Lecture-1

rt y
• By the end of this lecture, students is
1. Describe the scientific method, e
m will be able to:

C h
fact/observations, hypotheses,
and differentiate
theories and laws;
- compound, homogeneous
2. Classify matter into element,
I U
and heterogeneous mixtures;
3. Describe physicalt H and chemical properties and changes;
4. Identify unitsain the metric system and the SI units;
g
n and systematic errors, accuracy and
5. Define irandom
c h
precision;
a
enotation;
6. Write numbers in the decimal form and in scientific
r t
F o
 Lecture-2
rt y
• By the end of this lecture, students is
1. Distinguish exact and uncertaine
m will be able to:

C
2. Correctly represent uncertainty
h numbers;
in quantities using
significant figures; -
3. Apply proper rounding I Urules in computation;
H
4. Use conversiontfactors in dimensional analysis;
a of temperature units between Celsius,
g
5. Perform conversion
n and Kelvin;
i
Fahrenheit
h
a c
6. Perform calculations involving mass, volume and density

t e
o r
F
 Water, Water Everywhere
y t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 The Three States of Water
Macroscopic and Microscopicry
Views
ist
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
te
o r
F
 Where does Chemistry fit
y in?
t r
is
• Chemistry provides the linksm between the
macroscopic world and the h e
microscopic
C
particles of atoms and-molecules.
U of scientific studies.
• It is relevant to all Iform
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 Roles of Chemistryy
t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 The Central Science
ry
ist
• Chemistry is the study of the e m
properties of
h
matter and changes they undergo.
C
- studies.
• It is central in all scientific
• It is essential in theI U
H understanding of nature;
t
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 What is Matter?
rt y
is
• The materials of the universe m
h e
− anything that has mass C and occupies space
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 Classification of Matter
y t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Classification of Matter
y t r
• Mixture: has variable composition
is
e m
• Homogeneous mixture:
C h
-
One that has uniform appearance and composition
throughout;
I U
• Heterogeneous mixture:
t H
a uniform appearance nor composition
One that has neither
g
– the composition in one part of the mixture may differ
nof other parts;
hi
from those
c
• PureaSubstance: has a fixed composition
t e
o r
F
 Pure Substance
rt y
• Element:
is
e m
h
Composed of only one type of atoms – it cannot be
C
-
further reduced to simpler forms.
• Compound: I U
t H
Composed of atoms of at least two different
a
elements combined chemically in a fixed ratio; it
ng
i
may be reduced into simpler forms or into its
h
c
elements.
a
te
o r
F
 Some Examples
rt y
is
• Elements: carbon, oxygen, iron, copper,
e m argon, etc.
• Compounds: pure water, carbon
C h dioxide, sugar, salt
(sodium chloride), etc.
-
• Homogeneous mixtures:
I U air, gasoline, oil tap water,
mineral water, sodaHdrinks, etc.
t
• Heterogeneousamixtures: sand, soil, coffee beans,
ng
jelly beans, chunky peanut butter; muddy water, etc.
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 What Type of Changes Matter
Undergoes? try
• Physical or Chemical?
is
e m
C h
• Physical Change: -
I U
A process that alters only the states of substances,
H
but not their fundamental compositions.
t
a
g
• ChemicalinChange:
c h
A process that alters the fundamental compositions
e a
of the substance and their identity.
r t
Fo
 Physical Changesy
t r
is
Examples: e m
C
1. Melting: solid becomes
h liquid;
-
2. Freezing: liquid
I U becomes solid;
t
3. Evaporation: H liquid becomes vapor;
a
ng
4. Condensation: vapor becomes liquid;
hi
5. Sublimation: solid becomes vapor;
c
6.eaDissolution: solute dissolves.
r t
Fo
 Chemical Changesy
t r
is
Examples: e m
1. Combustion (burning),C h
2. Decomposition,
-
I U
3. Rotting,
t H
a
4. Fermentation,
ng
i
5. Rancidity,
h
c
6. Corrosion/rusting,
a
t
7.e Any type of chemical reactions
o r
F
 Chemical Reaction y
t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Study of Matter & Changes
y t r
is
e
In chemistry you will study:m
h
• The physical and chemical properties of
C
-
matter at macroscopic and microscopic levels;
I U
• the different states of matter;
H
• factors that determine their physical and
t
a
chemical properties, as well as their stability.
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Atoms vs. Moleculesy
t r
is
e m
C h
-
U
• Matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.
I
H
• Atoms are smallest part of elements that retain the chemical
t
a
properties of the elements.
g
• Molecules units of substances, each contains two or more
n
hi
atoms bound (bonded) together and acts as a unit.
c
• Molecules of an element contains identical atoms;
a
te
molecules of a compound contains atoms of different

o r
elements.
F
 Don’t Believe Atomsy
t r
is
m
They make up everything!
e
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Simple and Complex Molecules
y t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Chemical Reactiony
t r
is
• A process that alters the fundamental
e m
h
composition and identity of the substance;
C
-
• Electrolysis converts water into hydrogen and
oxygen gas; I U
H
• Burning candle changes wax into H2O and CO2;
t
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Electrolysis is a Chemical Process
y t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Roles of Scientistsy
t r
is
e m
• Scientists continuously challenge our
C h
current beliefs about nature, and
always: -
• asking questions
I U about what we have
H
alreadytknown;
• testingaour current knowledge about
ng
hi
everything, either to confirm what
a c already know or to gain new insight.
t e
o r
F
The Process:
The Scientific rt y
is
Method
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Fundamental Steps in Scientific
r y Method
t
is
1. Make an observations and collect data;e m
C h
2. Develop a hypothesis based on available data;
3. Test the hypothesis -
I U
H
(Make prediction & perform experiments)
t
a
4. Collect and analyze more data to support hypothesis
ng
5. Summarizing the results:
hi
• Tested hypotheses become Theory.
ac
e
• Observation of natural behavior of nature
t
o r becomes Scientific Law;
F
 The Scientific Method
y t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Terms in the Scientific Method
rt y
is
1. Hypothesis:
e m
h
a tentative explanation for an observation.
C
2. Theory: -
I U
a set of (tested) hypotheses that gives an overall
H
t
explanation of some natural behavior.
3. ScientificgLaw:
a
i n
c h
a concise statement (or a mathematical formula)
a
that summarizes repeatable observed or
emeasurable behavior of nature.
r t
F o
 Measurements and Units
y t r
Measurement is
e m
h
• Quantitative observations consist of:
C
▪ Number & Units -
I U
(without unit, values become meaningless)

t H
• Examples: a
▪ 65 kgng
hi
▪ 4800 km
(kilogram; unit that implies mass)

ac (kilometer; unit implies distance)

t e▪ 3.00 x 108 m/s

o r (meter per second; unit implies speed)
F
 Measurements
rt y
is
The Number System e m
C h
• Decimal form: -
384,400 I U
0.08206t H
a
g
n Notation:
i
• Scientific
h
a c3.844 x 105 (NOT 384.4 x 10 ) 3

t e 8.206 x 10 -2

o r
F
 Meaning of 10n and 10y-n
t r
• The exponent 10n :
is
e m
▪ if n = 0, 100 = 1;
C h
▪ if n > 0, 10n > 1; -
I U
▪ Examples: 101 = 10; 102 = 100; 103 = 1,000;
t H
a
g 10-n :
• The exponent
n
i
▪ if n >h1, 10 < 1;
-n

a c
▪ Examples: -1 -2 = 0.01; 10-3 = 0.001
t e 10 = 0.1; 10

o r
F
 Units
rt y
is
• Units give meaning to numerical
e m values.
C h
Without Unit - Units
With
384,400 ? I U384,400 km (implies very far)
t H 384,400 cm (not very far)
a
144 ?
n g 144 eggs (implies quantity)
0.08206hi ? 0.08206 L.atm
/
a c
(Noemeaning)
(K.mol)

r t
Fo
 English Units try
is
e m
Mass: ounce (oz.), pound h (lb.), ton;
C (ft), yd, mi., etc;
Length: inches (in),-feet
I U in3, ft3, etc.;
Volume: pt, qt, gall.,
Area: 2
H
ina, tft2, yd2, mi2, acre, hectare.
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Metric Units try
is
Mass: gram (g): kg, mg,he
m
mg, ng;
Length: meter (m): cm, C
- mm, km, mm, nm, pm;
Area: cm2, m2, km I U 2

Volume: L, mL, t HmL, dL, cm3, m3;

a3
n g
(1 cm = 1 mL; 1 m3 = 103 L)
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 Fundamental SI Units
rt y
Physical Quantity Name of Unitis Abbreviation
Mass e
kilogram
m kg
Length C
meter
h m
-second
Time
Temperature HIU Kelvin K
s

Amount of substanceat mole mol

ng
Energy
hi Joule J

ac
Electrical charge Coulomb C
te
Electric current ampere A
o r
F
 Prefixes in the Metric System
y t r
• Prefix Symbol 10n s
iDecimal Forms
Giga G 109
m
e 1,000,000,000
Mega M 106 C h 1,000,000
kilo k 103 - 1,000
deci d I U
10-1 0.1
centi c t H 10-2 0.01
a
milli m
ng 10-3 0.001
micro him 10-6 0.000,001
nano a c n 10-9 0.000,000,001
pico te p 10-12 0.000,000,000,001
o r
F
 Mass and Weight
rt y
is
e m
• Mass is a measure of quantity of substance;
C h
• Mass does not vary with condition or location.
-
I U
• Weight is a measure of the gravitational force of
t H
attraction exerted on an object;
a
g
• Weight varies with location if the gravitational
n
hi
force changes.
ac
• (Earth gravitational constant is 9.8 m/s2 ; moon
te
gravitational constant is 1.625 m/s2.
o r
F
 Types of Errors in Measurements
y t r
is
• Random errors e m
C
1. values have equal chances
h of being high or low;
- from one measurement
2. magnitude of error varies
to another; I U
H
3. error may bet minimize by taking the average of
a
several measurements of the same kind.
ng
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 Errors in Measurements
ry
ist
e m
• Systematic errors h
- C
1. Errors due to faulty instruments;
I U
2. reading is either higher or lower than the correct
values;
t H
a
3. the magnitude of error is the same, regardless of
ng
quantity measured;
hi
4. For balances, systematic errors can be eliminated
ac
by weighing by difference.
te
o r
F
 Accuracy and Precision
in Measurements ry
ist
• Accuracy e m
C h
Agreement of an experimental value with the
-
“true” or accepted value;
I U
t H
• Precision a
g agreement among values of same
Degreeinof
c h
measurements; reproducibility of experimental
a
results;
e
r t
F o
 Accuracy and Precision
ry
ist
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Accuracy and Precision
y t r
is
• In a given set of measurement, e m accuracy and
precision are defined by C
h
the type of instrument
used. -
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 Balances with Different Precisions
rt y
is
e m
C h
-
I U
Centigram Balance
t H
a
(precision: ± 0.01 g)
ng
hi Milligram Balance

a c (precision: ± 0.001 g)

te
o r
F
 Analytical Balance
(precision: ± 0.0001 g)t r y
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Significant Figures
rt y
• Expressing measured values with degree is of certainty;
• For examples: e m
C h
• Mass of a penny on a centigram balance = 2.51 g;
-
(Absolute error on measurement = 0.4%)
• Mass of same penny I Uon analytical balance = 2.5089 g;
t
(Absolute error H
on measurement = 0.004%)
a gives the mass of penny with 5 significant
g
Analytical balance
n a higher precision; the centigram balance
i
figures, implying
yields thehmass of the same penny with 3 significant figures,
a
implying
c a lower precision.
t e
o r
F
 How many significant figures are
rt y
shown in the following measurements?
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 What is the buret reading
rt y
shown in the diagram? is
e m
• Reading liquid volume in a buret;
C h
• Read at the bottom of meniscus; -
I
• Suppose meniscus is read as U
20.15 mL: t H
a
g
– Certain digits: 20.15
n
i
– Uncertain digit: 20.15
h
a c
• Buret readings must be recorded with 2
t e digits, as shown above.
decimal
o r
F
 What is the volume of liquidy in
t r
is
the graduated cylinder?
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
te
o r
F
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
rt y
is
m
e figures;
1. All nonzero integers are significant
Examples: C h
-
453.6 has four significant figures;
I U
4.48 x 105 has three significant figures;
t H
0.00055 has two significant figures.
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
rt y
is
e m
2. Captive zeroes – (zeroes between nonzero digits)
are significant figures. C h
Examples: -
I U
1.079 has four significant figures;
t H
1.0079 has five significant figures;
a
g
0.08206 has four significant figures.
n
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
rt y
is
m
3. Leading zeroes – (zeroes preceding nonzero digits)
e
C h
are NOT counted as significant figures.
-
Examples: I U
t H
0.00055 has two significant figures;
a
g
0.082059 has five significant figures;
n
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
rt y
is
e m
4. Trailing zeroes – (zeroes at the right end of a value)
h
are significant in all values with decimal points,
C
-
but not in those values without decimal points.
Examples: I U
H
208.0 has four significant figures;
t
a
2080. also has four significant figures, but
ng
i
2,080 has three significant figures, and
h
ac
2,000 has only one significant figure.
te
o r
F
 Rules for Counting Significant Figures
rt y
is
m
5. Exact numbers – numbers given by definition, or
e
h
those obtained by counting.
C
-
• They have infinite number of significant figures; meaning the
value has no error.
I U
Examples:
t H
a
1 yard = 36 inches; 1 inch = 2.54 cm (exactly);
ng
i
there are 24 eggs in the basket;
h
c
this class has 60 students enrolled;
a
e
(There are 35,600 spectators watching the A’s game at the
t
r
Coliseum is not an exact number, because it is an estimate.)
o
F
Exercise-#1: How many significant figures?
rt y
(a) 0.00239 is
e m
(b)
(c)
0.082060
1.050 x 10-3 C h
(d) 100.40
-
I U
(e) 168,000
t H
(f) a
1 mile = 1760 yards
(g) g
1 yard = 0.9144 m
n
(h) hi
That basket contains 24 apples;
(i) a c
14,850 people watched 2017 Wimbledon final
te between Roger Federer and Martin Cilic.
o r
F
 Rounding off Values in Calculations
y t r
• In Multiplications and/or Divisions is
m
e it has the same
Round off the final answer sohthat
number of significant figures C as the value with the
least significant figures.-
I U
Examples:
t H
(a) 9.546 x 3.12a= 29.8 (round off from 29.78352)
n
(b) 9.546/2.5g = 3.8 (round off from 3.8184)
h i
(c) (9.546 x 3.12)/2.5 = 12 (round off from 11.913408)
a c
t e
o r
F
 Rounding off Calculatedyvalues
t r
• In Additions and/or Subtractions is
e m
C h
Round off the final answer so that it has the same
number of digits after the decimal point as the data
-
value with the least number of such digits.
I U
Examples:
tH
a = 60.9 (round off from 60.865)
(a) 53.6 + 7.265
g = 46.3 (round off from 46.335)
(b) 53.6 –n7.265
(c) 41 h
i
a c + 7.265 – 5.5 = 43 (round off from 42.765)

t e
o r
F
 Exercise-#2: Rounding off Values
y t r
is
• Round off the following values to the number of significant
figures indicated in parenthesis. e m
•
C h
• (a) 0.037421 (to 3 sig. fig.) = -________________
•
I U
t H
• (b) 1.5587 (to 2 sig. fig.) = __________________
a
• (c) 29,979 (to 3gsig. fig.) = __________________
i n
•
c
• (d) 201,035
h
e a (to 4 sig. fig.) = _________________

r t
F o
 Exercise-#3: Values consistent with
Precision rt y
is
• Express the following quantities using the significant figures
m
that are consistent with the precisione(that would imply the
state error).
C h
• (a) 2.3 ± 0.001 = _______________ -
I U
H
• (b) 22,500 ± 10 = _______________
t
• (c) 21.45 ± 0.02 =a________________
g
• (d) 0.00549i±n0.0001 = _____________
c h
e a
r t
• (Answer: (a) 2.300; (b) 2.250 x 10 ; (c) 21.45; (d) 0.0055)
4

F o
 Exercise-#4: Significant Figures
rt y
is
• Perform the following mathematical operations and express
the answer with the correct number of e m
significant figures.
C h
• (a) 3.227 x 1.54 ÷ 0.17925 = ____________
-
• (b) 8.2198 + 0.253 – 5.32U
I = _____________
H + 15.3) = _____________
• (c) (8.52 + 4.159) x t(18.73
a
g
6.626 x 10−34 J.s
n
108 m
x (3.00 x s )
• (d)
h i
5.5 x 10−7 m
= _____________

a c
t e
o r
• (Answer: (a) 27.7; (b) 3.15; (c) 431 -19
(d) 3.6 x 10 J)

F
 Mean, Median & Standard Deviation
y t r
• Mean = average
is
e m
Example:
C h
-
• Consider the following temperature values:
U
20.4oC, 20.6oC, 20.3oC, 20.5oC, 20.4oC, and 20.2oC;
I
H
(Is there any outlying value that we can throw away?)
t
• No outlyingavalue, the mean temperature is:
n g
(20.4h+i20.6 + 20.3 + 20.5 + 20.4 + 20.2) ÷ 6 = 122.4/6
a c o
= 20.40 C

r te
Fo
 Mean, Median & Standard Deviation
y t r
is
Median:
e m
h
1. the middle value (for odd number samples) or
C
-
2. average of two middle values (for even number)

U
3. when values are arranged in ascending or descending
I
order.
tH
Arranging the a temperatures from lowest to highest:
g
n20.3 C, 20.4 C, 20.4 C, 20.5 C, and 20.6 C,
o
i
20.2 C,
h
o o o o o

thecmedian = (20.4 C + 20.4 C)/2 = 20.4 C

o o o

e a
r t
Fo
 Mean, Median & Standard Deviation
y t r
is
 i
( X -eXm) 2

(nh− 1)
• Standard Deviation: S = ; (for n < 10)
-C
i
I U
(n = sample size; X = measured value; X = mean value)

t H
a figure only.]
[Note: calculated value for std. deviation should have
g
one significant
n
hi o

a c
For above temperatures, S = 0.1; mean = 20.4 ± 0.1 C

t e
o r
F
 Calculating Mean Value
y t r
• Consider the following masses ofm is
pennies (in grams):
e 2.49, and 2.51;
2.48, 2.50, 2.52, 2.49, 2.50,h3.02,
• Is there an outlyer? - C
I U in the group – can be discarded
Yes; 3.02 does not belong
t H
mean, median,g
a
• Outlying values should not be included when calculating the
or standard deviation.
i n
• Average or
c h mean mass of pennies:
(2.48a+ 2.50 + 2.52 + 2.49 + 2.50 + 2.49 + 2.51) ÷ 7 = 2.50 g;
t e
o r
F
 Calculating Standard Deviation
rt y
− − is
( X - X ) ( X - X )
_________________________
i i
2

e m
-0.02 0.0004
C h
-0.00 0.0000 -
0.02 0.0004
I U
H (X
2
-0.01 0.0001 - X)
0.00 0.0000 at S=
i

( n − 1)
-0.01
ng0.0001
0.01 hi 0.0001___
=
0.0011

a
Sum:
c 0.0011
(7 - 1)
= 0.0135 = 0.01
te
------------------------------------------
o r
F
 Mean and Standard Deviation
rt y
is
• The correct mean value that is consistent
e m with the
h
precision is expressed as follows:
C
2.50 ±- 0.01
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 What if outlying values are not obvious?
rt y
• Perform Q-test on questionable values is
e m as follows:

• Q = C h
| Questionable value - nearest neighbor |
(Highest v alue --Lowest value)
calc

U
• Compare Q with QI in Table-2 at the chosen
calc
H tab
confidence level tfor the matching sample size;
a
• If Q < Q g, the questionable value is retained;
calc
i n
tab
• If Q >hQ , the questionable value is can rejected.
a c
calc
(Questionable
tab
values: highest and lowest values in a set of data)
t e
o r
F
 Rejection Quotient y
t r
is
• Rejection quotient, Q , at 90% confidence
• ———————————————————
tab
e m level

• Sample size Q ___ C

tab
h
• 4 0.76 -
• 5 0.64IU
• 6 t H
0.56
• 7 a0.51
• 8 in
g 0.47
• 9 ch 0.44
• e
10a 0.41
r t
——————————
F o
 Determining Outlyers using Q-test
rt y
• Consider the following set of data: is
e m
0.5230, 0.5325, 0.5560, 0.5250,
C h 0.5180, and 0.5270;
• Two questionable values are:-0.5180 & 0.5560 (the lowest and
I
highest values in the group) U
• Perform Q-test at 90%H confidence level on 0.5180:
t
| 0.5180 - 0.5230a| 0.0050
= = 0.13  0.56
n g
(0.5560 - 0.5180) 0.0380
• Q = 0.13 h i
calc.
• (limit a
c < 0.56

t e at 90% confidence level for sample size of 6)

o r
• We keep 0.5180.

F
 Performing Q-test on questionable value
rt y
• Qcalc for 0.5560: is
e m
| 0.5560 - 0.5325 | 0.0235 h
• = (0.5560 - 0.5180) = 0.0380 = 0.618  0.56
C
-
• Qcalc. = 0.618 > 0.56I U
t H
• (Q = 0.56 foran = 6 at 90% confidence level)
tab

ng
• We reject 0.5560.
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 Calculate the mean using acceptable values
rt y
is
Mean , X = e m
(0.5230 + 0.5325 + 0.5250 + 0.5180 + 0.5305)

C h 5
2.6290
= -
= 0.52580
5
I U
t H
a
n g
hi
a c
t e
o r
F
 Calculating Standard Deviation
rt y
Xi
__
(Xi - X )
__
( X i - X )2 is
⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯⎯
e m
• 0.5230 -0.0028 7.8 x 10-6
C h
• 0.5325 0.0067 4.5 x 10-5 -
• 0.5250 -0.0008
I U
6.4 x 10-7
• 0.5180 -0.0078
t H
6.1 x 10-5
• 0.7270 0.0012 a1.4 x 10-6

ng S = 1.16 x 10-4
hi
ac __
S( X i - X ) 2 1.16 x 10-4
S=
te = = 0.00539 = 0.005

o r ( n - 1) 4

F
 Writing the Mean with Precision
rt y
is
• Standard deviation provides the precision of calculated
e m
mean; it indicates where uncertainty occurs;
C
• The calculated mean is 0.52580,
h but standard deviation is
± 0.005; not consistent. -
U decimal placing;
• Uncertainty occurs on Ithird
H
• The mean must betrounded off to be consistent with the
a
g
precision, such as:
• Meanin= 0.526 ± 0.005
c h
e a
r t
F o
Mean value must be consistent with the precision
rt y
is
Standard deviation:
e m
h
1. should be rounded off to one significant digit;
C
-
2. indicates the placing in the mean value where
U
uncertainty begins to appear;
I
H
3. The mean should be rounded off to include this
t
uncertainty. a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
Data Table for Standard Deviation
• 𝑥)ҧ 2 rt y
𝑥𝑖
3.112
(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)ҧ
0.0234
(𝑥𝑖 −
0.000548 is
3.109 0.0204 0.000416
e m
3.059 -0.0296 h
0.000876
C
3.079 -0.0096
-
0.000092
3.129 0.0404
I U 0.001632
3.081
3.050
0.0076
t
-0.0386 H 0.000058
0.001490
3.072 a
-0.0166 0.000276
3.064
ng -0.0246 0.000605
3.131
hi 0.0424 0.001798
S = 30.886
a c S = 0.007791

te
𝑥ҧ = 3.0886; Std. Deviation = 0.03

o r
𝑥ҧ = 3.09  0.03 (Mean value is consistent with the precision of data.)

F
 Problem Solving by Dimensional Analysis
rt y
is
• Value sought = value given x conversion
e m factor(s)
Example:
C h
- (1 mi. = 1.609 km)
What is 26 miles in kilometers?
I U
Value sought: ? km;
t H value given = 26 miles;
a 1 mi. = 1.609 km
conversion factor:
g
n x (1.609 km/1 mi.) = 41.834 km
? km = 26imi.
h
c = 42 km (rounded off to 2 sig. fig.)
Finalaanswer
t e
o r
F
 Exercise-#5: Unit Conversion
rt y
is
1. Express 26 miles per gallon (mpg) to kilometers per
liter (kmpL). e m
• (1 mile = 1.609 km and 1 gallon
C h = 3.7854 L)
-
2. The speed of light is I U3.00 x 10 m/s; what is the
8

speed in miles pert H hour (mph)?

• (1 km = 1000 m; a 1 hour = 3600 s)
ng
h i
• (Answer:a c 8

t e (1) 11 kmpL; (2) 6.71 x 10 mph)

o r
F
 Exercise-#6: Mean and Standard Deviation
rt y
is
• A student weighed 12 pennies on a balance and recorded the
following masses: e m
3.109 g 3.059 g 2.518 h
3.112 g
3.081 g 2.504 g 3.050 g -
C g 3.079 g 3.129 g
3.072 g 3.064 g 3.131 g;
1) Are there outliers among I U the masses of pennies?
2) Calculate the mean
t H mass of pennies and the standard

precision. g
a
deviation excluding the outliers. Write the mean mass with

i n
c h
e a
• (Answer:
r t (a) 2.518 g and 2.504 g are outliers;
(b) mean with precision = 3.09 ± 0.03 g; std. deviation = 0.03 g)

F o
 Density
rt y
Mass is
Density = e m
Volume
C h
-
(Mass = volume x density; Volume = mass/density)
I U
t H
Units: g/mL or g/cm3 (for liquids or solids)
a
g
g/L (for gases)
n
hi
c
a unit: kg/m3
SI
t e
o r
F
 Determining Volumes
y t r
• Rectangular objects: V = lengthm is
x width x thickness;
h
• Cylindrical objects: V = pr l (or
2
epr h);2

- C
• Spherical objects: V = ( / )pr
4 3

I U 3

t
• Liquid displacement H method:
a
the volumegof object submerged in a liquid is equal
i n of liquid displaced by the object.
to the volume
c h
e a
r t
F o
 Volume by Displacement Method
y t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F
 Density Determination
y t r
is
Example-#1:
e m
h
A cylindrical metal bar weighs 79.38 g. If the bar
C
measures 8.50 cm and has a diameter of 2.10 cm,
what is the density of metal?
-
I U
t H
2.10 𝑐𝑚 2
Volume = p( a ) x 8.50 cm = 29.4 cm3
ng 2

Density h i
= 79.38 g/29.4 cm 3 = 2.70 g/cm3
a c
t e
o r
F
 Density Determination
y t r
is
Example-#2:
e m
h
A 100-mL graduated cylinder is filled with 35.0 mL
C
of water. When a 45.0-g sample of zinc pellets is
-
poured into the graduate, the water level rises to 41.3
I U
H
mL. Calculate the density of zinc.
t
a
Volume of zinc
ng pellets = 41.3 mL – 35.0 mL = 6.3 mL
i
h zinc = 45.0 g/6.3 mL = 7.1 g/mL (7.1 g/cm )
Densitycof 3

e a
r t
Fo
 Exercise-#7: Density Calculation #1
rt y
is
• The mass of an empty flask was 64.25 g. When filled with
m
water at 20 C, the combined masseof flask and water was
o
h
91.75 g. When the water in the flask was replaced with the
Ccombined mass of flask and
same volume of an alcohol,-the
U
alcohol was 85.90 g. (a) If we assume that the density of
I
H
water is 0.998 g/mL, what was the volume of water in the
flask? (b) What istthe density of alcohol? (c) Express
a
density in SI unit.
ng
h i
c
(Answer:
a
3
(a) 27.6 mL; (b) 0.786 g/mL; (c) 786 kg/m )

t e
o r
F
 Exercise-#8: Density Calculation #2
rt y
is
A 50-mL graduated cylinder weighs
empty. When filled with 30.0 mL e m 41.30 g when
of water, the
combined mass is 71.25 g. C Ah piece of metal is
dropped into the water in-cylinder, which causes the
water level to increase I Uto 36.9 mL. The combined
t H
mass of cylinder, water and metal is 132.65 g.

respectively.g
a
Calculate the densities of water and metal,

i n
(Answer: c h
0.998 g/mL and 8.9 g/mL, respectively)
e a
r t
Fo
 Temperature y
tr is
• Temperature scales: m
1. Celsius (oC) he
2. Fahrenheit (oF) - C
3. Kelvin (K) I U
t H
a
Reference temperatures: freezing and boiling point
ng
i
of water:
T c=h0 C = 32 F = 273.15 K
f
o o
a
eT = 100 C = 212 F = 373.15 K
r t b
o o

Fo
 Temperature Conversion
y t r
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
a c
t e
o r
Prentice-Hall © 2002 General Chemistry: Chapter 1 Slide 85 of 19
F
 Relative Temperature Scales
rt y
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r General Chemistry: Chapter 1
F
 Temperature Conversion
rt y
• Fahrenheit to Celsius:
is
e m
5 o
C
(T F - 32 F) x ( o ) = T o C
o o
C h
9 F -
Example: convert H I U
o
98.6 F to C; o

a t o
5 C
(98.6 F -g32 F) x (
o o
) = 37.0 Co

i n o
9 F
c h
e a
r t
Fo
 Temperature Conversion
rt y
• Celsius to Fahrenheit:
is
e m
9 o
F
C
T C x ( o ) + 32 o F = T o F
o h
5 C -
Example: convert H Io
U
25.0 C to F; o

a ot
9 F
25.0 Cg
o
x( ) + 32 F = 77.0 F
o o

i n 5Co

c h
e a
r t
Fo
 Temperature Conversion
y t r
is
• Celsius to Kelvin: T oC + 273.15 m =TK
h e
• Kelvin to Celsius: T K –C273.15 = T oC
-
Examples: convert: H I U
o t
a = 25.0 + 273.15 = 298.2 K
25.0 C to Kelvin

310. K ito
o
g
n C = 310. – 273.15 = 37 C
o

c h
e a
r t
F o
 Exercise-#9: Temperature Conversion #1
rt y
o is
1) What is the temperature of 65.0 F expressed in
degree Celsius and in Kelvin?em
C h
-
U nitrogen at 1 atm is 77 K.
2) The boiling point ofIliquid
What is the boiling
t Hpoint of nitrogen in degrees
a
Celsius and Fahrenheit, respectively?
ng
hi
a c
(Answers: o
(1) 18.3 C; 291.5 K;
t e (2) -196 C; -321 F)
o o

o r
F
 Exercise-#10: Temperature Conversion #2
rt y
is
o o mthermometer, the
Suppose that a new thermometer uses a T-scale that
ranges from -50 T to 300 T. On e this
freezing point of water is -20 Thand its boiling point 230
o
o
T. (a) If this thermometer records - C a temperature value of
o

(b) Derive a formulaH I U

92.5 T, what is the temperature in degrees Celsius?
that would enable you to convert a
T-scale temperature
a t to degrees Celsius.

n C
Answer: (a)i45.0
g o

c h o

e a (b) ( x + 20) T x (
1 C
) =? C
o

r t 2.5 T

Fo
 rt y
is
e m
C h
-
I U
t H
a
ng
hi
ac
te
o r
F