En 202 Lectures

EN 202 Electronics
Welcome
EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

My Introduction
Prof. Rajesh Gupta
Dept. of Energy Science and Engineering
Office: Room No. 3. Near to Energy Sci and Engg. Office
Phone: 7837
Email: rajeshgupta@iitb.ac.in

Your Introduction
 Name
 Place
 Background of electronics and electrical
 What you expect from this course

Objective of course
To give you a basic background of electronics

engineering, which is required for
 Troubleshooting, understanding and making of
electrical/electronics circuits/instruments
 Understanding of basic terminology of electronics
 For laboratory experiments
 Minimum electronics knowledge which help in understanding

system in which electronics is one of the component

Digital Electronics

References
 A.P. Malvino and D.P. Leach, Digital Principles and
Applications, Tata McGraw Hill Edition
 W.H. Gothmann, Digital Electronics – An Introduction

to Theory and Pratice, Prentice Hall of India Private
Limited.
 A. P. Malvino, J. A. Brown, Electronics : An

Introduction to Microcomputers, Tata Mcgraw Hill.

Logic Gates

NOT Gate OR Inverter
Logic - Opposite of input

AND Gate
Logic – output is 0 if there is any input 0

OR Gate

NAND Gate
Universal Gate

NOR Gate
Universal Gate

XOR Gate
Logic – output is 1 if there are odd number of 1’s in input

IC’s of logic gates

Problem
 Construct NOT, OR and AND function
by NAND Gate

Problem
 Construct NOT, OR and AND function
by NOR Gate

Problem
Propose an application based on digital
circuit

Acceptable input & output voltage
TTL – Transistor-Transistor Logic

Binary number system
 Why binary number system is required in digital electronics ?
 Only two states are possible
 Decimal Odometer
 000, 001, 002, 003…009, 010, 011..099, 100, 101
 Binary Odometer
 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111
 Bit = X
 Nibble= XXXX
 Byte = XXXX XXXX
MSB LSB

Weight of digits
 Weigh of digit in decimal system
 Weight of digit in binary

Problems
 A number 7 is required to electrically transmit
from one town to another town. What are
possible ways ?
 Convert 10101 to decimal
 Convert 55 to binary
 Successive division

Binary addition
Examples

Binary subtraction
0-0=0
1-0=1
1-1=0
10-1=1
Examples
407 100 (4) 1101 (13) 11001000
-328 -001 (1) -1010 (10) -01001011
------ --------- -------------- --------------
079 011 (3) 0011 (3) 01111101

Binary Adder

Half Adder

Full Adder
A B C
A CARRY
B FA
CARRY C SUM
SUM

Boolean Arithmetic
- Based on logic gate

OR and AND operation
Y= A+B Y= A.B
NOT, NAND and NOR
 NOT
 Y= 
 NAND
 Y = AB
 NOR
 Y =AB
 XOR
 Y = ??

Basics of boolean algebra

Boolean rules for simplification
 A+AB=A
 A  AB  A  B
Truth table’s should match

Contd.
 A+BC=(A+B) (A+C)

Circuit simplification example
Realize with less number of gates

DeMorgan's Theorems

Problem
 Solve
 Ans AB

Problems
AB  A  AB  0
AB  AC  A BC(AB  C)  1

Converting truth tables into Boolean
expressions
Sum of product approach
Ans AB+BC+CA
Contd.
Product-Of-Sums approach

Logic simplification with Karnaugh maps

Contd.

Contd.

Larger 4-variable Karnaugh maps

Contd.

Contd.

Contd.

Sigma Notation

Pi-Notation

Don't Care cells in the Karnaugh map

Problem
f= Σ m (0,1,3,4,5,7,10,13)
f= Σ m (1,2,3,5,6,7,8,12,13)
f= Σ m
(0,2,6,10,11,12,13)+d(3,4,5,14,15)

FLIP-FLOP

Sequential logic
Sequential logic, unlike combinational logic is

not only affected by the present inputs, but
also, by the prior history

R-S Flip-flop or R-S latch

Gated S-R latch

D Flip-flop OR D latch

D Flip-Flop Response

Edge-triggered Response

Edge trigger realization

Edge triggered RS flip-flop

J-K flip-flop

Preset and Clear in flip-flop

Counters

Asynchronous counters

Contd.

Up and Down counter

Propagation delay in asynchronous counter

Synchronous counters

Contd.

Application of counter

Problem
Application of counters ?

Shift Register

Application
 Shift registers produce a discrete delay of a
digital signal or waveform
 Very long shift registers served as digital

memory

Shift Register Types
 Serial-in/serial-out
 Serial-in/parallel-out
 Parallel-in/serial-out
 Parallel-in/parallel-out
 Ring counter

Serial-in/serial-out

Parallel-in/serial-out

Serial-in/parallel-out

Parallel-in/Parallel-out

Ring counter

Serial-in, Serial-out shift register

Parallel-in serial out

Serial-in/parallel out

Problem
 Parallel-in parallel-out circuit ?

Ring counter

Digital Storage

Why digital ?
 The basic goal of digital memory is to provide a
means to store binary data: sequences of 1's and 0's
 The most evident advantage of digital data storage is

the resistance to corruption
 Magnetization method of storage
 Digital data storage also complements digital

computation technology

Random access and sequential access
 Random access means that you can quickly and
precisely address a specific data location within the
device, and non-random (sequential) simply means
that you cannot
 Examples
 A vinyl record platter is an example of a
random-access device (CD’s also)
 Cassette tape is sequential

Writing and Reading
 The process of storing a piece of data to a memory
device is called writing
 The process of retrieving data is called reading
 ROM (read only memory)- Some devices do not allow
for the writing of new data, and are purchased "pre-
written“.
 Example: vinyl records
 Read-write memory – Memories allow reading and

writing
 Example: Cassette audio and video tape

Memory with moving parts: "Drives"
 Paper tape
 Magnetic tape (sequential
access,slow)
 Magnetic storage drives
drum type (motor, R/W coil)
 Floppy disk (not reliable)
 Hard drive
 Compact disk (CD)
 Binary bits are "burned" into
the aluminum as pits by a high-
power laser
 Digital Video Disk (DVD)

Modern nonmechanical memory
 A very simple type of electronic memory is
flip-flop

ROM-Read-only memory
 PROMs - Programmable Read-Only
Memory
The simplest type of ROM is that which uses tiny
"fuses" which can be selectively blown or left alone
to represent the two binary states
 EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read-

Only Memory
 Electrically-erasable (EEPROM)
 Ultraviolet-erasable (UV/EPROM)

Volatile and non-volatile memory
 Volatile memory loose its data when power goes off
(e.g, RAM of computer)
 Non Volatile memory retain data even without power

(e.g. ROM, magnetic tapes)

Memory Address
 The location of this data within the storage device is
typically called the address, in a manner reminiscent
of the postal service.
 the address in which certain data is stored can be
called up by means of parallel data lines in a
digital circuit
 data is addressed in terms of an actual physical
location on the surface of some type of media
(e.g. tracks and sectors of circular computer disks)

Memory Array
For more storage,

many latches
arranged in a form of
array where we can
selectively address
which one is reading
from or writing to.

Memory Size
 Number of bits
 Generally memory size represented in bytes
(1 byte = 8 bits)
 Example
 1.6 Gigabytes = 12.8 Giga bits
 “One kilobyte" = 1024 bytes (2 to the power of
10) locations for data bytes (rather than exactly
1000)
 "64 kbyte" memory device actually holds 65,536
bytes of data (2 to the 16th power)

Digital computer
Main components
 CPU: central procession unit
 Memory
 Input output device
Input Microprocessor OR CPU Output
Memory

Microprocessor or CPU
 It fatches instruction
from the memory and
performs specified tasks.
Accumulator
ALU
 It store results in the General purpose registers
memory or sends results
to the output device Timing and Control Unit
 It control with memory

and input/output devices

Sections of CPU
 Arithmetic and logic unit - to perform arithmetic operations
such as addition and subtractions, logical operation (AND,OR,
etc.)
 Timing and control unit - control entire operation of a
computer. It acts as a brain. It also control all other devices
connected to CPU
 General purpose registers - for temporary storage of data and
intermediate results while computer is making execution of
program
 Accumulator – It is a register which contain one the operands
and store results of most arithmetic and logical operations

Electrical Theorem and
Components

Thevenin's Theorem
 Thevenin's Theorem is a way to
reduce a network to an equivalent
circuit composed of a single voltage
source, series resistance, and series
load
 Useful in analyzing power systems and

other circuits where one particular
resistor in the circuit (called the "load"
resistor) is subject to change, and re-
calculation of the circuit is necessary
with each trial value of load resistance,
to determine voltage across it and
current through it.

Steps to follow for Thevenin's Theorem
1. Find the Thevenin source voltage
by removing the load resistor from
the original circuit and calculating
voltage across the open
connection points where the load
resistor used to be.
Designate R2 as the "load"

resistor
Determining voltage and current

across R2

Contd.

Contd.
2. Find the Thevenin resistance by
removing all power sources in the
original circuit (voltage sources
shorted and current sources open)
and calculating total resistance
between the open connection
points.

Contd.
3. Draw the Thevenin equivalent
circuit, with the Thevenin
voltage source in series with
the Thevenin resistance. The
load resistor re-attaches
between the two open points
of the equivalent circuit.
4. Analyze voltage and current for
the load resistor following the
rules for series circuits.

Norton's Theorem
 Norton's Theorem is a way to
reduce a network to an equivalent
circuit composed of a single current
source, parallel resistance, and
parallel load.
 Useful in analyzing power systems and
other circuits where one particular
resistor in the circuit (called the "load"
resistor) is subject to change, and re-
calculation of the circuit is necessary
with each trial value of load resistance,
to determine voltage across it and
current through it.

Steps to follow for Norton's Theorem
1. Find the Norton source current by
removing the load resistor from the
original circuit and calculating
current through a short (wire)
jumping across the open connection
points where the load resistor used
to be
Designate R2 as the "load" resistor
Determining voltage and current across

R2

Contd.

Contd.
2. Find the Norton resistance by
removing all power sources in the
original circuit (voltage sources
shorted and current sources open)
and calculating total resistance
between the open connection
points.

Contd.
3. Draw the Norton equivalent
circuit, with the Norton current
source in parallel with the
Norton resistance. The load
resistor re-attaches between
the two open points of the
equivalent circuit.
4. Analyze voltage and current for
the load resistor following the
rules for parallel circuits.

Thevenin-Norton equivalencies

Electrical Components

Capacitor
 The ability of a capacitor to store energy in the form of an
electric field is called capacitance. It is measured in the unit of
the Farad (F).
 Capacitors used to be commonly known by another term:
condenser.
 Capacitors react against changes in voltage.
 When a capacitor is faced with an increasing voltage, it acts as
a load: drawing current as it absorbs energy.
 When a capacitor is faced with a decreasing voltage, it acts as a
source: supplying current as it releases stored energy.

Capacitors and calculus

Contd.

Contd.

Factors affecting capacitance
 PLATE AREA
 PLATE SPACING
 DIELECTRIC
MATERIAL

Series and parallel capacitors

Practical considerations
 Working voltage
 Polarity
 Equivalent circuit
 Physical Size

Inductors
 The ability of an inductor to store energy in the form of a
magnetic field is called inductance. It is measured in the unit of
the Henry (H).
 Inductors used to be commonly known by another term: choke.
In large power applications, they are sometimes referred to as
reactors.
 Inductors react against changes in current by dropping voltage
in the polarity necessary to oppose the change.
 When an inductor is faced with an increasing current, it acts as
a load
 When an inductor is faced with a decreasing current, it acts as a
source

Inductors and calculus

Contd.

Contd.

Factors affecting inductance
 TURNS IN THE COIL
 COIL AREA
 COIL LENGTH
 CORE MATERIAL

Series and parallel inductors

Practical considerations
 Rated current
 Equivalent circuit
 Inductor size
 Interference

Analog Electronics

References
 A.P. Malvino, Eletronic Principles, Tata McGraw-
Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi
 N.N. Bhargava, D.C. Kulshreshtha, S.C. Gupta,

Basic Electronics and Linear Circuits, Tata
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi

Diodes

n-type semiconductor
+4 +4 +4
Fifth
electron
P
+4 +5 +4
+4 +4 +4
Legends :
Free electron (Negative Charge)
Hole (Positive Charge)
Immobile ion (Positive Charge)

p-type semiconductor
Incomplete bond
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
Hole
+4 +3 +4 +4 +3 +4
+4 +4 +4 +4 +4 +4
Legends :
Hole (Positive Charge)
Electron (Negative Charge)
Immobile ion (Negative Charge)

p-n junction
P - type N - type P - type Electric field N - type
Depletion region

p-n junction forward biased
P - type N - type
Depletion
region

p-n junction reverse biased
P - type N - type
Depletion region

Introduction
Diode operation + -
+ -
+ Flow permitted
-
Current permitted Current prohibited

Diode is forward-biased Diode is reverse-biased Hydraulic check valve
Anode Cathode
Flow permitted
Schematic symbol
Real component appearance - +
Stripe marks cathode

Contd.
qV
NkT
I D  I S (e  1)
ID
ID diode current
IS saturation current forward
e Euler’s Constant(2.71828….) forward-bias

q 19 reverse-bias
Charge of electron(1.6 10 As)
V 0.7
VD
Voltage across the diode
N “Non-ideality” coefficient(typ.between 1 and 2) V
k Boltzmann’s constant (1.38) 1023 )
reverse
T Junction temperature in kelvin
Breakdown!
I D  I S (eVD / 0.026  1)
Example
0.7 V
+ - 5.3 V
Forward-biased +
6V
-
6.0 V
- +
0.0 V
Reverse-biased -
6V
+

Summary
 A diode is an electrical component acting as a one-way valve for
current.
 When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode
allows current, the diode is said to be forward-biased.
 When voltage is applied across a diode in such a way that the diode
prohibits current, the diode is said to be reverse-biased.
 The voltage dropped across a conducting, forward-biased diode is
called the forward voltage. Forward voltage for a diode varies only
slightly for changes in forward current and temperature, and is fixed
principally by the chemical composition of the P-N junction.
 Silicon diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.7 volts.
 Germanium diodes have a forward voltage of approximately 0.3 volts.
 The maximum reverse-bias voltage that a diode can withstand without
"breaking down" is called the Peak Inverse Voltage, or PIV rating.

Meter check of a diode
Diode is forward-biased by
 Connected one way ohmmeter – shows 0 ohms of
resistance.
across the diode, the
meter should show a Anode
+
very low resistance.
VΩ
A COM
 Connected the other Cathode
way across the diode, -
it should show a very Diode is reverse-biased by
ohmmeter – shows infinite
high resistance ("OL" resistance.
on some digital meter + Cathode
models)
VΩ
A COM
- Anode

Problem
 Find out Application of Diodes

Rectifier Circuits
Rectification is the conversion of alternating current
(AC) to direct current (DC).
 A half-wave rectifier is a circuit that allows only one half-cycle of

the AC voltage waveform to be applied to the load, resulting in
one non-alternating polarity across it. The resulting DC
delivered to the load "pulsates" significantly.
 A full-wave rectifier is a circuit that converts both half-cycles of
the AC voltage waveform to an unbroken series of voltage
pulses of the same polarity. The resulting DC delivered to the
load doesn't "pulsate" as much.

Half-wave Rectifier
Half-wave rectifier circuit

Bright
V A Dim
V A AC Voltage source ~
+
AC Voltage ~ Load
source -

Full-wave Rectifier
V A
V A
+ + +
Full-wave rectifier circuit (center-tap design) ~
- - -
V A
V A
+
AC Voltage ~ Load V A
source V A
- -
- +
~ +
+

Full wave bridge rectifier
V A
V A
+
~
Full-wave rectifier circuit (bridge design) - +
-
V A
V A
AC ~
Voltage + V A
source V A
Load
- -
~
+ +

Diode ratings
In addition to forward voltage drop (Vf) and peak inverse
voltage (PIV), there are many other ratings of diodes
 Maximum DC reverse voltage = VR or VDC The maximum

amount of voltage the diode can withstand in reverse-bias mode
on a continual basis. Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
 Maximum reverse current = IR the amount of current

through the diode in reverse-bias operation, with the maximum
rated inverse voltage applied (VDC). Sometimes referred to as
leakage current. Ideally, this figure would be zero, as a perfect
diode would block all current when reverse-biased. In reality, it
is very small compared to the maximum forward current.

Contd.
 Maximum (average) forward current = IF(AV) The maximum
average amount of current the diode is able to conduct in forward bias
mode. This is fundamentally a thermal limitation: how much heat
can the PN junction handle, given that dissipation power is equal to
current (I) multiplied by voltage (V or E) and forward voltage is
dependent upon both current and junction temperature. Ideally, this
figure would be infinite.
 Maximum (peak or surge) forward current = IFSM or if(surge) The

maximum peak amount of current the diode is able to conduct in
forward bias mode. Again, this rating is limited by the diode
junction's thermal capacity, and is usually much higher than the
average current rating due to thermal inertia (the fact that it takes a
finite amount of time for the diode to reach maximum temperature for
a given current). Ideally, this figure would be infinite.

Contd.
 Maximum total dissipation = PD The amount of power (in watts)
allowable for the diode to dissipate, given the dissipation (P=IE) of
diode current multiplied by diode voltage drop, and also the dissipation
(P=I2R) of diode current squared multiplied by bulk resistance.
Fundamentally limited by the diode's thermal capacity (ability
to tolerate high temperatures).
 Operating junction temperature = TJ The maximum allowable

temperature for the diode's PN junction, usually given in degrees
Celsius (oC). Heat is the "Achilles' heel" of semiconductor devices: they
must be kept cool to function properly and give long service life.

Contd.
 Typical junction capacitance = CJ the typical amount of
capacitance intrinsic to the junction, due to the depletion region acting
as a dielectric separating the anode and cathode connections. This is
usually a very small figure, measured in the range of picofarads (pF).
 Reverse recovery time = trr the amount of time it takes for a diode
to "turn off" when the voltage across it alternates from forward-bias to
reverse-bias polarity. Ideally, this figure would be zero

Power Supply
Transformer Rectifier Filter Regulator
Regulated dc output
AC mains

Need of Filter
 Full-wave rectifier output is not smooth, it has lot of
ripples
 In order to minimize these ripples, a filter is required

to smooth the out of full wave rectifier.

Shunt Capacitor Filter
 Shunt capacitor is simplest Filter Load
and cheapest type filter Power Full-wave +

mains rectifier C R L o
 Connect a large value of -
capacitor across load o B D
 Block DC, allow AC to follow Vm
A C
V dc
 Rate of discharge depend
on RLC 0 π 2π 3π 4π
ωt
 Large C give less ripples
o B D E
 Upper limit of C depends on
Vm F
current handling rating of A C
V dc
diodes
0 π 2π 3π 4π ωt

Conduction angle of diode
o B D
Vm A C
V dc
0 π 2π 3π 4π
ωt
o B D E
Vm
A C F
V dc
0 π 2π 3π 4π ωt

Ripple voltage
Q Q Q2 Q1  Q 2
V V1  1 V2  V1  V2 
C C C C
V1  V2 Q1  Q 2 V1  V2 Q1  Q2 V1  V2 I
  
T1  T2 C (T1  T2 ) T CT T C
Vrip  peak-to-peak ripple voltage

I
Vrip  I dc load current
fC f  ripple frequency
C  capacitance
Vrip
Vdc  V2 ( peak ) 
2
Problem
Load current = 10 mA
Capacitance= 470 µF
Line frequency = 50 Hz
Find ripple voltage of full wave rectifier and half wave

rectifier

Need of Regulator
 Output of filter also have some ripples, to make it
more smooth, regulator is required.
 Zener diode is one of the simplest type of regulator

Zener diodes
0.7 V
7.0 V
50 V
Zener diode
150 V Anode
100 V
Diode Vbreakdown  100 V

Cathode

Contd.
32.4 V
1 KΩ Presistor  (32.4mA)(32.4V )
≈12.6 V 32.4 mA Presistor  1.0498W
45 V
12.6 V
Pdiode  (32.4mA)(12.6V)
Diode V zener  12 .6V Pdiode  408.24mW
32.4 mA
A zener diode with a power rating of 0.5 watt would be adequate,

as would a resistor rated for 1.5 or 2 watts of dissipation.

Contd.
32.4 V
Presistor  (324 A)(32.4V )
100 KΩ
Presistor  10.498mW
324 µA
45 V 12.6 V Pdiode  (324 A)(12.6V )

Pdiode  4.0824mW
324 µA

Contd.
44.776 V
32.4 V
100 KΩ 447.76 µA
1 KΩ 25.2 mA
45 V 447.76 µA Rload
45 V 32.4 mA
12.6 V
Rload 0µA
224 mV
500Ω 500Ω
7.2 mA
32.4 mA 25.2 mA 447.76 µA 447.76 µA
44.776 V
100 KΩ
447.76 µA
447.76 µA Rload
224 mV
45 V
500Ω
447.76 µA 447.76 µA

Schottky diodes
 Schottky diodes are constructed of a metal-to-N junction rather than
a P-N semiconductor junction.
 Schottky diodes are characterized by fast switching times (low reverse-
recovery time), low forward voltage drop (typically 0.25 to 0.4 volts for a
metal-silicon junction), and low junction capacitance. This makes them
well suited for high-frequency applications.
 In terms of forward voltage drop (VF), reverse-recovery time (trr), and
junction capacitance (CJ), Schottky diodes are closer to ideal than the
average "rectifying" diode. Unfortunately, though, Schottky diodes
typically have lower forward current (IF) and reverse voltage
(VRRM and VDC) ratings than rectifying diodes and are thus unsuitable
for applications involving substantial amounts of power.

Tunnel diodes
 Tunnel diodes exploit a strange
quantum phenomenon called resonant
tunneling to provide interesting forward-
bias characteristics having peak
current (IP) Valley current (IV). Tunnel diode Forward
Anode current
IP
 Able to transition between peak and
valley current levels very quickly, IV
"switching" between high and low states VP VV
of conduction much faster than even Cathode
Forward voltage
Schottky diodes.
 Tunnel diode characteristics are also

relatively unaffected by changes in
temperature.

Light-emitting diodes
 Some semiconductor junctions, composed of
special chemical combinations, emit
radiant energy within the spectrum of visible Light-emitting diode (LED)
light as the electrons transition in energy
levels. Anode
 Simply put, these junctions glow when
forward biased. A diode intentionally
designed to glow like a lamp is called a light-
emitting diode, or LED.
 Diodes made from a combination of the
elements gallium, arsenic, and phosphorus Cathode
(called gallium-arsenide-phosphide) glow bright
red, and are some of the most common LEDs
manufactured

Varactor Diode
 It is operated reverse-biased
so no current flows through it,
C
but since the width of the or
depletion region varies with Cmax
the applied bias voltage, the
capacitance of the diode can be Symbol
made to vary.
Cmin
 Varactors are commonly used in
voltage-controlled oscillators Reverse voltage

Limiter
Limiter removes signal voltage above and
below a specified level
 Useful for signal shaping, circuit protection etc.

 Use of small signal diode at high frequency.

Positive Limiter
 VP
0 0
~ RL
 VP  VP

Biased limiter
V+0.7
 VP
0 ~ +
RL 0
V
 VP -  VP

Combination limiter
 VP D1 D2 V1  0.7
0 + - RL 0
~ V1 V2
 VP -
+
V2  0.7

Circuit protection limiter
1  2
Vin Vout Vin Vout
1N914
+5 V

Transistors

Introduction
 The invention of the bipolar
Base
transistor in 1948 ushered in a Emitter Collector
revolution in electronics. E c
E c
 Bipolar transistors consist of N P N
either a P-N-P or an N-P-N
semiconductor "sandwich" B
B
structure.
 The three leads of a bipolar Base
Emitter Collector
transistor are called the Emitter,
Base, and Collector. E c
E
P N P c
 Difference between PNP and
NPN transistor is the proper
biasing of junctions. Current B
directions and voltage polarities B
for each type of transistor are
exactly opposite
Transistor Mode of Operation
Condition Emitter junction Collector junction Region of
operation
FR Forward-biased Reverse-biased Active
FF Forward-biased Forward-biased Saturation
RR Reverse-biased Reverse-biased Cutoff
RF Reverse-biased Forward-biased Inverted
Biasing an NPN transistor for active operation

N P N
E C
Emitter Base Collector
Space B Space
charge charge
- + - +
V EE S 1 S2 V CC

Only emitter junction forward biased
N P N
E C
IE
Reduced B
barrier IB
- +
V EE
 Larger current flow

 ~ 99 % of total current carried by electrons (moving from
emitter to base)
 Emitter current and base current very large (IE=IB), IC=0

Only collector junction reverse biased
N P Electron N
E C
Hole
B IC
IB
- +
VCC
 Very small current flow (minority carrier current temperature

dependent current) called collector leakage current ICBO
 ICBO signifies current between collector and base when third
terminal (emitter) is open

Surprising action of transistor
If emitter junction forward biased and collector
junction reverse biased
 Expectation
 Both emitter and base current to be large and collector

current very small
 Reality
 Emitter current is large as expected, but base current
turns out to be very small and collector current turns out
to be large

Working of transistor
N P N
E 7
1 C
2
3 6 B
4
5
IE
B
IC
IB
- + - +
V EE V CC
 Ratio of no. of electrons arriving at collector to no. of emitted electrons is

know as base transportation factor (typically ~ 0.99)
 No. of electrons (like 3) and holes (like 7) crossing the E-B junction is much
more than the no. of electrons (like 5) and holes (like 8) crossing the C-B
junction. The difference of these two currents is base current.

Contd.
 Collector current is less than emitter current
 A part or emitter current consists of holes that do not contribute to
collector current
 Not all the electrons injected into the base are successful in
reaching collector.
Ratio of collector current to emitter current is typically 0.99 denoted
by αdc
 Collector current made up of two parts
 Fraction of emitter current which reaches the collector
 Reverse leakage current ICO
I C   dc I E  I CO
 Total current equation
I E  IC  I B
Problem
 An NPN transistor has of αdc 0.98 and a collector
leakage current of 1 uA. Calculate the collector and
base current, when emitter current is 1 mA.

Transistor amplifying action
iE C iC
E
+ + +
EB CB
s ~ RL 5 kΩ o
- B -
-
VEE VCC
Rin  40 Ro  500 k
20  10 3 VO  I c RL
Ie   0 .5 mA I c  I e  0 .5 mA
40  (0.5  103 )  (5  103 )  2.5V
VO
A 
Transfer + resistor = transistor VS
2 .5
 3
 125
20  10
Different configurations of transistor
E C C E
B B
+ + +
+
s B + RL O + RL O
~ RL O s ~ s ~ -
- E - C
- - -
 Figure shows three configuration from ac point of view.

 In all configurations, emitter-base junction is always forward-
biased and collector base junction is always reverse-biased.

Transistor characteristics
Static characteristic curves to relate current
and voltage in a transistor.
 Input characteristic
 Output characteristic

Common-Base Input characteristics
iE iC
RS + mA - E
C + -
mA
+ -
VEE V
 EB  CB V V CC
B R2
R1 - +
 EB
ri 
iE VCB  Const .

Common-Base output characteristics
 CB
ro 
iC I E  Const.
iC
hfb or 
iE VCB  Const.
 High output resistance – can be good current source

 Saturation region - collector current not remain same with change in
emitter current
 Cut-off region- collector current is not zero even emitter current is zero
due to leakage current ICB0 OR ICO
Summary of C-B characteristics
 Current gain slightly less then unity (~0.98)
 Dynamic input resistance very low (~ 20 ohm)
 Dynamic output resistance very high (~ 1 M ohm)
 Leakage current very low (~ 0.02 uA for Si transistor)

C-E Configuration
I C   dc ( I C  I B )  I CBO
C IC
IB (1   dc ) I C   dc I B  I CBO
C B  dc 1
IC  IB  I CBO
E + 1   dc 1   dc
N
B + + V CC
P
N V CC VBB - IE -
+ -  dc
VBB E  dc 
-
1   dc
I CBO
I CEO 
1   dc
I C   dc I B  I CEO
Mostly work in active region

Contd.
dc IE  IC  IB
dc 
1  dc
iE  iC  iB
dc  dcdc  dc
iE i
1 B
dc  dc (1  dc ) iC iC
1 1
 1
dc  dc  
dc  1

 
1

C-E input characteristics
IC
+ -
mA
IB C
-
VCC
- µA + B
V
- VCE + R2
VBB VBE
R1 V E
+
 BE
ri 
i B VCE  Const.

C-E output characteristics
 Current gain increase with Vce

 Small base current produce large change in collector current
 Large leakage current ICEO

Comparison between CB and CE
Parameters Common – base Common –

Configuration emitter
Configuration
1. Input dynamic resistance Very low (20 Ω) Low (1 kΩ)
2. Output dynamic Very high (1 MΩ) High (10 kΩ)

resistance
Less than unity (0.98) High (100)
3. Current gain
Very small (5 µA for Ge, 1 µA Very large (500 µA for Ge, 20
4. Leakage current for Si) µA for Si)
Leakage current lead to Thermal Runway

Problems
 When emitter current of transistor changed by 1mA,
its collector current changed by 0.995 mA. Calculate
 CB current gain
 CE current gain
 The DC current gain of a transistor in CE

configuration is 100. Find DC current gain in CB
configuration.

Why CE configuration widely used
A1 A2 A3
RS Amplifier Amplifier
stage 2 RL
stage 1
S ~
B1 B2 B3
 A good amplifier stage is one which has high input resistance and low
output resistance
 Current gain is more in CE configuration

Common-collector configuration
C
E B VCC
B
+ RL o VBB E
S ~ C
- RL
Emitter current as a function of base current
I E  I B  IC
I C   dc I E  I CBO

Contd.
I E  I B   dc I E  I CBO
(1   dc ) I E  I B  I CBO
1 1
IE  IB  I CBO
1   dc 1   dc
1
  dc  1
1   dc
I E  (  dc  1) I B  (  dc  1) I CBO
I E  (  dc  1) I B
IE
 (  dc  1)
IB

CC characteristics
- High input resistance (~ 150 k ohm)
- Low output resistance (~ 800 ohm)
- High current gain (~100)
- Low voltage gain (less then unity)

Transistor data sheet
Important parameters
 Maximum power dissipation
 Maximum allowable voltage
 Current gain
 Max frequency of operation

Basic CE amplifier circuit
CC 2
C +
CC1 B
RC
RB o
+ E
s V CC
˜ V BB
-
-

DC load line
+ -
C
RC I C RC
B IC +
+
RB VBE VCE VCC
-
E
VBB
-
VCC  I C RC  VCE
 1  V (i )VCE  VCC ; IC  0
I C    VCE  CC
 RC  RC
(ii )VCE  0; IC 
VCC
RC
y  mx  c
Amplification and Q-point
iC (7.3  4.8)103

(i) Current gain, Ai    125
iB (60  40)  106
CE 7.1  4.9

(ii) Votage gain, A    110
 BE 20 103
Output ac power I cVce

(iii) Power gain,  
input ac power I bVbe
= Ai  A  125110  13750

Selection of Q-point

Logic Gate Using Transistor

Current regulator
 Transistors function as current
regulators by allowing a small current to
control a larger current. The amount of
current allowed between collector and
C C
emitter is primarily determined by the B B
amount of current moving between base
and emitter. E
E
 In order for a transistor to properly
function as a current regulator, the
controlling (base) current and the
controlled (collector) currents must be = Small, Controlling Current
going in the proper directions: meshing = large, Controlled Current
additively at the emitter and going

against the emitter arrow symbol.

Transistor as a switch
 Transistor's collector current is
proportionally limited by its base
Switch
current, it can be used as a sort of
current-controlled switch. A
relatively small flow of electrons
sent through the base of the NPN
transistor
transistor has the ability to exert
control over a much larger flow of
electrons through the collector
 When a transistor has zero current PNP
transistor
through it, it is said to be in a state
of cutoff
 When a transistor has maximum
current through it, it is said to be
in a state of saturation. Switch

Inverter
 V CC
IC
V CC Closed switch
RC
RC
 Vout Open switch

 Vin RB V CE
V CC
 V CC  V CC
I C   dc I B
V  VBE
I B  in RC RC
RB
Vout  VCC  I C RC  V out
C
 V out
C
E
E
0 input = open switch = output 1
1 input = close circuit = output 0
NOR Gate
 VCC
C
A

OR Gate
 VCC
A
Q1 Q2 Q3

AND Gate
 VCC
C
A Q1
B Q2 Q3

NAND Gate

XOR Gate

Transistor Biasing Circuit

Stabilization of Q-point
Requirement of biasing circuit
 Operating point in the centre of active region
 Stabilization of collector current against temperature variations
 Making operating point independent of transistor parameters
Different biasing techniques used for achieving these points
I CBO
Temperature
continues to T
T
increase
I CEO
IC
Fixed Bias
VBB VCC V CC
RC
VCC RB RC
RB RC
RB
VBB
V  VBE VCC  I C RC  VCE

I B  BB
RB VCC
IC 
RC
I C  I B  I CEO
VCC
I C ( Sat ) 
RC
Steps for calculating Q-point in fixed bias
1. Calculate base voltage, in case VBE is known, use

more accurate calculation.
2. Calculate collector current from base current, make
sure its not greater than Ic(sat)
3. Calculate collector-emitter voltage

Problem
 Calculate the Q-point for the circuit given in figure
V CC 9V
300 kΩ RB RC 2 kΩ
  50

Problem
 Calculate
 Q-point in circuit. Given RC=1 k ohm and RB=100 k ohm
 If transistor is replaced by another unit of beta=150 instead
of 60. Determine its new Q-point.
V CC 10V
RB RC
  60
AC125

Assignment (1 Mark)
In a given circuit, a supply of 6 V and a
 6V
load resistance of 1 k ohm is used.
 Find the value of resistance RB so that
a germanium transistor with β=20 and RB 1 kΩ

ICBO=2uA draws an IC of 1 mA.
 What Ic is drawn if the transistor
parameters change to β=25 and ICBO =

10 uA due to rise in temperature ?

Fixed bias features
Advantages
 Very simple
Leads to thermal
 very few component runway
 Easy to fix Q point by changing RB I CBO
Limitations I CBO
 Thermal runway
T T T I CEO I CEO
 Strongly β dependent Q-point
IC
IC

Collector to base bias circuit
VCC  RC ( I C  I B )  I B RB  VBE VCC
VCC  RC I C  ( RC  RB ) I B  VBE
(VCC  I C RC )  VBE RC (IC  I B )
IB 
RC  RB
V  VBE +
I B  CE RB IC
RC  RB IB
-
+
I CEO + VCE
IB
VBE -
I CBO -
IC IC
T
VCE
Rising tendency is checked

Contd.
VCC  RC I B  ( RC  RB ) I B  VBE
VCC  VBE  [ RB  (   1) RC ]I B
IB ~ Vcc/(RB+βRc)
VCC  ( I B  I C ) RC  VCE  0
VCE  VCC  ( I C  I B ) RC  VCC  I C RC
Shift in Q-point due to change in β is not much as

it occurs in case of fixed bias

Features of collector to base bias circuit
Advantages
 Check thermal runway
 Q-point less dependent on β value
Limitations
 Base resistance also provide AC feedback, that
reduce voltage gain

Problem
Calculate the minimum and maximum collector
current in the given circuit, if β varied with in the
limit indicated.
20 V
RC 2 kΩ
200 kΩ
RB
50<β<200

Bias circuit with emitter resistance
 VCC
VCC  RB I BVBE  I E RE
+
RB IC RC (VCC  I E RE  VBE )
IB 
- RB
+
(VCC  I E RE )
VBE IB 
- + RB
IE RE
-
Rising tendency is
checked
I CBO IE
ICEO IB
T IC IC
IC IC I E RE
I E RE
Rising tendency is IE IB
checked β

Contd.
VCC  I B RB  VBE  (   1 )I B RE
VCC  VBE VCC

IB  
RB  (   1) RE RB  RE
 VCC VCC
IC  I B  
RB   RE RE  ( RB /  )
VCC  I C RC  VCE  I E RE
VCE  VCC  ( RC  RE ) I C

Features of bias circuit with emitter resistance
Advantages 10 v
 Provide good stabilization of Q-point

against temperature and β variation RB RC 2 kΩ
1 MΩ
Limitations
 Emitter resistance provide a feedback   100
causes reduction in voltage gain.
 For getting very good stabilization + +
1 kΩ RE CE
R --
RE >> B

 For large RE, high DC source is required
 For small RB, low DC source is required Problem: Calculate values
of 3 currents

Voltage divider biasing circuit
R1 A
VCC Source A R1 R2
shortage
V CC R2 B
R1 RC
R1 R2 RC B
A RTH 
R1  R2 VTH  I B RTH  VBE  RE I E
RTH A
IB VBE VTH  I B RTH  VBE  (  1) I B RE
VTH R2
R2 RE  VCC IE RE
R1  R2 I B [ RTH  (   1 )RE ]  VTH  VBE
B VTH  VBE VTH
B IB  
RTH  (  1) RE RTH  RE
VCE  VCC  ( RC  RE ) I C

Problem
 Find Q point
+12 v
40 kΩ 5 kΩ
  60
+ +
5 kΩ 1 kΩ CE
- -

Amplifiers

DC Behavior
 VCC
VCC  I C RC  VCE  I E RE
R1 Rc  VCE  I C ( RC  RE )
1 VCC
IC  VCE 
R2 RE ( RC RE ) ( RC  RE )

Input and Output phase

AC Behavior
 VCC
+
R1 RC
CC RC RO
+ -
CC + +
+ O
-
- +
RO  i ~ R1 R2
+ - +
O -
i ~ -
R2 RE + +
- CE
- - -
AC equivalent

Transistor Equivalent Circuit
ib
 Input B
ri
 Output
E
 ib ro

Contd.
ib ic
B C
+ +
b ri  ib ro C
- -
E

h-Parameter
 Manufacture specify characteristics of a transistor in
terms of h (hybrid) parameters
 Hybrid is used with these parameters because they

are a mixture of constants having different units
 It becomes popular because they can be measure

easily

Transistor as two-port network
i1 i2
1 2
+
1 2+
- 3 -
1
h11  = Input impedance (with output shorted) = i h
i1  2  0
1  h11i1  h122 i
h21  2 = Forward Current ratio (with output shorted) = h f
i1  2  0

i2  h21i1  h222 h12  1 = Reverse voltage ratio (with input open) = hr
 2 i1  0
i2 = Output admittance (with input open) = ho
h22 
 2 i1  0
Hybrid equivalent circuit
B
hie ic C
+
ib + +
i ~ hre C ~ h fe ib O
- - hoe -
hie  ri , dynamic input resistance hie  1 kΩ

hre  2.5  104
h fe   , current amplification factor
h fe  50
1 / hoe  ro , dynamic output resistance.
hoe  25 µs (or, 1/ hoe  40 kΩ)
Amplifier analysis
B hie C
+
+
ib +
ic
 i ~ R1 R2 hre C ~ h feib hoe Rc RO  O
- -
-
E
B C
+
+
h fe i RC RO
i ~ ib hie b R ac O Rac  RC || RO 
- RC  R O
- E

Contd.
Output Current i
Current gain , Ai   c
Input Current ib
h fe ib
  h fe A p  Ai A
ib
Ai   Z in  R1 || R 2 || hie  hie
Output Voltage  h fe ib Rac
Voltage gain , A   Z o  (1 / hoe ) || Rac  Rac
Input Voltage ib hie
 h fe R ac

hie
 Rac
A  180 0
ri
Problem
15 V
Current Gain 150, Rin=2 k
ohm
Calculate voltage gain and
75 KΩ 4.7 KΩ
input impedance
15 µF 15 µF +
+ O
12 KΩ
S ~
7.5 KΩ 1.2 KΩ
- 100 µF
-

Multi-stage Amplifiers
s ~  s  in A1 1 A2 2  n 1
An n  o
o 1 2 n1 o
A =    
s s 1 n 2 n1
A =
A1  A2  An1  An
Numbers of bels =
P2
Log10
P1
Contd.
P2
Number of dB = 10  Number of bels = 10 log10
P1
V2
Gain in dB = 20 log10
V1
AdB  AdB1  AdB2  ...  AdBn

Why dB
 Simple addition of gain
 Permits us to denote very small and very large value
 Our hearing power in logarithmic

Coupling of two stages
 Minimum loss of signal
 Should not affect biasing of other stage
Typical Couplings
 RC coupling
 Transformer coupling
 Direct coupling

RC coupling
 Widely used VCC
 Makes DC biasing
independent
Rc
 Not good for low R1 C R1 Rc
C CC
frequency applications
CC
+
+
RL O
˜ R2 + +
R2 RE + +
RE CE CE
- - - - - -

Transformer coupling
 DC isolation provided by VCC
transformer
 Bigger in size
 Does not amplify signals of
R1 R1
different frequency equally
 Suited for power amplifiers
O
and tuned voltage amplifiers
S
+
+ R2 CS ++
R2 RE CE - RE - - CE
CS -

Direct coupling
 Required at very low frequency
 Affect biasing of other stage (consider this
while designing)

Frequency response of Amplifier

At low f
 Provide low gain due to high reactance of
coupling capacitors

At high f
VCC
R1 Rc R1 Rc
C bc CC C bc CC
CC
C ce C ce +
C be Cw2
+ Cw1 C be o
s ~ + + Cw2 RL
R2 Cw1
RE ++ RE - - CE
- C R2
- - E -

Contd.

Bandwidth
0 . 707 A  m  1 / 2 A m

Effect on band width with no. of stages
 Bandwidth decreases with increase in no. of

stages
 Because greater no. of capacitor in the circuit
 Voltage gain
n

A  ( Am )
 Upper and lower cut of frequency
1
f 1  f1
1/ n
(2  1)
f 2  ( 21 / n  1) f2
Two-stage RC-coupled amplifier
 VCC
R1 RC 1 R1 RC 2
CC CC
CC
+
+
S R2
RL O
-˜ RE ++ R2 RE ++
- -C E - -C E
-
+
+ RC 1 R1 R2 RL O
RC 2
S ˜ R1 R2
- -

Contd.
ib 1 B1 C1 B2 C2
ib 2
+
S h ie RC 1 R ac
-˜ h ie h ie i b 2
hie i b 1
E
R1 R 2
R B  R1 || R 2  h fe R ac 1
R1  R 2
A1  
hie
h fe R ac 2
A2  
hie Am  A1  A2
RC 2 R L A1 is always less than A2, because
Rac 2  RC 2 || R L 
RC 2  R L of lower Rac1 due to loading effect

Problem
 V CC  20 V
Calculate
 input impedance
 output impedance 56 kΩ 6.8 kΩ 3.3 kΩ
56 kΩ
 voltage gain
5µF
both transistor 5µF
5µF
+
hfe = 120
+ 2.2
hie =1.1k ohm  S ~ 5.6 5.6 kΩ O
kΩ 0.5 + + kΩ 0.5 ++
-
kΩ kΩ
- - - -
500 500
µF µF -

Distortion in Amplifiers
When wave shape of the output is not an exact replica of
input wave
Caused by
 Reactive component and non-linear characteristic of transistor
 Frequency distortion
 Caused by electrode capacitance and other reactive components

Contd.
 Phase distortion
 Delay introduce by the amplifier is different for various
frequency
 Reactive components of the circuit are responsible for this
distortion
 Harmonic distortion
 Output contain new frequency components that are not
present in the input. New frequency are harmonics of
present in input
 Happen due to non-linearity in the dynamic transfer
characteristic curves

Contd.
i o
AMPLIFIER Output
Input
f1 f 2 f f1 f 2 2 f1 2 f 2 3 f1 3 f 2 f

Operational-Amplifiers

Introduction
 The operational amplifier is most useful single
device in analog electronic circuitry.
 With only few external components, it can perform a
wide variety of analog signal processing tasks.
 One key to the usefulness of these little circuits is in
the engineering principle of feedback, particularly
negative feedback, which constitutes the foundation
of almost all automatic control processes.

Single-ended
 A "shorthand" symbol for an General amplifier circuit symbol
electronic amplifier is a triangle, the  V SUPPLY
wide end signifying the input side
and the narrow end signifying the input output
output.
 V SUPPLY
 To facilitate true AC output from an
+V
amplifier, we use a split or dual input output +
power supply, with two DC voltage Vinput 15 V
-
sources connected in series with
-V Rload
the middle point grounded, giving a
+
positive voltage to ground (+V) and 15 V
a negative voltage to ground (-V). -

Differential amplifiers
 Most amplifiers have one input and one output. Differential
amplifiers have two inputs and one output, the output signal being
proportional to the difference in signals between the two inputs.
 The voltage output of a differential amplifier is determined by the
following equation: Vout = AV(Vnoninv - Vinv)
Differential amplifier
() Input1 0 0 0 0 1 2.5 7 3 -3 -2
 VSUPPLY () Input2 0 1 2.5 7 0 0 0 3 3 -7

Output 0 4 10 28 -4 -10 -28 0 24 -20
input1 - output
input2 + Voltage output equation = Vout  AV ( Input2  Input1 )
OR
 VSUPPLY Vout  AV ( Input (  )  Input (  ) )

The "operational" amplifier
 High-gain differential amplifiers came to be known as operational
amplifiers, or op-amps, because of their application in analog
computers' mathematical operations.
 Op-amp have extremely high voltage gain (AV = 200,000 or more).
 Long before computers were built to electronically perform calculations
by employing voltages and currents to represent numerical quantities.
dv dv
ic  C F m
dt dt
Where, Where,
ic = Instantaneous current through capacitor F = Force applied to object
C = Capacitance in farads m = Mass of object
dv = Rate of change of voltage over time dv = Rate of change of velocity over time
dt dt
 Op-amps typically have very high input impedances and fairly low
output impedances.

Op-amp electrical model
NONINVERTING +
V1
rin
rOut
 VOut
A(V1  V2 )
˜
V2
INVERTING -

Comparator
 VCC Vout
 Vsat
Vin +
Vout
Vin
- 0
 Vsat
 VEE

Moving trip point
 VCC  V CC
Vin V in +
+
VOut V Out
R2 -
- ref  VCC
R1  R2
 VEE
 VCC
R1 VEE  V EE R 1
CBY R2 C BY
R2
Vout V out
 Vsat
 V sat
V in
Vin V ref
V ref
 V sat
 Vsat

Schmitt Trigger
 Comparator contain noise, output may be
erratic when input voltage is near to trip point
 Noise causes output to jump back and forth between
low and high states
Noise triggering can be avoided by schmitt trigger

Contd.
 VCC
R2 Vout
Vin
B
- R1  R2 Vsat
VOut
+ ref   BVsat  BVsat BVsat
V in
VEE
ref   BVsat  V sat
R2 R1
UTP   BVsat , and LTP   BVsat
Difference between UTP and LTP is called hysteresis,

required to prevent false triggering due to noise

Moving trip point of schmitt trigger
 VCC V in -
Vout Vout
V in -
+ Vsat
Vout
+ R1
V in
LTP UTP
VEE R2 R3
R3 + R2
 VCC VCC
- R2  R3  V sat
R2 R1
R2 UTP   cen  BVsat

 cen  VCC R2 || R3
R2  R3 B
R1  R2 || R3 LTP   cen  BVsat

Problem
 Find UTP and LTP
Given
Vcc= 12 V, Vee=-12V, R2=R3=2 k ohm,
R1= 100 k ohm

Sine to square waveform
UTP
 VCC
0
LTP
 V sat
0 -
0
0
+  V sat
 VEE Vout
Vsat
R1
R2
V in
LTP UTP
 V sat

Relaxation oscillator
TOWARD  V sat
R UTP
CAPACITOR 0
 VCC
LTP
 V sat
-
VOut OUTPUT 0
C
+  V sat
VEE T
R1
R2
T  period of output signal
1 B R  feedback resistance
T  2 RC 1n
1 B C  capacitance
B  feedback fraction,

Counter based A/D convertor
Start
Gate and
Clock Counter
control
N lines
Level amplifiers
Comp. N lines
Ref.
Analog
voltage
input Binary ladder
voltage
N lines
Digital output

OP-AMP IC’s
 Most popular 741
Typical 8-pin “DIP” op-amp
Integrated circuit
Dual op-amp in 8-pin DIP
No Connection +V Output Offset null +V
8 7 6 5 8 7 6 5
-
+
- + +
-
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Offset -V -V
null

Comparator
 To compare two voltages
 Op-amps are used as signal comparators, operating in full
cutoff or saturation mode depending on which input
(inverting or non-inverting) has the greatest voltage.
+V
LED
Vin -
-V

Pulse width modulation by comparator
One comparator application is pulse-width modulator, and is made by
comparing a sine-wave AC signal against a DC reference voltage. As the DC
reference voltage is adjusted, the square-wave output of the comparator
changes its duty cycle (positive versus negative times). Thus, the DC reference
voltage controls, or modulates the pulse width of the output voltage.
+V +V
- -
+ Vout Vout
Vin ~ Vin ~ +
-V -V
Vin Vout Vin Vout

Analog to digital convertor
+V Simple bargraph driver circuit
LED 4
-
+
LED 3
-
+
LED 2
-
+
LED1
-
+
Vin

Analog to digital convertor
Analog input voltage

C7 Comparator for level Binary output
7V / 8 Input voltage C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 2 2
21 20
C6
0 toV/ 8 Low Low Low Low Low Low Low 0 0 0
3V / 4
C5 V/ 8 toV/ 4 High Low Low Low Low Low Low 0 0 1

A2
5V / 8 22 V/ 4 to 3V/ 8 High High Low Low Low Low Low 0 1 0
C4 A1 21 Digital
9318 3V/ 8 toV/ 2 High High High Low Low Low Low 0 1 1
V/2 A0 0
outputs
2 V/ 2 to 5V/ 8
C3
High High High High Low Low Low 1 0 0
3V / 8 5V/ 8 to 3V/ 4 High High High High High Low Low 1 0 1

C2 High High High High High High 0
3V/ 4 to 7V/ 8 Low 1 1
V/4
7V/ 8 toV High High High High High High High 1 1 1
C1
V /8

Negative feedback
 Connecting the output of an op-amp to its inverting (-) input is called negative
feedback.
 When the output of an op-amp is directly connected to its inverting (-) input, a
voltage follower will be created. Whatever signal voltage is impressed upon the
noninverting (+) input will be seen on the output.
 An op-amp with negative feedback will try to drive its output voltage to whatever
level necessary so that the differential voltage between the two inputs is practically
zero. The higher the op-amp differential gain, the closer that differential voltage will
be to zero.
The effects of negative feedback
-
29.99985µV +
-
5.999970000149999V
V out 6V
Vin +

Divided feedback
Non-inverting Amplifier
A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going to the
noninverting (+) input is called a noninverting amplifier. The output
voltage will be the same polarity as the input. Voltage gain is given by
the following equation: AV = (R2/R1) + 1
R1 R2
1KΩ 1KΩ
- V
out
Vout
+
Vin

Contd.
Inverting Amplifier
A negative-feedback op-amp circuit with the input signal going
to the "bottom" of the resistive voltage divider, with the
noninverting (+) input grounded, is called an inverting amplifier.
Its output voltage will be the opposite polarity of the input.
Voltage gain is given by the following equation: AV = R2/R1
R1 0V R2
1KΩ 1KΩ
Vin
-
Vout
0V +
All voltage figures shown in reference to ground

Average circuit
“Passive averager” Circuit
R1 V1 V 2 V3
 
R2 R R 2 R3
Vout  1
R3 1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3
V2 V3 With equal value resistors:
V1
Vout  V1  V2 V 3
3
V1 V V
R1 R2 R3  2  3
V out R1 R2 R3

V1 V2 V3 1 1 1
 
R1 R2 R3

Summer circuit
 A summer circuit is one that sums, or adds, multiple analog voltage
signals together. There are two basic varieties of op-amp summer
circuits: noninverting and inverting.
 Summer circuits are quite useful in analog computer design.
1 kΩ 2 kΩ V1 R I1
R -
R 0V R I1  I 2  I 3
V1
R
Vout V2 I2 -
V2 + Vout
V3 R +
R
V3 I3
0V
V1  V2  V3
Vout  3
3
Vout  V1  V2  V3 Vout  (V1  V2  V3 )

Differentiator circuits
Differentiator produces a voltage output proportional to the
input voltage's rate of change.
Applications: analog computation, process control
Differentiator
C 0V R
Vin
Changing C
DC 0V dvin
Voltage - Vout   RC
dt
dv Vout
iC 0V +
dt

Integrator circuits
integrator produces a voltage output proportional to the
product (multiplication) of the input voltage and time
Applications: analog computation, process control
Integrator
dv out V
R 0V C
  in
dt RC
Vin
0V OR
-
t Vin
Vout Vout    dt  c
0V
0 RC
+
Where,
C=Output voltage at start time (t=0)

Voltage-to-current signal conversion
 Voltage signals are relatively easy to produce directly from transducer
devices, whereas accurate current signals are not.
 DC current signals are often used in preference to DC voltage signals
as analog representations of physical quantities. Current in a series
circuit is absolutely equal at all points in that circuit regardless of
wiring resistance, whereas voltage in a parallel-connected circuit may
vary from end to end because of wire resistance.
4 to 20 mA
250 Ω
-
Rload
- +
+
+ 4 to 20 mA
Vin - 1 to 5 volt signal range
Current independent of load resistance

Slew rate
 Maximum rate of output voltage change
dv dv i
iC 
dt dt C
dvout I dvout 60 A
  2 V / s
 max dt 30 pF
dt Cc

Slew rate distortion
Slope  SR +10 V
+10 V
-10 V
-10 V

Frequency response of Op-amp
f OL
100,000
OPEN-LOOP VOLTAGE GAIN

• Directly coupled amplifier 70,700
• Gain bandwidth product constant 10,000
1000
100
10 f unity
1
1 10 100 1 10 100 1
kH Z MH Z
HZ
FREQUENCY

Op-amp Models and circuits
+V
Q1 Q2
Input(+) Output
Q3 Q4 (-)Input
Q5 Q6
A simple operational
amplifier made from
discrete components
-V

555 Timer

555 Timer
 Versatile IC, have so many application
 VCC
8
5KΩ
6
THRESHOLD +
5 7 DISCHARGE
CONTROL -
S Q
5KΩ
3
+ R Q OUTPUT
4
2
TRIGGER
- RESET
5KΩ
1
GROUND

Monostable Operation
8
 V CC
R  VCC
7 4 8
5kΩ R 7 3
6
+ VOut
-
C S Q 555
5kΩ 3 6 5
R Q V out
+
2 - 0.01 µF
TRIGGER 2 1
5kΩ C
1 TRIGGER
VCC TRIGGER
 V CC
3 2
 V CC
3
0 THRESHOLD W = 1.1RC
 V CC
0 OUTPUT

Astable Operation
8  V CC  VCC
RA
RA
7 4 8
RB 7 3
5kΩ VOut
6
+ 555
RB 6
- 5
S Q
5kΩ 3V
R Q 2 1 0.01 µF
out
C + C
2 -
5kΩ
1 D
W
 100%
T
2
 V CC
3 1.44
1
 V CC
f 
3 ( R A  2 RB )C
O VO
R A  RB
W D 100%
R A  2 RB
T

Voltage control Oscillator
 VCC
RA
4 8
7 3 VOut
RB 6 555
5
R
2 1
C +
Vcon
-
 Vcon
1
 Vcon
2

Active Filter

Active filters
Frequency selective switch that passes a specified
band of frequency and blocks/attenuates signals of
frequency outside
 Analog or digital
 Passive or active
 Audio (AF) or radio frequency (RF)

Analog Active-RC (audio) filter
 Active filter advantage
 Gain frequency adjustment
 No loading problem
 Cost

Commonly used filters
Vo Vo
Gain,
 Low pass filter Gain,
Vin Vin
 High pass filter

Ideal response
 Band pass filter 1
Ideal response 1
 Band reject filter Pass

Pass -
band
- Stop band
band Stop band Frequency
fH fL
o o
Gain, Gain,
in in
Ideal response Ideal response
1 1
Pass- Stop Pass-
Stop Pass- Stop 0.707
0.707 band band band band
band band
Frequenc fL fC fH
fL fC fH
y

Classification of active filter
 Butterworth
 Flat passband and flat stopband
 Chebyshev
 Ripple passband and flat stopband
 Cauer
 Ripple passband and ripple stopband

First order low pass butterworth filter
1
j  1 and  jX C 
R1 V2 RF j 2fC
10KΩ 10KΩ Vin

V1 
 VCC 1  j 2fRC
+15 V
-
 R 
741/351 VO Vo  1  F V1
R V1 R1 

+  VEE
+ 20-k pot at RL
15.9 kΩ C -15 V 10KΩ
Vin
- ˜ 0.01 µF  R 
Vo  1  F 
Vin
 R1  1  j 2fRC
o AF
 jX C 
1   in  in 1  j( f / f H )
R  jX C

Contd.
RF
o AF
AF  1   passband gain of the filter
 R1
in 1  ( f / f H )2
f  frequency of the input signal
1
fH   high cutoff frequency of the filter
2 RC
1. At very low frequencies, that is, f  f H , Voltage gain
o
 AF
in
20 dB (= 20 log 10)
2. At 3 dB ( 20 log 0.707)
-20 dB/decade
o A AF
 F  0.707 AF
in 2
3. At f  f H , 0.707 A F
o
 AF
in Passband Stop band
fH

Problem
 Design a low pass filter at a cut off
frequency of 1 kHz with a pass band
gain of 2

Second order low pass butterworth filter
20-k pot at
R1 15.8 kΩ Voltage gain
o AF
27 KΩ RF 
in 1  ( f / f H )4
VCC
AF -40 dB/decade
- +15 V
0.707AF 1
741/351 VO fH 
R2 R3
2 R2 R3C2C3
+
+ 33 KΩ 33 KΩ RL fH
C3 Frequency
Vin VEE 10KΩ
˜
- C2 0.0047 µF
-15 V
0.0047 µF RF
R1
f  frequency of the input signal (Hz)
1
fH   high cutoff frequency (Hz)
2 R2 R3C2C3
Gain for butterworth response = 1.586

Problem
 Design a second order low pass filter at
high cutoff frequency of 1 kHz.

First order high-pass butterworth filter
R1 RF Voltage gain
10 KΩ 10 KΩ
VCC
- +15 V
20 dB/decade
741/351 AF
0.01 µF VO 0.707A F
+
-15 V RL
+ C 10 KΩ
R VEE
Vin ˜ 20-k pot at
15.9 kΩ Stop band Passband
- fL
RF
R1 o AF ( f / f L )

o  j( f / f L )  f  frequency of the input signal (Hz) in 1 ( f / fL )
2
 AF  
in 1  j( f / f L )  1
fL   low cutoff frequency (Hz)
2  RC

Problem
Design a high-pass filter at cutoff
frequency of 1 kHz with a pass-band
gain of 2

Second order high-pass butterworth filter
20-k pot at
R1 15.8 kΩ Voltage gain
27 KΩ RF
 VCC 40 dB
o

AF
in 1 ) f L / f ) 4
- +15 V
AF
741/351 0.707A F
0.0047 µF 0.0047 µF VO
+
+ C3 -15 V RL
C2
Vin R3  VEE 10KΩ
- ˜ R2
33 KΩ 33 KΩ Stop band Passband
fL Frequency
Where AF  1.586  Passband gain for the second order Butterworth

f  frequency of the input signal (Hz)
f L  low cutoff frequency (HZ)
Higher order filter: Third order low pass
First-order low- Second-order
pass section low-pass section
R1 RF
27 kΩ 27 kΩ
VCC VCC
15V 15V
- -
20-k pot 20-k pot VO
20-k pot A1 A2
at 15.9 kΩ at 15.9 kΩ
at 15.9 kΩ
+ 15V R R + 15V
+ R
VEE C VEE RL
~ C C 0.01 µF
- 0.01 µF 10kΩ
0.01 µF

Fourth order low pass
SECOND-ORDER LOW-PASS SECTION SECOND-ORDER LOW-PASS SECTION
R'1 R' F
R1 RF 18 kΩ 22 kΩ
2.2 kΩ  VCC
15 kΩ
 VCC  15 V
-
VO
 15 V A2
-
20-k pot at A1 R R
15.9 kΩ +
R 20-k pot at 20-k pot at  15 V
15.9 kΩ 15.9 kΩ RL
20-k pot +  15 V  VEE
at 15.9 kΩ R C 10 kΩ
 VEE 0.01 µF C
C C 0.01 µF
+ 0.01 µF 0.01 µF
~
-
• Size increase
• accuracy decrease
• gain fixed limitation
Contd.
o
Gain,
in
AF Third order (-60 dB/decade roll-off)

0.707A F
Fourth order (-80 dB/decade roll-off)
fH Frequency

Band pass filter
 Two types (based on Q factor)
 Wide band pass (Q<10)
 Narrow band pass (Q>10)
fC fC
Q 
BW fH  fL
fC  fH fL

Wide band-pass filter
First-order High- First-order low-

pass section pass section Vo
R'1 R' F Gain,
R1 RF Vin
10 kΩ 10 kΩ A FT +20 dB/decade
10 kΩ 10 kΩ
 VCC  VCC -20 dB/decade
 15 V 0.707A FT
-  15 V - VO
20-k pot
A1 at 15.9 kΩ A2
C
+ +  15 V +  15 V
R’ RL
0.05 µF
Vin ~  VEE  VEE 10kΩ
0.01 µF C’
- R Stop Stop
20-k pot at band Passband band
15.9 kΩ fL fH Frequency
f L  200 H Z f H  2 kH Z
o AFT ( f / f L )

in [1  ( f / f L ) 2 ][1  ( f / f H ) 2 ]

Problem
Design a wide band-pass
filter with fL= 200 Hz and
fH = 1 KHz, and a pass
band gain of 4. calculate
value of Q for the filter.

Band reject filter
 Two types (based on Q factor)
 Wide band reject (Q<10)
 Narrow band reject (Q>10) (notch filter)
fC fC
Q 
BW fH  fL
fC  fH fL

Contd.
R1 RF
10 kΩ 10 kΩ
 VCC
-  15 V
A1 R2 o
R4 Gain,
C 10 kΩ in
+  VEE Passband
Reject
Passband
0.01 µF 10 kΩ band
 15 V
R AF  2
 VCC
+ 20-k pot at R3  15 V
1.414
Vin ~ 15.9 kΩ 10 kΩ -
- 20-k pot VO
A3
at 15.9 kΩ  VCC
+
+  15 V
 VEE RL fH fC fL
R’
R OM  15 V 10 kΩ 200 H Z 1k
0.05 µF C’ A2
3.3 kΩ f C  f H f L  447.2 H Z Frequency
-  V EE
 15 V
R'1 10 kΩ R' F 10 kΩ

Wide band reject filter requirement
 Low cut of frequency of high pass filter must
be larger than high cutoff frequency of low
pass filter
 Pass band gain of both high pass and low
pass must be equal

Problem
Design a wide band reject filter with fL=
1 kHz and fH = 200 Hz

Field Effect Transistor (FET)

Introduction
 Developed in 1960’s
 Operation depend on majority carrier (unipolar transistor)
 Category
 Junction FET (JFET)
 Insulated gate FET (IGFET)
 Metal oxide semiconductor (MOSFET)
 Advantages
 High input impendence (~100 M ohm typical), where BJT typical value 2 k ohm
 Easier to fabricate (suited for IC’s)
 Provide greater thermal stability compared to BJT
 Less noisy than BJT and thus more suitable for input stage of low level amp.
 Relatively immune to radiation, but BJT is very sensitive
 Disadvantage
 Small Gain-bandwidth of device compared to BJT
 Greater susceptibility to damage in handling

JFET
S D
N- type D
Source Drain
D
P N P
G
S
N- Channel, JFET

JFET biasing
Back-biased
- VDS + depletion region
P + D
S n ID +
ID ID
P + +
P V DD
S D Current through
ID n-channel
ID V GS  0V -
ID
P + Constant current
VDD
ID through n-channel
VGS
-
- VGG
+ Pinch off of n-channel
Slope due to resistance

of n-channel
VD
0

Drain source characteristics
I D (mA )  VDD
ID
I D (mA )
VGS  0 V
I DSS I DSS
- -1 V
 VDD I D  I DSS +
VDS
VGS  0 V VGS  -1 V
0 VDS (volts) 0 VDS (volts)

Contd.

Transfer characteristics
2
I D (mA)  V 
I D  I DSS 1  GS 
 VP 
I DSS
VGS  0 V
I D  I DSS
Curve represents
V I D  0 , V GS  V P
I D  I DSS (1  GS ) 2
VP
Vp 0 VGS
(Volts)

Problem
 Determine the drain current of an n-channel JFET
having pinch off voltage Vp = -4 V and drain-source
saturation current IDSS =12 mA at the following gate-
source voltages
 VGS = 0 V, -1.2 V and -2 V

Plotting JFET Characteristics
I DSS I D  0 mA
D D
G G
+ +
VGS  0V VDD -
S VGG VDD
S
- VGS -
+

Contd.
VGS 2 2
VGS I D [ 10 mA(1  ) ]  V 
 5V I D  I DSS 1  GS 
I D (mA)  VP 
(V) (mA)
10 I DSS
0 10
-1 6.4
8 ID
-2 3.6 VGS
-3 1.6 6 I DSS
-4 0.4 0
-5 0 4 0.3VP I DSS
2
2 I DSS
0.5VP
4
-5 -4 -3 -2 VP 0
-1 0 VGS (Volts)
VP

JFET Parameters
 Drain source saturation current (IDSS) – current at which the channel
pinch off when gate-source shorted (VGS=0)
 Pinch-off voltage VP=VGS(off) – gate source voltage at which drain source

channel cut off or pinched off resulting no drain current
 Dynamic drain resistance (rd): ratio of small change in drain voltage to

the small change in drain current, keeping gate voltage constant
 DS
rd 
iD VGS  const
 Mutual conductance or transconductance (gm): ratio of small change in
drain current to the small change in gate voltage, keeping the drain
voltage constant
iD
gm 
GS VDS  const.

JFET Fixed Biasing
 VDD VGS  VG  VS  VGG  0  VGG

RD 2
VO  VGS 
I D  I DSS 1  
C  VP 
VDS
RG ID
VGS VD  VDD  I D RD
-
V
+ GG

Problem
 Find drain current
+12 V
and drain source
voltage ID 1.2 kΩ
D
G
I DSS  12mA
VDS
VP  4V
1 MΩ S
-
1.5 V
+

Graphical approach
VD  VDD  I D RD
ID  0 VD  VDD
0 V  VDD  I D RD
VD  0 V VDD
ID 
RD

JFET with self bias
 With single supply voltage supply
 VDD
ID RD
IG  0 VS  I D RS
VD VG  I G RG  0 V
VG  0V
VDS
VGS  VG  VS  0 V  I D RS
RG VGS VS
VGS   I D RS
ID RS

Contd.
For I D  0 : VGS  (O) RS  0 V
 VP
For VGS  VP : I D 
RS

Problem
 Determine the value of VGS and ID
 VDD (24 V)
6.2 kΩ
I DSS  10 mA
VP  4 V
1 MΩ 1.5 kΩ

Ans
VGS (V) I D (mA)
0 10
[0.3VP ] -1.2 5  I DSS 
 2 
 
[0.5VP ] -2.0  I DSS 

2.5  4 
 
[VP ] -4.0 0
I D (mA) VGS (V)
0 0
 VP 
  -4
 RS  2.67

Voltage divider bias
 VDD RG 2
VG  VDD
RD RG1  RG 2
RG1
Vo
VGS  VG  VS  VG  I D RS
Vi
RG2 RS

Problem
 Determine the bias current in the circuit
+16V
2.4 KΩ
2.1 MΩ
Vo
VP  4V
Vi
0.1µF
I DSS  8 mA
270kΩ 1.5 kΩ 20µF

Ans
VGS (V) I D (mA)
0 8
[0.3VP ] -1.2 4  I DSS 
 2 
 
 I DSS 
[0.5VP ] -2 2  4 
[VP ] -4 0
270 k
VG  (16V)  1.82 V
2.1 M  270 k
VGS  1.82 V  I D (1.5 k) I D (mA) VGS (V)
ID=0, VGS = -1.82V 0 1.82

 VGS 1.82 V 0
For VGS  0 : ID    1.21 mA 1.21
RS 1.5 kΩ

Oscillators

Sinusoidal oscillator
Oscillator is an amplifier which have positive
feedback to supply own inputs voltage
Requirement
 Need a positive feedback (with a resonant circuit)
 Loop gain should be unity

x y
+ +
AB V in V in A V out
- ˜-
Vout = A vin
Vf = AB vin
B

Contd.
A Vout
AB<1 AB>1 AB=1

Initially, AB greater than one, as voltage build up, AB automatically decrease to 1
Starting Voltage : Noise
Wien bridge oscillator
 For low to moderate frequencies (5Hz to 1 M
Hz)
 Uses a feedback circuit called lead leg
network

Lead-lag network
R || ( jX C )
R
C Vout  Vin
R  jX C  R || ( jX C )
1
Vin R C Vout B
9  ( X C /R  R / X C ) 2
XC / R  R / XC
  arctan
3

1
 90 o R
2frC
0o f
fr when X C  R
 90 o
1
fr 
2RC

Practical circuit
 VCC
 Initially tungsten lamp has POSITIVE
FEEDBACK
low resistance +
Vout
 As oscillation build up -
resistance increases and NEGATIVE RL
FEEDBACK  V EE
gain reaches to 3, then 2 R
oscillation stabilize which TUNGSTEN

R
stablize tungsten lamp LAMP
resistance
C
R
R1 2 R
ACL  1 1  3
R2 R R C

Bridge
R 2 R  V CC
C
+
+
Verror A
- -
C
R
RL
R  V EE

Regulated Power Supplies

Introduction
Requirements
 Output voltage constant despite relatively large
changes in line voltage and load current
 Temperature stability
 Variable level of voltages

Voltage feedback regulation
 Use Zener diode as reference Vin
 Keep the voltage constant Series regulator R3
even input voltage and load Q1 Q2

current change due to R S
feedback mechanism +
V- BE
Vout RL
+ -
R2
B
R1  R2 + +
Vin VZ
- - R1
VF  VZ  VBE
+
VF R2
BVout  VZ  VBE -
VZ  VBE VZ  zener voltage

Vout 
B VBE  base - emitter vo ltage of Q1 Vout  regulated output vol tage

Power dissipation in pass transistor
PD  VCE I C
VCE  collector  emitter voltage, Vin  Vout
I C  load current plus divider current
 When load current is heavy pass transistor has to

dissipate lot of power
 Sometime cooling is required

Current limiting
Q2 R4
1Ω
 Series regulator has no
short circuit protection R3
 If accidently short the load
Q3
terminals, we get an RS
enormous load current R1
that will destroy the pass + + RL

transistor or a diode V in V out
- -
V BE  I SL R4
VBE Q1
I SL  R2
R4
where I SL  short  circuit load current

VBE  base  emitter voltage, 0.6 to 0.7 V
R4  current - sensing resistance
Power supply characteristics
 Load regulation
 Source regulation
 Output Impedance
 Ripple Rejection

Fixed Regulator in market
1 2 1 2
Vin LM340-5 Vout Vin LM340-5 Vout
3 3
C1 C2

Modulation

Introduction
Possible way to transmit speech and music
 Convert speech or music into electrical signal and transmit
with a help of antenna.
 Receiver antenna can pick these signals and fed them to a
loudspeaker to reproduce speech or music
 Problem
 Energy of audio signal is low and can not be efficiently
radiated. It will die out after covering even a small distance
 If different transmitting station make transmission
simultaneously, receiver antenna will pick all the singnal and
it will lead to confusion

Contd.
 Solution
 Audio signal superimposed on the high frequency
carrier wave and then transmit. This process is
called modulation.
The audio signal is called modulating wave and
the signal obtained on superimposing it on carrier
waves is called modulated wave, which is of
high frequency

Modulation types
Signal
Carrier
Amplitude modulated
Frequency modulated

Simple Amplitude Modulation
VX
Vout
UPPER ENVELOPE
LOWER ENVELOPE

Example of amplitude modulated RF stage
V CC
R1 RC
COUT
Cin RL
fx
VX ~
R2 CE
RE
Vy ~ fy

Percent modulation
Sinusoidal modulating stage produce sinusoidal
variation in voltage gain expressed by
A  A0 (1  m sin ωy t )
A  instantaneous voltage gain

A0  quiescent voltage gain
m  modulation coeffiecient
Voltage gain varies between A0 (1  m) and A0 (1  m)
Amin  100(1  0.5)  50

if A0  100 and m  0.5
Amax  100(1  0.5)  150

Modulation percent
Percent modulation  m 100%
V V
2Vmax
16
Vmax 2Vmin 4
8
Vmin t 2
t
2Vmax  2Vmin 16  4
m m  0 .6
2Vmax  2Vmin 16  4

AM spectra
out  A x
out  AVx sin  x t
out  A0 (1  m sin  y t )(Vx sin  xt )
out  A0Vx sin ωxt  mA0Vx sin ωy t sin ωxt
mA0Vx mA V
mA0Vx sin ωy t sin ωxt  COS (ωx  ωy )t  0 x COS (ωx  ωy )t
2 2
Vout
UNMODULATED CARRIER
A0 V x (1  m )
A0 V x (1  m )
t A0Vx
t
out  A0Vx sin x t  mA0Vx sin y t sin xt
mA0Vx mA V
mA0Vx sin ω y t sin ωx t  cos (ωx -ω y )t- 0 x cos(ωx  ωy )t
2 2
DIFFERENCE COMPONENT SUM COMPONENT
mA0Vx mA0Vx
2 2
t t

Spectral components
Vin Vout
Vy A0 V x
Vx mA0 V x
2
f f
fy fx ( fx  fy ) fx ( fx  fy )
AM SIGNAL
~ =

Demodulation
 Envelop detector
 Peak detector by diode
Vin
B
C ~ Vin C R Vout
t
RC time constant
function of m

THE END
Wish you all the best

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EN 202 Electronics

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Prof. Rajesh Gupta

Dept. of Energy Science and Engineering

Office: Room No. 3. Near to Energy Sci and Engg. Office

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

 Background of electronics and electrical

 What you expect from this course

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

To give you a basic background of electronics

 Understanding of basic terminology of electronics

 For laboratory experiments

 Minimum electronics knowledge which help in understanding

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

 W.H. Gothmann, Digital Electronics – An Introduction

 A. P. Malvino, J. A. Brown, Electronics : An

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Logic - Opposite of input

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Logic – output is 0 if there is any input 0

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Logic – output is 1 if there is any input 1

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Logic – output is 1 if there is any input 0

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Logic – output is 0 if there is any input 1

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Logic – output is 1 if there are odd number of 1’s in input

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

TTL – Transistor-Transistor Logic

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

 Weight of digit in binary

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Truth table’s should match

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

Realize with less number of gates

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta

EN 202 Electronics Rajesh Gupta