helping the individuals to weigh
and evaluate personal assets and liabilities in relation to the opportunity and require-
ments of education and occupations that interest them, and to make plans that are based
on resulting decisions.
Preparatory services : This service is based on the assumption that choice of courses
and occupations have been reached, at least tentatively. The problem now confronting
the individual is that of making such preparation as is desirable, either before or after
actually entering upon the education and occupation chosen. Success in educational and
occupational life depends upon the preparatory service performed.
Placement services : The function of this service is to aid the individuals to make such
preparation as seems practicable to get a good start by entering that education and
vocation advantageously. Assistance is needed in finding out a suitable place to start
work at a wisely chosen education and occupation. These days there are good placement
r services for professionals courses.
vii) Follow-up services :This service is concerned with aiding the individuals to make nec-
essary or desirable readjustment after entering in their education and occupation.
viii) Research services : This service is essential to the success of comprehensive educa-
tional and vocational guidance. This service is concerned with checking upon the effec-
tiveness of the other services and wlth discovering their strong and weak points with a
view to strengthening the programme.
i) Enumerate three types of guidance services and three procedures of counselling.

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ii) What are the types of guidances? Which procedures are adopted for vocational
and educational guidance and for counselling also?
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Facilitating Learning and 16.9.2 Role of Teacher in Guidance Programme
Development
The teacher occupies the pivotal position in the school guidance programme. It is the teacher
who observes students in the classroom, in the library and in the sports field. Thus, the teacher's
part in guidance programme is inevitable. No guidance programme can be effective without
the participation or cooperation of teachers in it. The teacher functions as a link with students,
parents and guidance workers. He can successfully coordinate the efforts of other agencies and
raise guidance to a scientific level. Given below are some of the important roles of a teacher in
a guidance programme at the secondary and higher secondary levels.
Identifying the problem children in classroom and outside the classroom
Diagnosing the weaknesses ir. different subjects through observation, personal contact
and diagnostic testing
Disseminating educational and vocational information in the classroom from time to time
Helping students in the development of their personality
Helping students with suitable remedial programmes
Maintaining and helping the guidance worker to keep cumulative record of every student,
and
Referring students who need special assistance to the professional counsellor.
What is your role as a teacher in providing guidance?
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16.10 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have discussed the meaning and nature of guidance, basic assumptions of guid-
ance, relationship between guidance and education and various types of guidance that is educa-
tional, vocational and personal guidance. Procedures of educational and vocational guidance
have also been discussed.
The concept and types of counselling have also been discussed. Alongwith this the difference
between guidance, counselling and psychotherapy is also explained. You have also studied the
guidance needs of the various types of students namely gifted, backward and creative. How
learning of these children can be improved, has also been discussed. In order to provide proper
guidance the organisation of guidance services have also been discussed. You have also studied
the role of teacher in the guidance programme at the secondarylhigher secondary level..
Guiding Students
1. Present three specific instances known to you when guidance, counselling or psychotherapy
have been provided to students.
2. Prepare an orientation talk schedule choosing an appropriate curriculum and vocation.
3. Identify one gifted and one backward child and suggest ways and means of effective learn-
ing for each of them.
4. Select a problem related to each of the three respective categories of guidance : educa-
tional, vocational and personal and show specifically the extent to which a problem in one
area crosses over into the other two areas.

Aggarwal, J.C. (1995) : Essentials of Educational Psychology, Vikas Publishing House Pvt.
Ltd., New Delhi.
Bengale, M.D. (1984) : Guidance and Counselling, Sheth Publishers, Bombay.
Kakkar, S.B. (1989) : Educational Psychology and Guidance, The Indian Publications, Hill
Road, Ambala Cantt.
Pasricha, P. (1977) : Guidance and Counselling in India, NCERT, New Delhi.
Rao, S.N. (1981) : Counselling Psychology, Tata-McGraw Hills, New Delhi.
-

1. A qualified and adequately trained person can assist the learner in:
managing day-to-day activities
developing a personal point of view
taking the responsibility of decision making.
The above activities increase in individuals self-esteem and self-confidence besides moti-
vating the person to take initiatives.
The three types of guidance services are :

Information services
Self-inventory services
Personal data collecting services
placement services
Procedures adopted for educational and vocational guidance.
orientation talks
group activities
psychological tests for insights into personality abilities
school examination results
assessment of other characteristics
) parent's view
occupational orientational talk
interviews for vocational plans
reports on educational and vocational guidance.
Facilitating Learning and Procedures for counselling
Development
- Directive - problem - centered - analysis of the problem
Synthesis of the problem
Diagnosis of the problem
Prognosis
Counselling
Follow up
- Non-directive counselling - client centered

Helping situation to be defined
Encouraging for free expression of feeling
Accepting and clarifying negative feelings
Accepting and clarifying positive feelings
Clarification of possible decisions
Development of insight for more accurate understanding
A feeling of increased independence
3. The role of a teacher in providing guidance:

identifying problem children inside and outside the classroom
diagnosing weak points in study areas by observing, diagnostic testing and personal
contact
disseminating educational and vocational information for the benefit of students
developing growth of independent personality
providing suitable remedial programmes
maintaining cumulative record of each student, and
referring the'students for special assistance.

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Psychology of Learning & Development

Block-1 Understanding the Development of the Learner [4]

Unit-2 Physical, Socio-Emotional and Moral Development

Unit-3 Cognitive and Language Development

Unit-4 Factors Influencing Development of Personality

Block-2 Understanding the Learner as a Unique Individual [4]

Unit 6 Individual Differences :Affective Domain

Unit 7 Gender Issues

Unit 8 Factors Producing Individual Differences

Block-3 Understanding the Learning Process [4]

Unit-10 Approaches to Learning

Unit-11 Domains of Learning

Unit-12 Factors Influencing Learning

Block-4 Facilitating Learning and Development [4]

Unit-14 Social Adjustment

Unit-15 Children with Special Needs

Unit-16 Guiding Students

1.3 HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

1.3.1 The Concept

1.3.2 Need and Importance of Studying Principles of Growth and

1.4 STAGES OF DEVELOPRJENT

Table 1.0 : Stages of Development

Age groups Stage of development Schooling stage

Each stage of dcvelopment is characterised by a set of unique, cohcrcnt and distinguishing

Check Your Progress 2

1.4.3 Later Childhood

Pttysical development :The physical changcs an adolescent undergoes are as follows :

Check Your Progress 3

1.4.5 Young Adulthood

1.4.6 Mature Adulthood

1.4.7 Aged Adulthood

1.5 PRINCIPLES OF DEVELOPMENT

1.5.3 Generality to Specificity

1.6 ROLE OF THE TEACHER IN FACLLITATING

1.7 LET US SUM UP

1.8 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

2.3.1 Upper Primary School Children

2.3.2 Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students r

Check Your Progress 1

2.4.1 Upper Primary School Children

2.4.2 Secondary and Senior Secondary School Students

Check Your Progress 2

2.5 MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Piaget's v i e w s ~ nmoral development

Kohlberg's stages of moral growth

2.6 ROLE OF TEACHER IN FACILITATING

Educational implications of physical development : It should. by now, be obvious that the

Check Your Progress 4

Educational implications of n~oraldevelopment : Schools should havc an activity-oricnted

Check Your Progress 6

2.7 LET US SUM UP

1. Select any Len adolescents studying at secondary/senior secondary schools. Interview

2.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Thornburgy D. Hcrshcl (1984) : Introduction of Educational Psychology, West Publishing

2.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

3.3 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT :THE CONCEPT

3.4 PIAGET'S CONCEPT OF COGNITIVE

3.4.1 Underlying Mental Process

Check Your Progress 1

3.4.2 Stages of Cognitive Development and Accomplishmer~ts

Stage-age Type of thinking Major accomplishments

3.4.3 Methodology of Studying Cognitive Development

Criteria for assessment