I.

Definition
 Modal is a verb used with another verb to express an idea such as the
possibility that is not expressed by the main verb.
 A verb that functions to some extent like a modal verb, typically in the
way it forms negative and interrogative constructions
II. Type of modal verb
 Ability
 Permission
 Advice
 Obligation
 Degrees of certainty
 Criticism
III. Use 
 A modal is a type of auxiliary (helping) verb that is used to express:
ability, permission, advice, obligation, degrees of certainty, criticism.
 Modal phrases (or semi-modals) are used to express the same things as
modals but are a combination of auxiliary verbs and the preposition to. 
IV. Form
 Modal verbs
1. Affirmative (+) forms:

  S + modal V + V-infintive

 do not change form for tense or person.
           Ex: We thought he might sell the house
 always go before other verbs in a verb phrase:
           Ex:  I think the bill could be expensive.
 cannot be used with another modal verb
           Ex: Windsurfing can be difficult.
                  Not: Windsurfing can might be difficult……
-    can only be used alone when the main verb is clearly understood:
           Ex: A: She could take the bus. 
                 B: Yeah, that’s true. She could. (She could take the bus.)
             
2. Negative (−) forms
                                       S + modal V+ not + V-infintive 
  don’t use don’t/doesn’t/didn’t with modal verbs:
           Ex: We can’t hear very well at the back.
                Not: We don’t can hear very well …
  
 3.  Question forms:                              
                                        Modal V+ S+ V-infinitive?
 The subject and the modal verb change position to form questions. We
don’t use do/does/did.
   Ex: Could you help me?
  Not: Do you could help me?  
   + use modal verbs in question tags
 Ex: You can’t live like that, can you?

 Contracted forms
  
modal verb uncontracted negative contracted negative

can cannot can’t

could could not couldn’t

may may not

might might not mightn’t

will will not *won’t or ’ll not

shall shall not *shan’t or ’ll not

would would not *wouldn’t/ or ’d not

should should not shouldn’t

must must not mustn’t

 Modal Verb and Adverb 

 usually put adverbs in mid-position between the modal verb and the
main verb:
Ex: Loud noises may sometimes frighten dogs and other animals.
     You’ll probably notice something different about the
house.
     + When the main verb is understood, we can put the adverb between
the subject and the modal verb
   Ex: A: I can never remember Flo’s number.
             B: I never can either. (I can never remember Flo’s number either.)
 Semi-modal verbs: dare, need, ought to, used to

Dare, need, ought to and used to are often called semi-modal because in
some ways they are formed like modal verbs and in some ways they are
like other main verbs.
Like modal verbs, ought to and used to do not change form for person.
Needn’t and daren’t do not have a third person -s in the present:

It used to be so easy. It ought to be easy now.

She needn’t worry.

John daren’t tell Ruth about the accident.

Like main verbs, the negative form of need, dare and used to is made by
using do. But it can also be made without using do (like modal verbs).
Compare

You don’t need to dress smartly. You needn’t dress smartly.

We don’t dare (to) tell him. We daren’t tell him.

The negative form of ought to is not made with do:

We oughtn’t to spend so much money.

Not: We don’t ought to spend so much money.

Like main verbs, the question form for need, dare and used to is made by
using do:

Does she need to get a camera before she goes away?

Did you use to play football when you were a child?

Question and negative forms of ought to are rare.

IV. Modal verbs:

1. Ability: can, could be able to 
 Real ability:
 current or general ability: can, can’t
Ex: You can’t really speak seven languages fluently, can you?
       I can play the piano.
       She can speak English.
 past ability: could, couldn’t
Ex: I could read when I was four.
       She could speak French when she was a child, but now
she has forgotten it.
 decisions made now about future ability: can, can’t, could,
couldn’t
           Ex: I can get you a cake when I go to the bakery if you like
       I can help you tomorrow
 future ability: will/ won’t be able to
           Ex: At the end of the course, you will be able to make your
own website.
                            He won't be able to speak Japanese in a week! It will take
months.
 Hypothetical ability: 
 current and general hypothetical ability: could, couldn’t
Ex: I couldn’t go on a quiz game. I’d be too scared. 
       He couldn’t drive – he's too tired.
 future hypothetical ability: could, couldn’t
       Ex: I could go with them to the cinema tomorrow but I won’t
because I’ve already seen the film. 
 Past hypothetical ability: could have, couldn’t have
                 could have P2: means that something was possible in the past,
or you had the ability to do something in the past, but that you didn't do it. 
                 Ex: I could have stayed up late, but I decided to go to bed early.
                       They could have won the race, but they didn't try hard
enough.
              couldn’t have P2: means that something wasn't possible in the
past, even if you had wanted to do it.
                 Ex: I couldn't have arrived any earlier. There was a terrible traffic
jam (= it was impossible for me to have arrived any earlier).
                       He couldn't have passed the exam, even if he had studied
harder. It's a really, really difficult exam.
Note:
 We sometimes use be able to instead of can and could to talk about
ability. However, we avoid be able to -
 when we talk about something that is happening as we speak

Ex: Watch me, Mum; I can stand on one leg. (not ... I'm able to
stand on one leg.) 
 before passives:
          Ex: CDs can now be copied easily. (rather than CDs are now
able to be copied...) 
 when the meaning is 'know how to':

                   Ex: Can you cook? (rather than Are you able to cook?)
 If we talk about a single achievement, rather than a general ability in
the past, we usually use be able to rather than could. Compare:
Sue could play the flute quite well. (or ...was able to...; a general
ability) and 
She swam strongly and was able to cross the river easily, even
though it was swollen by the heavy rain. (not She swam strongly and could
cross...; a specific achievement) 
 However, could is usually more natural - 
   in negative sentences: 

Ex: I tried to get up but I couldn't move. (rather than ...I wasn't able to
move.)

 with verbs of the senses - e.g. feel, hear, see, smell, taste - and
with verbs of thinking'
 Ex:  I could remember the crash, but nothing after that. (rather than I
was able to remember...)
 after the phrases the only thing/place/time, and after all when it
means 'the only thing':
           Ex: All we could see were his feet. (rather than All we were able
to...) 
 to suggest that something almost didn't happen, particularly with
almost, hardly, just, nearly:
           Ex: I could nearly touch the ceiling. (rather than I was nearly able
to...)

2. Permission
 asking for permission: may, could, couldn’t, can, can’t 
We use Can I? / Could I? / May I? to ask for permission.
 1. Can is informal: Can I speak to John Wilson, please?
 2. Could is more formal and polite: Could I speak to John Wilson,
please?
 3. May is the most formal: May I speak to John Wilson, please?
             - giving and refusing permission: may, may not, could, couldn’t, can, can’t 
 We use can when we give someone permission to do something:
Ex: You can bring a friend to the party if you want.
      You can borrow my phone if your battery is dead.
 We use could to say that something was permitted in the past:
Ex: Many years ago you could smoke in cinemas, but now it's
banned.
Note: Could and be allowed to: talking about permission To say that in the
past someone had general permission to do something - that is, to do it at
any time - we can use either could or was/were allowed to. However, to talk
about permission for one particular past action, we use was/were allowed
to, but not could. Compare:
          Ex: Anyone was allowed to fish in the lake when the council owned it.
(or ...could fish...) and
Although he didn't have a ticket, Ken was allowed to come in. (not ...could
come in.) 
 We use can't to say that something isn't permitted:
          Ex: You can't park here – it's private property.
                   He can't drive my car – he doesn't have insurance.
 We use couldn't / wasn't allowed to to say that something was not
permitted in the past:
          Ex: We couldn't cross the border without our passports.
Note: In negative sentences, we can use either couldn't or wasn't/weren't
allowed to to say that permission was not given in general or particular
situations:
Ex: We couldn't/weren't allowed to open the presents until Christmas
morning.
3. Advice
 Asking for and giving advice: should, shouldn’t ought to, oughtn’t to,
better 
Ex: You should eat healthy food.
You should exercise every day.
They ought to hurry, their train is leaving.
Jane ought to visit that castle, it’s great!
You had better (You’d better) leave for work, it’s 8 o’clock already.
We’d better go that way, we’ll save about 10 minutes.
Note: + We can only use hadn't better in questions.
           Ex: Hadn't you better check that these information are actually true? 
 We can also use might/may as well to give advice and make
suggestions. This suggests that, although the suggestion is not
perfect, there is no better option.
Ex: We may as well watch this as there's nothing else on.
 Should I phone for a taxi for you?
Who should I pass the message to?
 Note that in sentences like these we can also use shall with a very similar
meaning, and ought to is also used in questions, although less commonly.  
 Compare the use of shall and should in sentences such as the following,
where 'I shall' means 'I intend to' and 'I should' means 'I ought to':
Ex: I shall read the script on the train tomorrow. (or I'll read...)
I should read the script on the train tomorrow but I know that I'll be
too tired.
   We prefer had better if we want to express particular urgency and in
demands and threats:
Ex: There's someone moving about downers. We'd better call the
police, quickly. 
 we use should (or would), not ought to, when we give advice with I...:
Ex: I should leave early tomorrow if I were you. (or I would leave...; or
I'd leave...)
  we prefer should in questions, particularly wh-questions:
Ex: What should I do if I have any problems? Should I ring you at
home?
           Some people might use 'What ought I to do...?' and 'Ought I to...?',
but this is rather formal. 
4. Criticism:
 Criticizing past behavior: should have, shouldn’t have, ought to have,
oughtn’t to have
 should (ought to) have P2: can mean something that would have
been a good idea, but that you didn't do it and you are sorry that it
didn’t
Ex: John should (ought to) have left early, then he wouldn't have
missed the plane
       
 shouldn’t (ought not to) have P2: means that something wasn't a
good idea, but you did it anyway.
Ex: You shouldn’t (ought not to) have leaked our confidential report to
the press
 Expressing annoyance at past behavior: could have, might have
Ex: She’s gone with us. She could/ might have waited.
       You might/could have done the ironing instead of leaving it all to
me 
 Criticizing general behavior: will
Ex: If you will keep interrupting me, how can I answer your question?
     They’ll happily spend the whole day playing computer games.
 Criticizing a specific example of someone’s general behavior: would
Ex: I was happy when Sam left. He would talk about the people
behind their backs.
      He would say he loved me when he wanted to borrow my money. 
Note: You can also use “might as well” to suggest criticism
             Ex: I might as well be dead for all you care.
      5. Obligation:
 Current or general obligation: must, mustn’t, have (got) to, need (to)
             Ex: You have to wear the right uniform.
                   I must do my homework right now or else someone will do me
in.
                   I have got to fill in this form. The deadline is tomorrow
                     You need to go to the hairdressers. Your hair is very long
                    He mustn’t eat peanuts. He’s allergic to nuts
 A lack of current or general obligation: don’t have to, haven’t got to,
needn’t, don’t need (to)
             Ex: You don’t have to bring food on the trip.
                      I don’t need to pay now. I can pay later.
 Future obligation: will have to, must, mustn’t, have (got) to, will need
(to)
Ex: The concert will have to call off because of the coming storm.
       You must pass the final exam by hook or by crook.
       Jane’s got to be at the doctor’s by three o’clock.
   A lack of future obligation: don’t/won’t have to, haven’t got to, needn’t,
don’t/ won’t need to
Ex: You don’t need to help me with my project tomorrow.
            We won’t have to do any more research on this topic.
 Past obligation: had to, needed (to) 
              Ex: I had to wear a school uniform when I was a child.
                    I needed to drink a few cups of coffee in order to stay awake.
 A lack of past obligation: didn’t have to, didn’t need (to), needn’t have
              Ex: We didn't have to go to school on Saturdays.
                    You didn’t need to write the letter; it was a waste of time
because we have it in.
* Watch out: 
  We are more likely to use 
 must: for personal obligation (making our own decision and
what we must do) 
 have to: for external obligation (someone else making a
decision about what we must do)
 Have got to: is common in British English and is stronger than
have to.
 We use “need to” to talk about what is necessary.
 Using must for questions is extremely formal. We usually use have to
  Ex: Do you have to have a degree to be a journalist?
 Sometimes we can use either have to or have got to.
    we use have to with frequency adverbs such as always, never,
normally, rarely, sometimes, etc:
Ex: I often have to work at the weekend to get everything done. 
  with the past simple we use had to especially in questions and
negative sentences:
Ex: When did you have to give it back? (not When had you got to give
it back?)
  if have is contracted (e.g. I've, He's, It'd) then we must include got:
Ex: The experiment has failed twice before, so it's got to work this
time. (not ...so it's to
work this time.)
  we don't use have got to with other modal verbs: 
Ex: Employees will have to accept the new conditions or be
dismissed. (not Employees will have got to accept...)
Notice also that have got to is often preferred in informal speech.
 Mustn’t is used for prohibition. Don’t have to is used for a lack of obligation
Ex: Children mustn’t talk to strangers. 
       You don’t have to make excuses for her.
 We can use didn’t have to and didn’t need to for things that we did or
didn’t actually do. However, we only use needn’t have done for things
that we actually did but weren’t obliged to do.
Ex: It started raining heavily so I didn’t need to water the flowers.
      You needn’t have done the washing up as I was going to do that
tomorrow.
+ We can often use either needn't or don't have to with little difference in
meaning to say that it is unnecessary to do something:
  Ex: You needn't whisper. Nobody can hear us. (or You don't have to...)
  However, some people prefer needn't when it is the speaker who
decides the lack of necessity, and don't have to when external rules
or somebody else's actions make something unnecessary. 
Ex: As you worked late yesterday you needn't come in until 10.00
tomorrow morning. (the speaker's decision) 
 We've been told that we don't have to be at work until 10.00
tomorrow. (reporting someone else's decision.)
 6. Degrees of certainty:
 Certainty (or near certainty) about now, the future, or generally: will,
would, must, can, can’t, could, couldn’t
            Ex: The petrol price will increase next year. 
                   We must get together more often.
                  The container would be delivered.
                   It can’t be. She’s already been.
                  It could be Tom.
         Certainty (or near certainty) about the past : will have, won’t have,
would have, wouldn’t have, must have, can’t have, couldn’t have
             Ex: You won’t have heard that Jimmy has been fired, will you?
                   He will have known that the event has been put off.
                  You must have known the answer to this question.
                  I would have been happy to see him, but I didn't have time.
                  She couldn’t have finished all the homework.
 Probability about now, the future or generally: should, shouldn’t,
ought to, oughtn’t to, may/ might well (not), could well, might easily
              Ex: The weather should be good tomorrow, shouldn’t it?
                   You ought to/should feel better in a few days, as long as you
get lots of rest.
                     The bus ought to be here in 15 minutes.
                      You may well have a set of playing cards
                          Governments might easily guarantee their employees a
job, without guaranteeing the job they currently hold.
           Probability about the past: should have, shouldn’t have, ought to
have, oughtn’t to have. may/ might well (not) have, might easily (not) have
                Ex: 
               Anyone else looking out of the window may well have been
alarmed by what they saw.
                The bruise ought to/should have disappeared days ago. 1
wonder why it didn’t.
                Jack should have finished writing her articles by now, shouldn’t
he ?
          The author might have carried a deep research on the subject. That's
why his book is so interesting.
 Possibility about now, the future or generally: could, may (not), might,
mightn’t, may/might/could just.
Ex: You should talk to your doctor first because that diet could/
may/might be dangerous.
     You might (just) have time to get to the airport before the flight
takes off
 Possibility about the real past: could have, may (not) have, might
have, mightn’t have
Ex: That could / may / might have been the doctor who rang earlier
while we were out.
       The boss might not have checked our email about the project.
      He may not have submitted a proposal to the boss.

V. Semi-modal verbs:
1. Dare:
 Dare is both a main verb and a semi-modal verb.
 Dare can mean ‘challenge somebody’. With this meaning, it is a main
verb and requires an object. Any verb that follows it is in the to-
infinitive:
    Ex:  Go on, I dare you.
Some snakes can bite but I dare you to hold this big snake.
 Dare also means ‘to be brave enough or rude enough to do
something’. With this meaning, it can be used as an ordinary main
verb which can be followed by a to-infinitive or an infinitive without to.
Less commonly, it can be used as a semi-modal verb followed by an
infinitive without to.
 We don’t use infinitive with to after semi-modal dare in the expression
How dare you:
               Ex:  How dare you suggest she was lazy!
               Not: How dare you to suggest…
 Affirmative statement
           If Sally dares (to) go there again, she’ll be in big trouble! (ordinary
verb)
 Negative statement
He doesn’t dare (to) go there. (ordinary verb)
No one dares (to) go there. (ordinary verb)
No one dare go there. (semi-modal verb)
 Affirmative question
Does anyone dare (to) go there? (ordinary verb)
Dare anyone go there? (semi-modal verb)
 Negative question
Doesn’t he dare (to) go there? (ordinary verb)
Daren’t he go there? (semi-modal verb)
2. Need
 We use need mostly in the negative form to indicate that there is no
obligation or necessity to do something:
               Ex: You needn’t take off your shoes.
 Affirmative form
Affirmatives with the semi-modal need are not common and they are used
in formal contexts. There is almost always a negative word (e.g. no one,
nobody, nothing) or phrase in the clause, even if the verb phrase is
affirmative:
No one need think that we are doing this every week. (we are not doing this
every week)
Nobody need know the name of the person who made the complaint.
Not a thing need change on this page.
Need comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before another
verb):
Let’s forget about it. No one need know about it.
We can’t use another modal verb with need:
No one need read this.
Not: No one need must read this. or No one must need read this.
 Negative form

Warning:
We form the negative by adding not after need. Need not can be contracted
to needn’t. We don’t use don’t/doesn’t/didn’t with the semi-modal verb
need:
You need not spend a lot of money on presents. (formal) (or You needn’t
spend a lot of money on presents.)
Not: You don’t need spend a lot of money on presents.
Question form
The question form of the semi-modal need is not very common. It is rather
formal. The subject and need change position to form questions. We don’t
use do/does/did.
Need we write this down?
Not: Do we need write this down?
Need: use
No obligation (needn’t)
The semi-modal need is most common in the negative. We use it to show
that there is no obligation:
We needn’t spend much time on this topic. It’s not going to be in the exam.
Cans of soup needn’t be kept in the fridge.
No obligation in the past
The semi-modal need has no past simple form. Instead, we use didn’t need
to or didn’t have to when we express no obligation in the past:
I didn’t need to buy any books. They were all in the library. (main verb need
+ to)
(or I didn’t have to buy any books. They were all in the library.)
Not: I didn’t need buy any books. They were all in the library.
Unnecessary events
We use needn’t have + -ed form to refer to events which happened but
which the speaker considers were unnecessary:
You needn’t have waited for me. (You waited for me but it wasn’t
necessary.)
You needn’t have bought so much food. There are only three of us staying
for the weekend. (You bought a lot of food but it wasn’t necessary.)
Semi-modal need and main verb need
We can use main verb need as an alternative to semi-modal need. Main
verb need is followed by to and it changes with person, number and tense
(I, you, we, they need to; she, he, it needs to; I, you, she, he, it, we, they
needed to).
Compare

Semi-modal Main verb need Comment

need

In these examples, the meaning is

Need it be so Does it need to be the same for semi-modal need
dark in here? so dark in here? and main verb need + to.
(formal)
You needn’t You don’t need to
mention this to mention this to
your father. your father.

Warning:
We must use the main verb need when it is followed by a noun phrase or -
ing clause:
You don’t need 
[noun phrase]
an umbrella.
Not: You needn’t an umbrella.
My hair doesn’t need 
[-ing clause]
cutting for at least another month.
Not: My hair needn’t cutting for at least another month.
Typical error
 The main verb need is followed by to when used with another verb.

I need to have my hair cut.

Not: I need have my hair cut.

3. Ought to:

Ought to: form

Affirmative
Ought to comes first in the verb phrase (after the subject and before
another verb):

We ought to do more exercise.

Ought to cannot be used with another modal verb:

Medicine ought to be free.

Not: Medicine ought to can be free. or Medicine can ought to be free.

Negative
The negative is formed by adding ‘not’ after ought (ought not to). It can be
contracted to oughtn’t to. We don’t use don’t, doesn’t, didn’t with ought to:

We ought not to have ordered so much food.

Not: We don’t ought to have ordered so much food.

You oughtn’t to have said that about his mother.

Not: You didn’t ought to have said that about his mother.

The negative of ought to is not common. We usually use shouldn’t or

should not instead:

You shouldn’t speak to your father like that. (preferred to You oughtn’t to
speak …)

Questions
The subject and ought to change position to form questions. We don’t use
do, does, did:

Ought she to call the police?

Not: Does she ought to call the police?

Ought we to be more worried about the environment?

Not: Do we ought to be more worried about the environment?

Warning:
The question form of ought to is not very common. It is very formal. We
usually use should instead.

Ought to: uses

What is desired or ideal
We use ought to when talking about things which are desired or ideal:

They ought to have more parks in the city centre.

We ought to eat lots of fruit and vegetables every day.

We use ought to have + -ed form to talk about things that were desired or
ideal in the past but which didn’t happen. It can express regret:

We ought to have locked the gate. Then the dog wouldn’t have got out.
(The ideal or desired thing was that we locked the gate, but we didn’t.)

I often think that I ought to have studied medicine not pharmacy. (I would
be happier now if I had studied medicine.)

What is likely
We can use ought to when we talk about what is likely or probable:

The concert ought to only take about two hours so we’ll be home by 12 pm.

There ought to be some good films at the cinema this weekend.

Ought to or should?
Ought to and should are similar in meaning. Should is more common than
ought to. Ought to is more formal than should:

There ought to be more street lights here. (means the same as There
should be more street lights here.)
I really ought to walk my dog more. He’s so fat. (means the same as I really
should walk my dog more. He’s so fat.)

Spoken English:
In speaking, we normally use should as a tag for clauses with ought to:

There ought to be a speed limit here, shouldn’t there? (preferred to There

ought to be a speed limit here, oughtn’t there?)

We ought not to have to pay for basic medicines, should we? (preferred to
We ought not to have to pay for basic medicines, ought we?)

4. Used to

Used to: meaning and form

We use used to when we refer to things in the past which are no longer
true. It can refer to repeated actions or to a state or situation:

He used to play football for the local team, but he’s too old now.

That white house over there used to belong to my family. (It belonged to my
family in the past, but not any more.)

Warning:
In statements, the form used to does not change. We do not use the verb
be before it. It always refers to past time:
We used to go to the seaside every summer when I was a kid.
Not: We are used to go … or We use to go … or We were used to go …

Negative: didn’t use to

The negative of used to is most commonly didn’t use(d) to. Sometimes we
write it with a final -d, sometimes not. Both forms are common, but many
people consider the form with the final -d to be incorrect, and you should
not use it in exams:

It didn’t use to be so crowded in the shops as it is nowadays.

I didn’t used to like broccoli when I was younger, but I love it now. (Don’t
use this form in exams.)

In very formal styles, we can use the negative form used not to:

She used not to live as poorly as she does now.

Questions
The most common form of question is auxiliary did + use(d) to. Many
people consider the form with a final -d to be incorrect, and you should not
use it in exams:

I think we met once, a couple of years ago. Did you use to work with Kevin
Harris?

Didn’t she used to live in the same street as us? (Don’t use this form in
written exams.)

Emphatic did
We can use the emphatic auxiliary did with used to:

We never used to mix very much with the neighbours, but we did used to
say hello to them in the street. (Don’t use this form in written exams.)

Tags
We normally make tags after used to with auxiliary did:

He used to be your boss, did he?

We used to love going to the museum, didn’t we?

Used to or would?
We can use used to or would to talk about people’s habits in the past.
When we use them both together, used to most commonly comes first, as it
sets the scene for the actions being reported:

When we were kids, we used to invent amazing games. We would imagine

we were the government and we would make crazy laws that everyone had
to obey.

Used to, but not would, can describe a state or situation which is no longer
true:

We used to live in Manchester.

Not: We would live in Manchester.

‘The Townhouse’ used to be a Greek restaurant. It’s Italian now.

Not: ‘The Townhouse’ would be a Greek restaurant …

Used to or be used to?

Used to refers to actions and situations in the past which no longer happen
or are no longer true. It always refers to the past:

She used to sing in a choir, but she gave it up. (She sang, but she doesn’t
sing any more)

Be used to means ‘be accustomed to’ or ‘be familiar with’. It can refer to the
past, present or future. We follow be used to with a noun phrase, a pronoun
or the -ing form of a verb:

I work in a hospital, so I’m used to long hours. (I am accustomed to/familiar

with long hours.)

She lives in a very small village and hates traffic. She’s not used to it.

He was a salesman, so he was used to travelling up and down the country.

(He was accustomed to/was familiar with travelling.)
We can also say get used to or (more formally) become used to:

University is very different from school, but don’t worry. You’ll soon get
used to it. (or, more formally, You’ll soon become used to it.)

VI. Practice:
Exercise 1:
1 Underline the correct form. 
a. You mustn't/ don't have to conduct any chemistry experiments unless
you are wearing safety
glasses. 
b. There are a lot of hooks which Anna did not have to read / need not have
read as part of her
university course, but which she decided to read out of interest. 
C. We don't have to / We'd better not talk for too long. These calls are
expensive. 
d. I went to see the dentist yesterday, but luckily I didn't need to have / I
neerln't have had any painful
treatment! 
e. You didn't have to tell me / shouldn't have told me about the party. Now
it's not a surprise! 
f. Some people believe that the government does not have to / should not
allow genetically modified crops to be grown on a large scale, as they could
spread out of control. 
g. These books are on the wrong shelf. They shouldn't/ mustn't be here. 
h. The report concluded that the rescuers should not have attempteul /
didn't have to attempt to move the Injured passengers before medical help
arrived. 
i. Please put the paper cups and plates in the bin. We mustn't/ don't have to
Icave the room in a mess. 
j. There is plenty of time. We mustn't be don't have to be at the cinema until
8.00.
Ex 2:  Complete the sentence using one word in each gap. 
a In the early years of motoring, drivers didn't have to take a driving test.
 b You______ sign the application forin at the end of the page, or it will not
be accepted.
 c Hurry up. We_______ to get to the airport by 9.30. 
d I think we had._______ stop and ask someone the way.
 e This bus is going to take ages. We______ have taken a taxi. 
f Important notice. All new arrivals_______ to report to the reception desk. 
g Thanks for coming. I'm glad you______make it. 
h You look really tired. You______ take a few days off and have a holiday.
i Sorry I'm a bit late. I________to pick up the children from school.
 j You _____ not decide immediately whether to join the class.
Ex: 3 Write a new sentence with the same meaning, beginning as shown.
a. If I were you, I'd take an umbrella.
I think you'd better take an umbrella 
b. Is Saturday morning school compulsory in your country?
Do students_____________________________________ 
c In the third weck, students must hand in a typed copy of their first lab
report.
In the third week, students
are____________________________________ 
d Sheila changed the battery in her camera, but it wasn't necessary. 
Sheila______________________________ the battery In her camera.
 e You look really ill. If I were you, I'd stay at home today. 
You look really ill. I______________________________to stay at home
today. 
f It was a bad idea to leave the windows open while it was raining.
You___________________________________________
g The theatre tickets were free, so there was no need for us to pay.
The theatre tickets were free, so we______________________ 
h I can stay here until 10.00.
I____________________________leave until 10.00. i Helen managed to
stop the car before it crashed into a wall.
Helen was__________________________________________________
į Steve's laptop had a wireless Internet connection, so there was no need
for him to connect It to a phone line. 
Steve's laptop had a wireless Internet connection, so
he__________________
Ex4:
a Why don't you phone Katie now? She_____yet.
 b Take some sun-block and wear a hat, as it_____ get very hot in the
middle of the day. 
c. There's no point waiting here any longer. We______ go and have
something to cat. d Lucky you managed to hang on to that tree. You______
down the cliff. 
e 'What am I going to do about a present for Carol?' 'You____- some
flowers.'
 f I don't know what time I'll be home. I______ be quite late, I'm afraid. 
g Don't worry about your driving test. You____to pass. 
h There's no sign of the dog anywhere. Sometone it out. 
i Why don't you ask Nick about it? He_____ know the answer, I suppose.
j There must be some kind of technical problem. The film______ by now.

a. A. can’t have left       B. must have left      C. might have left

b. A, must                       B. can                          C. could have
c. A. can hardly             B. are bound to         C. might as well
d. A, could have fallen B, must have fallen C. may have fallen
e. A. might have sent her                 B. must have sent her
C. could always send her
f. A. must                        B. can                         C. may
g. A. may                         B. must                       C. are bound to
h. A. is bound to have left              B. must have left
C. can let
i. A. can                           B. may as well       C. might
 j. A. should have started                B. must have started
C. might have started
Ex5:
a I'm still waiting for the money the bank is supposed to have sent me. 3 b
There's still no sign of Alex.
 c It's getting rather late to deal with this now.
 d I wish you wouldn't leave your bag near the door like that. 
e You'd belter lake your umbrella with you.
 f This piece is the right shape, but it doesn't fit. 
g There should be a filling station here. 
h It's a very long book. 
i Oh sorry, yes, these are your keys. 
j Leave yourself plenty of time for the journey.

1 You're bound to need it if you don't. 

2 Surely you can't have finished It already! 
3-It should have got here by trow. 
4 It can take quite a long time in the rush hour. 
5 It can't be the right one after all. 
6 That's strange! I can't see one anywhere! 
7 You could always come back tomorrow. 
8 He may have missed the train I suppose.
 9 I must have picked them up by mistake. 
10 Someone could easily fall over it and hurt themselves.
Ex6: Write a new sentence with the same meaning, beginning as shown.
a Running is not allowed on the stairs. There is a danger of accidents.
Running is not allowed on the stairs. You could/might have an accidents
b You'd better not use this ladder. Look at it! I'm sure it's not safe.
You'd better not use this ladder. Look at it! It_____________ _________
c I think I know how this window got broken. I'm sure someone kicked a ball
against it.
I think I know how this window got broken. Someone
__________________________________
d Unless you follow Instructions, It's possible for a gymnasium to be a
dangerous place.
Unless you follow instructions, a gymnasium
_____________________________
e I've turned off the electricity. I'm sure it's safe to touch these wires now.
I've turned off the electricity. It__________________________
f Ouch! Why didn't you tell me that piece of metal was hot!
Ouch! You_________________________________________ 
g Where are the fire fighters? I expected them to have arrived by now.
Where are the fire lighters? They h I'm sure you didn'ı clean this bowl
properly. You_____________________________________
Ex7: Complete the text using one of the phrases 1-10 in cach gap.
I can't have set off 2 could easily be 3 could expect thrust trave been 5
can't have been 6 could easily sail 7 might have 8 must have made 9
should have reached 10 might involve
Imagine what it a 4 like to have sailed around the world in a small wooden
ship, as Drake and his men did in 1577-1580. On a ship only some 35
meters long, it b_______ easy for the 80 or so crew to live comfortably.
Exploration was part of war and rivalry with other nations, so these voyages
c____ attacks on other ships and towns, and had to make a profit. There
were all the usual dangers too. A ship d__________ destroyed by a storm
or nin out of food and water, and the captain e_________ little idea of
where the ship was or where it was going. Explorers f________ many
wrong decisions in an age when there were only basic maps and
navigation equipment, and in unknown parts of the ocean where a ship
g______ for weeks without reaching land. Very often places they thought
they h________ turned out to be much further on, or in a different direction.
However, they __________i on such long voyages without some general
idea of the places they j___________ to reach along the way, and as
knowledge of navigation improved, voyages became more and more
successful.