Lezione8

241. Present Progressive and Simple Present: use, functions and examples
Present progressive (or continuous) (form of be +-ing form of verb): describes an action that is happening right now
or in the extended present time. Nicole is visiting her friend now.
To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact moment: We
are planning a trip to cuba.
Simple present (base form of verb+s): To describe a scientific fact. Whales live in the ocean
For repeated or regular actions. She visits them every day.
For habits: She only drinks water.
For things that are generally true in the present time period: She is my schoolmate
We use Simple Present for things that are permanent and Present Progressive for things that may change or are
temporary.
242. Simple Past: use, functions and examples
Describes finished actions, states or situation. It can be used with time expressions that refer to the past.
Finished events in the past with no connection to the present. Leonardo painted the Mona Lisa.
With a finished time word (yesterday, last week, in 2003). I went to the cinema yesterday.
For stories, list of events. He went to a cafè, sat down and lit a cigarette.
243. Past Progressive and Simple Past: use, functions and examples
Past Progressive describes an action or situation that was in progress at a specific time in the past. We use Simple
Past to talk about a completed action. They ran past me and jumped into a car.
When Simple past and Past Progressive (Past Continuous) appear together in a sentence, the S. P. describes the action
that interrupes the action in progress.
Past Progressive: form of be+ing form of verb People were shouting and screaming.
244. The uses of past continuous tense.
To talk about something that started before a certain time in the past and was still in progress at that time: At 10.30 I
was walking along King Street. I was going to the post office.
To describe a situation, to give the background to a scene that happened in the past. What were they wearing? They
were wearing jeans
Past Continuous can show that an activity was in progress for some time, not just for a moment: We were cleaning the
house all morning.
We don’t use P.P. with verbs not normally used in the continuous form (know, want etc)
We don’t use P.P. to talk about a repeated past in the past.
I was working
I wasn’t working
Was I working?
249. The uses of present continuous tense.
Present tense of the verb BE + -ing form of a verb.
 When someone is doing something at this moment: Lucy is changing her shoes right now.
 When something is happening at this moment: It is raining at the moment.
 To talk about something that is happening around the time of speaking but not necessarily at that exact
moment: We are planning a trip to Cuba.
It is used to describe dynamic actions that happen repeatedly, are currently happening or will be happening in the
near future.
250. The uses of simple present tense.
 For facts: Whales live in the ocean.
 For repetead or regular actions: We work every day of the week.
 For habits: She only drinks water
 For things that are generally true in the present time period: She is my schoolmate.
251. The imperative
Is used to tell or ask someone to do something. Is used often in directions, instructions, orders, commands,
suggestions, warnings, requests and formal invitations. We use the base form of the verb, for affirmative imperative:
Enjoy your lunch.
Don’t+base form of the verb, for negative imperative: Don’t be shy.
51. Simple present and present continuous to express future actions. Discuss
We use the present simple to talk about future actions when we are discussing at timetable or a fixed plan.
For example: School starts at nine tomorrow.
What time does the movie start?
The bus doesn’t arrive at eight. It arrives at seven
We also use the present simple to talk about the future after words like when ,until ,after ,before and as soon as.
These are sometimes called subordinate clauses of time.
For example: I will phone you when I have time.
I won’t go out until it stops snowing.
I'm going to make a cake after I watch the news.
Present continuous is used for definite future arrangements (with a future time word). In this case we have already
made a plan: For example:
I’m meeting my husband tomorrow.
We are going to the restaurant at the weekend.
I'm leaving at 1.
52. Wh- Questions: Subject and Object
• words (who, what, where, when, why, which, whose, how, how many, how much and how long).
•They are used to ask specific information.
•Wh- questions that ask about the subject need statement word order.
•Wh-questions that ask about the object need yes/no question word order.
Subject questions: wh-word + verb + subject (who saw you?)
Object questions: wh-word + auxiliary verb + subject + main verb. (who did you see?)
53. Permission: Can, Could, May, Do you mind if...?
The use of Modals when you need to ask, give, or refuse permission.
They are Can and Could (which are less formal), May (which is more formal), and other expressions, such as Do You
Mind If.
We use modal verbs to express that something is certain or uncertain, probable or improbable, possible or impossible.
In addition, we use modals to do talk about ability, to ask for permission, to make requests and offers, to express
necessity or prohibition.
Modals are defective verbs. Therefore, they are followed by the base form of the verb (infinitive without “to”) in
affirmative sentences. In questions, the modal comes at the beginning of the sentence. For example: May I go to the
toilet, please?
As for the modals analyzed in this lesson, you use them to express permission (to ask permission, to give and refuse
it). In particular, you use:
1. the modals can, could, and may, in questions to ask permission.
2. May is more formal.
Can is less formal than could, and could is less formal than may.
Keep in mind that, the word please makes permission requests more polite. Please may be placed just before the main
verb, or at the end of a question.
There are also informal expressions, which you can use, such as sure, certainly, and go ahead: they are often used to
give permission. When you refuse permission, you usually apologize and give an explanation.
Do you mind if, is also used to ask permission. For example: Do you mind, if I turn up the TV?
How do you ask permission with do you mind?
You use “do you mind” + if + subject + simple present tense.
The affirmative short answer is “Yes, I do”. The negative short answer is “No, I don’t”.
Could cannot be used in short answers. Can is used instead.
Remember that could, does not have a past meaning in questions asking permission. Can I use this book? = Could I use
this book?
54. Ability: Can, Could, Be Able to: uses, functions and examples
•Can and can't express present ability. They also express future ability when talking about plans or arrangements.
•Could expresses past ability. Could can't be used for single past events was/were able to should be used instead.
•Different forms of be able to express present, future, and past ability.
We use modal verbs to express that something is certain or uncertain, probable or improbable, possible or
impossible. In addition, we use modals to do talk about ability, to ask for permission, to make requests and
offers, to express necessity or prohibition.
Modals are defective verbs: it means that they are different from ordinary verbs. In fact,
a. They don't add the ”s” for the third person singular in the present tense.
Example: he cans play the guitar, is not correct.
He can plays the guitar, is not correct either.
b. They are auxiliaries, so you make questions by inversion:
Example: Jane can swim, becomes: Can Jane swim?
c. They are followed by the base form of the verb.
Example: we must to call Jack, is not correct.
d. They do not have the infinitive form or the –ing form, so, in order to form other tenses, such as the past
simple or the future perfect, you need to use the so called modal-like forms, such as to be able to, to
express ability and substitute can and could; to be to or to have got to, to express necessity and substitute
must; to be likely, to express future probability and substitute may and might.
Example: She had to run home, because of an emergency.
To express ability you use:
1. Can or can’t, to express present ability, and also future ability, when you talk about plans or
arrangements. You mustn’t use can to talk about the things you learn; use be able to.
For example, do not say: When I finish this English course, I can speak English fluently. Say: When I finish
this English course, I will be able to speak English fluently.
2. Could or couldn’t, to express past ability. In the case of a single past event, you cannot use “couldn’t”.
You should use “was or were able to”.
3. Be able to, when you need to express present, future, and past abilities. It can also be a gerund or an
infinitive. However, remember that can is used much more commonly in everyday language, when you
need to talk about present abilities.
55. Phrasal Verbs
Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and a particle (adverb and/or preposition) which often changes the meaning
of the verb.
Many phrasal verbs have the same meaning as one-word verbs. Phrasal verbs are informal and more
commonly used in every day speech.
There are two types of phrasal verbs. Separable phrasal verbs can be broken up by other words.
Inseparable phrasal verbs cannot be separated by other words.
Phrasal verbs can be transitive or intransitive. Many transitive phrasal verbs are separable.
TRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS
He also picked up an interest in plants.
...sick animals often pick out certain plants to eat.
INTRANSITIVE PHRASAL VERBS
Rodriguez grew up in Texas.
...he went on to college
Not all transitive phrasal verbs are separable.
Intransitive phrasal verbs are inseparable.
Keep in mind that a few transitive phrasal verbs must be separated. Here is a short list:
1. ask someone over, which means to invite someone to one's home;
2. bring someone down, which means to depress, cause to lower;
3. do something over, which means to redo, do again;
4. get something out of something, which means to benefit from;
5. keep something on, which means not to take something off;
6. see something through, which means to finish something;
7. start something over, which means to begin again;
8. talk someone into, which means to persuade;
9. turn someone or something into, which means to change from one form to another.
56. Used to: use, functions and examples
Used to: describes a past action or situation that no longer exists in the present.
It is often used in sentences that contrast the past and the present. Time expressions such as now, no longer, and anymore are
often used to emphasize the contrast.
Used to, to describe regular actions in the past
1. We use used to, to talk about a habit or regular activity in the past that doesn't happen now. Used to, emphasizes that the
activity was repeated many times.
Examples:
He used to collect soccer balls.
His dog used to find a lot of mushrooms.
Remember: If we describe a number of regular activities in the past, it isn't necessary to repeat used to
each time. We can use the past simple instead.
Example:
Jane took them home and put them in boxes.
2. We can also use would + infinitive without to, to talk about past habits. When we use would, we usually
say when or how often the action happened.
Example:
He used to walk with his dog on the local tennis course.
OR, He would walk with his dog every day on the local tennis course.
Remember: would is generally more formal and less common.
Used to, to describe situations in the past
1. We also use used to, to talk about situations in the past which don't exist now.
Example:
Jane used to be quite a good player.
The forms of used to Affirmative: used to, + infinitive
Negative: didn't use to, + infinitive
Questions: did + subject + use to, + infinitive
3. We use the negative form “never used to” for emphasis.
57. Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns: use,< functions and examples
Reflexive pronouns (myself, yourself, etc.) are used when the subject and object of a sentence refer to the
same people or things.
Reciprocal pronouns (each other, one another) are used when the subject and the object of a sentence
refer to the same people, and these have a two-way relationship.
Reflexive pronouns canal so be used to emphasize a person or thing.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
We explain a problem to ourselves. Tom saw himself as helpless.
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Why were their reactions so different from one another?
They talked to each other.
Be careful: Reciprocal pronouns are used with plural subject pronouns (we, you, they) because they
indicate a reciprocal relationship between two or more people
The main use of reflexive pronouns: We use a reflexive pronoun (myself, himself, etc.) when the subject
and the object of the verb are the same person. The action is directed back to the person who does it.
The reflexive pronouns are:
Singular
I myself
You yourself
He himself
She herself
It itself
Plural
We ourselves
You yourselves
They themselves
Note that when there is more than one person, the ending of the reflexive pronoun changes from -self to -
selves:
Yourself, one person (singular)
yourselves, two or more people (plural)
A few verbs in English are often used with a reflexive pronoun. The most common are:
to amuse yourself
to behave yourself
to blame yourself
to burn yourself
to control yourself
to cut yourself
to dry yourself
to enjoy yourself
to help yourself
to hurt yourself
to hill yourself
to look after yourself
to make yourself something
to keep yourself busy, warm, etc
We sometimes use a reflexive pronoun after an adjective + preposition:
to be angry with yourself
to be ashamed of yourself
to be pleased with yourself
to be proud of yourself
to be responsible for yourself
to be sorry for yourself
60. Types of future: uses, functions and examples
Be going to, will and the present continuous express future intentions or plans. The simple present
expresses scheduled future events.
1. Will, won’t, shall, and shan’t for simple predictions
We use will, or won’t, when we make simple predictions about future actions or situations.
Example: The hotels in Rome will be cheaper in November
The weather in Rome won’t be good in November.
After I and we, we can use will or shall in affirmative sentences. But we normally use the short forms
(I’ll, we’ll). In negative sentences, after I, and we, we can use won’t, and shan’t. Won't is more common.
We often use l (don’t) think, I (don't) expect, I'm sure, I'm afraid and probably, definitely, perhaps, etc.
with will, and won't.
2. Shall I, Shall we? for offers and suggestions
In questions, we use Shall I, Shall we (and not will) when we make suggestions or offers, and when we
ask for suggestions.
3. Will for intentions (sudden decisions and requests)
We use will, won't when we talk about something we decide to do or not to do at the moment of
speaking.
We use will to make a request
We use won't when we refuse to do something.
Going to or will?
1. Decisions about the future
We use be going to + infinitive (and not will) to talk about future actions we've already meditated upon.
In contrast, we generally use will (and not going to) when we decide to do something at the moment of
speaking.
2. Predicting future events: will or going to?
We normally use will, and won't, for simple predictions; but we use going to (and not will) for predictions about the future
when there's present evidence of a future event.
Example: It's going to drizzle. (The weather forecast says this).
The present continuous and the present simple with future meaning
1. The present continuous for arrangements for the future
We use the present continuous to talk about things that we've already arranged to do in the future. We don't use the
present simple here.
Be careful: be going to, suggests an intention more than an arrangement.
2. The present simple for arrangements and timetables
We often use the present simple when we talk about a programme of future events, or a timetable. The time is often
given.
Example: The train leaves at 9 p.m.
51. Advice: Should, Ought to, Had better: use, functions and examples
• Advice: Should
Should he use capital letters?
You shouldn't forget that people have feelings.
When should we post to the bulletin board?
How do you give advice with should? The structure is: should+ base form of verb.
Should does not change when the pronoun changes. It is the same for all pronouns because it is a modal.
How do you form the negative of should? The structure is: shouldn't OR should + not + base form of verb
How do you form yes OR no questions?: should+ subject + base form of verb
How do you form wh- questions? wh- word + should + subject +base form of verb
• Advice: Ought to
You ought to lurk a little first.
How do you give advice with ought to? ought to + base form of verb
Remember that ought to does not change when the pronoun changes. It is the same for all pronouns
because it is a modal.
Note that negative statements and questions with ought to are not common.
• Advice: Had better
You'd better use a screen name.
You'd better not reply right away.
Note that the d in you'd, stands for had.
How do you give advice with had better? had better + base form of verb
How do you form the negative of had better? had better + not + base form of verb
Just like Should and Ought to, had better does not change when the pronoun changes. Had better is not a
modal but it behaves like a modal.
Keep in mind that had better, is often contracted in everyday speech, and that questions with had better
are not common.
Although ought not to is not common in American English, it is used in British English.
Keep in mind that when we give advice, we often use maybe, perhaps, or I think, in order to sound gentler.
Moreover, remember that had better is used when you believe something bad will happen, if the person
does not follow the advice. The undesired consequence is often said, and it is introduced by or. For
example: You'd better keep your post short, or no one will read it.
Note that the negative form of had better is had better not.
52. Present Perfect: Indefinite Past
When the present perfect expresses that something happened at an indefinite time in the past, it means that the time
is not important. What matters is the action. When the time is important, the simple past should be used. For
example:
I have never visited the USA, but I visited France last year.
They've been to Rome.
Look at the example: What tense is this? It is present perfect
Is the action past, present, or future? It is a past action.
Do we know exactly when the action happened? No, we don’t.
• Now look at the following examples:
He hasn't been to Egypt.
He's never ridden a camel.
What tense do we use for something that did not happen at an indefinite time in the past?
We use the present perfect. What two ways are there to express this?
Have or has + not + present perfect OR
Have or has + never + present perfect
• Now look at the following examples:
She has just gotten back from a trip. She has recently made a trip.
She has made a trip recently. She has made several trips lately.
What adverbs can be used with the present perfect? just, recently, lately
What do the adverbs just, recently, and lately express?
They express that the action happened in the recent past.
Do we know exactly when the action happened? No, we don’t.
Now look at the examples again, and find:
• an adverb, that goes between, a form of have and the past participle, OR at the end of the sentence (the correct
answer is: recently)
• an adverb, that goes between a form of have and the past participle (the correct answer is: just)
• an adverb, that goes at the end of the sentence (the correct answer is: lately)
53. Requests: Can, Could, Will, Would, Would you mind...?: use, functions and examples
We use the modals can, could, will, would to make a request: can I open the door? (could/would for soften
request/polite). Please makes the request more polite. In affirmative answers to request, we usually use
expressions such as sure, certainly, of course, no problem. In negative answers, we usually apologize and
give an explanation. We also use would you mind+gerund to make polite request ((Would you mind
delivering it to me?). It means that you will do what the person asked you to do, because it means that you
don't mind doing it.)
54. Permission: Can, Could, May, Do you mind if...?: uses, functions and examples
We use the modals can, could, May, do you mind to ask permission: Can I open the window?
We use can or may in answer, but not could.
When we refuse permission, we usually apologize and give an explanation.
We use do you mind if to ask permission when our action may annoy or inconvenience someone: Do you
mind if I smoke?
55. Present Perfect: use and examples
Form of the present perfect with: have+past participle
We use the present perfect to talk about things that happened at an indefinite time in the past: They’ve
travelled to Germany
We can use the present perfect when we don’t know something happened or when the specific time is not
important.
We use the present perfect with adverbs like twice or often to talk about repeated actions at some
indefinite time in the past (twice, many times usually go at the end of the sentence/ always/often/never
usually go before the past participle)
Ever can be used with the present perfect to ask questions (never to answer negatively)
Just, lately, recently with the present perfect emphasize that something happened in the very recent past.
59. Suggestions: Let's, Could, Why don't...? Why not...? How about...?
1. Let’s, Could, Why don’t, and Why not, are followed by the base form of the verb;
2. How about, is followed by a noun, or gerund;
3. To agree with a suggestion, you can use several expressions (Good idea, OK, Great, Sure, I’d like that).
4. To disagree, you usually give an explanation, and make another suggestion.

1. Let's travel.
2. Maybe we could spend the night here.
3. Why don't we stay at a youth hostel?
4. Why doesn’t she come with us?
5. Why not stay in a city?
6. How about staying near the harbor?
7. How about a room on the af Chapman?

a. Let's + base form of verb

b. Maybe + subject + could + base form of verb
c. Why + don't or doesn't + subject + base form of verb + question mark
d. Why not + base form of verb + question mark
e. How about + noun or gerund + question mark
60. Present Perfect: Already and Yet
Form of the present perfect with: have/has+already+past participle. The present perfect, with already and yet,
expresses things that began in the past, and continue into the present.
We use the present perfect with already in affirmative statements to talk about something that has
happened before now: She’s already baked the pizza.
Already usually goes between have and the past participle
We use the present perfect with yet in negative statements to talk about something has not happened
before now: She hasn’t cooked yet. (have or has + not + past participle + yet)
Yet usually goes at the end of the clause. We use yet in questions to ask if something has happened before
now: have you bought the bread yet?
In negative answer to yes/no question we can use haven’t or not yet.
Remember: Unspecified time in the past: present perfect + already I've already bought the decorations
Specific time in the past: simple past + time expression I bought the decorations yesterday.
61. Present Perfect: Since and For
The present perfect, with for and since, expresses things that began in the past, and continue into the
present.
In addition, note that since is used plus a point in time. For example: since July; since spring; since I
graduated.
On the contrary, for is used plus a length of time: for three hours; for several weeks; for two months; for a
year.
Always remember that, for plus a length of time, can express the same idea as since plus a point in time.
See the following example:
If I say: “Jack has known Clara since 2015”, it is the same as if I said: “Jack has known Clara for 2 years”.
62. Present Perfect: use and examples
 We use Present Perfect to talk about things that happened in an indefinite time in the past, or in a
period of time which is not finished. Maria has lived in Boston for three years (describes something
that continues up to the present?)
 They've found new jobs. (focuses on what happened only)
 expresses what happened in a time period that is not finished (This month they've seen each other
twice.
 the present perfect is used when the specific time in the past is either not known or not important
Remember: present perfect = what happened
simple past = what happened + when it happened

81. Present Perfect Progressive and Present Perfect: use, functions and examples
Present Perfect Progressive: Elephants have been living on this planet for years.
The elephant population has been dropping again.
How do you form the present perfect progressive? Have or has + been + present participle
How do you form the negative present perfect progressive? Have or has + not + been + present participle
How do you form yes or no questions? Have or has + subject + been + present participle Has the elephant
population been dropping again?
Present Perfect They have lived in many places
It has dropped to very low levels.
How do you form the present perfect? Have or has + past participle
Keep in mind that, for the present perfect to describe an unfinished action, it must be used with for or since
• To summarize:
Present perfect progressive: how long + unfinished action
Present perfect: how much, how many things, or how many times + finished action.
She has been working in Africa for a year. = She has worked in Africa for a year
Point out that with verbs such as live, study, teach, and work, plus since or for, the present perfect
progressive and the present perfect, have the same meaning.
Note that the present perfect progressive, can show that something is temporary, and that the present
perfect, can show that something is permanent.
82. Comparative and superlative adjectives
We use comparative forms of adjectives:
• to compare two things with than. Bears are bigger than dogs.
• to compare two things without than. Which are bigger, bears or dogs? Bears are bigger.
• to compare two things with than, repeating be, or the auxiliary from the verb. Mike is younger than you
are.
Laura looks thinner than I do.
• with a than-clause. This dress is more expensive than I thought.
NOTE! Don’t forgert the pelling rules to form comparisons and superlatives correctly:
one-syllable words add –er: short – shorter
one-syllable words ending vowel + consonant, double the consonant: fat – fatter
words ending in -y change -y to -i and add -er two-syllable words ending -y change -y to -i and add -er
saucy – saucier merry – marrier lucky -luckier
some two-syllable adjectives use -er or more. Use more if you are in doubt. more common / commoner
more narrow / narrower more pleasant / pleasanter
more polite / politer
more simple / simpler
most two- and three- syllable words put more in front more ancient
more interesting
more difficult
irregular adjectives good - better
bad - worse
far - farther or further
We make comparisons with: • a comparative form + than. A diamond is more shining than a sapphire.
• less + adjective + than, not as + adjective + as A sapphire is less shining than a diamond.
A sapphire is not as shining as a diamond.
• (just) as + adjective + as when two things compare equally. I don’t mind which one is more shining. I’m
(just) as fond of them both.
•comparative adjective + comparative adjective We use two comparative adjectives joined by and for a
changing situation: Having fun gets harder and harder as people grow older.
•We use the + comparative, the + comparative for the same meaning: The older people get, the harder
having fun is.
Intensifiers We use intensifiers much, a lot, etc:
• to say how great the comparison is This soup is a lot better than yesterday
This book is much more interesting
superlatives and comparatives
How to form superlatives - the spelling rules are the same as for comparatives, but we add –est: short - the
shortest
fast - the fastest
sad - the saddest
- we form the superlative of longer adjectives by putting most or least in front: the most ancient castle in
the city
the least common animal of the species
Irregular forms good - the best
bad - the worst
We use the superlative forms of adjectives:
• to compare one thing with a lot of other things of the same kind. We put the superlative adjective
between the and (noun). Most experts say that Shakespeare is the best playwriter of the world.
The longest road in Italy is 500 km long.
• with ever and present perfect to talk about experiences. This is the best dish I've ever eaten.
83. Gerunds: Subject and Object
A gerund (base form + -ing) can be the subject of a sentence and is always singular;
• It can also be the object of certain verbs such as admit, avoid, consider, and deny;
• Go + gerund is often used to describe activities
The gerund always has the same function as a noun (although it looks like a verb). It can be
used as the subject of the sentence: Hunting animals is dangerous.
Driving makes me nervous.
It can also be used as the complement of the verb to be: One of my duties as a secretary is
writing letters.
One of life’s pleasures is smiling.
Gerund as Subject: Gerund (Subject) Verb: Smoking causes lung problems
Gerund as Object: Subject Verb Gerund (Object): Mary should quit eating junk food.
84. Adverbs: As...as, Comparatives, Superlatives
As+adverb+as is used to compare actions and show how they are similar.
They’ve scored almost as frequently as the Lakers in the first half.
Non as+adverb+as is used to compare actions and show how they are not the same or equal;
Similarly, comparative adverbs+than show how the actions of two people or things are different;
They’ve been blocking Miles more effectively than any other team this season
How to form comparative adverbs
- adverbs ending -ly use more slowly- more slowly
- adverbs with the same forms as adjectives without -ly add -er : fast - faster
hard – harder
Irregular forms: well- better
We use comparative adverbs: • to compare two actions. Alfred studies harder than his brothers.
• without than. Who studies harder, Alfred or his brothers? Alfred studies harder.
• with than, repeating the auxiliary from the verb. I study harder than you do.
Superlative adverbs are used to compare one action with the actions of the other people or things in a
group;
I think they cheer the loudest of any fans in the games!
How to form superlative adverbs - adverbs ending -ly use the most / least slowly - the most slowly: Jim runs
the most slowly of anyone I know
We use superlative adverbs • to compare one action with a lot of other actions of the same kind, using of.
Everyone studied hard, but you study (the) hardest.
Comparative adverbs+and+comparative adverb shows how something is increasing or decreasing;
The+comparative adverb+the+comparative adverb shows cause and effect.
85.Adjectives: Superlatives
Superlative adjectives are used to compare one person, place, or thing with other people, places, or things
in a group.
Superlative adjectives are often used with words or expressions such as in and of, one of and some of; second, third, etc., and ever
plus the present perfect (one of the tallest wavers in the world, the second tallest tower in the in the word).

86. Nouns and Quantifiers

Proper Nouns: Was Columbus the first explorer to discover America?
Now find in the example: the name of a person (Columbus), the name of a place (America)
Remember that the names of people, places, and things, are proper nouns. Do Columbus and America start
with a small letter or a capital letter? They start with a capital letter
Common Nouns: The sailors crossed the ocean on a small boat.
Now find in the sentence: a noun that refers to people (sailors), a noun that refers to a thing (boat), a noun
that refers to a place (ocean)
Note that, nouns that are not names, and refer to people, places, and things are common nouns. Do
common nouns start with a small letter or a capital letter? They start with a small letter
They took three pots, filled with honey.
Is it correct to say 'a pot,' 'two pots,' 'three pots'? yes, it is. Is it correct to say 'a honey,' 'two honeys,' 'three
honeys'? No, it isn’t
Keep in mind that some common nouns, are count nouns: they can be counted, and they can be singular or
plural. Other common nouns, are non-count nouns: they can't be counted, and they have no plural forms.
Then, Is pot count or non-count? It is count. Does the example, use the singular or the plural form of pot? It
uses the plural form. Is honey count or non-count? It is non-count. Does it have a plural form? No, it
doesn’t.
Is egg count or non-count? It is count. Is fish count or non-count? It is non-count. What quantifier may
come before fish and eggs? Some.
Some is a quantifier. Some quantifiers, can be used with both count and non-count nouns. Is nut count or
non-count? It is count. Is honey count or non-count? It is non-count. What quantifier may come before
nuts? A few. What quantifier may come before honey? A little.
A few and a little, are quantifiers: a few is used with count nouns; a little, with non-count nouns. There are
more quantifiers, that are used in this way.
Now, let’s talk about proper nouns. Are all proper nouns capitalized? No, they aren’t. 'Which are not
capitalized? The names of the seasons, for example: Sarah traveled to Mexico in April.
Do we usually use articles (a, an, or the) before proper nouns? No, we don’t.
Remember that seasons, are often preceded by the: 1. It's winter.
2. We went there in the winter.
As for common nouns, they are not capitalized. In conclusion, you can have:
1.singular count nouns (like: ocean, boat, museum); 2. plural count nouns (like: sailors, days, boats); 3.
common nouns preceded by a (such as: a boat, a museum);4. common nouns preceded by the (such as: the
ocean, the boat); 5. a common noun, that takes a singular verb (for example: The boat is exhibited ...); 6. a
common noun, that takes a plural verb (for example: Other boats are exhibited ...)
Now look at the following examples:
1. I thanked her, for her advices.
2. Heyerdahl needed a courage, for his expeditions.
3. Reading, are going to help you, improve your English.
4. I don't like fish, they have a strong smell.
5. I need an information, about the Egyptians.
Can you find the mistake(s) in each sentence? The correct answers are:
1. I thanked her for her advice.
2. Heyerdahl needed courage for his expeditions.
3. Reading is going to help you improve your English.
4. I don't like fish. It has a strong smell.
5. I need (some) information about the Egyptians.
As for the different meanings of, a few and few, and, a little and little, look at these contrasting sentences:
1a. They took a few supplies.
1b. They took few supplies.
2a. They had a little water.
2b. They had little water
1a. implies that: They didn't take a lot of supplies, but they probably took enough.
1b. implies that: They didn't take enough supplies.
2a. implies that: They didn't have a lot of water, but they probably had enough.
2b. implies that: They didn't have enough water.
Which quantifiers are used with both count nouns and non-count nouns? (some, enough, a lot of, any)
Which quantifier is used in negative sentences and questions? (any)
Which quantifiers are used with count nouns? (a few, several, many)
Which quantifiers are used with non-count nouns? (a little, a great deal of)
Now look at these examples:
1. There aren't many.
2. There isn't much.
Which quantifier is used with count nouns? (many)
Which quantifier is used with non-count nouns? (much) Can many and much be used in negative sentences
and questions? Yes, they can.
Keep in mind that, although much is formal in affirmative statements, it is not formal in negative sentences
and questions.
87. Adjectives and Adverbs: comparatives and superlatives
Adjectives: Maggie lives in a residential area with safe, quiet streets.
What is the area where Maggie lives like? (residential) What are the streets like? (safe and quiet)
Remember that the words, that describe or give information about nouns, are called adjectives.
Can you name the adjectives in the example? (residential, safe, quiet). Do adjectives come before or after
the nouns they describe? (before the nouns they describe)
The place is perfect.
The people seem friendly.
What is the place like? (perfect)
What are the people like? (friendly)
Can you name the adjectives in the examples? (perfect, friendly)
Do perfect and friendly come before nouns in the examples? (no, they don’t). Where do they come? (after
the verbs)
Note that adjectives can also come after be, or other non-action verbs, such as seem or Look.
Wakefield House apartments rent quickly.
How do Wakefield apartments rent? (quickly)
The words which provide information about a verb are called adverbs.
Can you name the adverb in the example? (quickly)
Does quickly come before or after the verb? (after the verb)
Wakefield House apartments rent very quickly.
How quickly do Wakefield apartments rent? (quickly)
Note that an adverb, can also give more information about another adverb.
Can you name the two adverbs in the example? (very quickly)
We offer two beautifully furnished apartments.
Are the apartments furnished? (yes) How are they furnished? (beautifully)
Remember that an adverb, can also give more information about an adjective.
Can you name the adjective and the adverb in the example? (furnished, beautifully)
Also note that, if a verb has no object, the adverb of manner goes right after the verb. If a verb has an
object, the adverb of manner goes after the object: They called immediately.
a. They called immediately the owner.
b. They called the owner immediately.

We use adjectives to describe or give more information about nouns, they usually go before the nouns, or
they can go after a non-action verb such as be, look, seem, appear, smell, taste.
We use comparative adjectives to show change or make comparisons (we need a bigger car)
We use than when we want to compare one thing with another (John is taller than me)
When we want to describe how something or someone changes we can use two comparatives with and (My dog is
looking older and older)
We often use the with comparative adjectives to show that one thing depends on another (The faster you
drive, the more dangerous it is)
Adjective: comparison with as…as To compare people/place/thing that are similar
(NOT)AS+ADJECTIVE+AS+COMPARISON
Adjective: comparison with Than to show people/place/things that are different: Short adjective:
ADJECTIVE+ER+THAN+COMPARISON – Long adjective: MORE+ADJECTIVE+THAN+COMPARISON
Irregular forms: good/better bad/worse
We use superlatives adjective to compare one person/place/thing with other person/place/thing
Form: Short adjective: The+adjective+est – Long adjective: The Most + Advective
Irregular forms: Good/the best bad/the worst
88. Articles: Definite and Indefinite
We use Definite Article(“The”)with common nouns that are Definite.
We use Indefinite Article(“A”or“An”)with singular count nouns which are Indefinite.
You use a before a vowel sound and an before a consonant sound. We use “a”/”an” for singular count
nouns. The definite article “the” is used with most nouns. Remeber that indefinite plural count nouns, or
indefinite non-count nouns, can be used with some or no article at all.
Note that “a”, comes before a noun starting with a consonant sound. “An”, on the contrary, comes before a
noun starting with a vowel sound. It is the sound, not the letter, that determines this difference:
a horse--- an honest man
a union--- an umbrella
a European writer ---an excellent book
a house ---an hour.
437. You are going to read an article about counterfeit goods. Five sentences have been removed from the
article. Choose from the sentences (A-F) the one which fits each gap (1-5). There is one extra sentence
which you do not need to use.
SAVE MONEY WITHOUT BREAKING THE LAW
Fake brand-name goods have been popular for many years. Most people who buy them know that what
they are buying isn't really made by the company whose name is on the label. (1) They don't mind, as long
as they feel they have got a bargain. Although the quality can't be guaranteed, they can, at least for a short
while, pretend to themselves and their friends that they are wearing the same clothes, watches, perfume
and jewellery as the celebrities they admire.
Now, however, the problem is growing. The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
estimates that the value of counterfeit goods crossing international borders is over $250 billion a year. (2)
(E) When you include the value of products which are sold in the country they are produced in, this amount
more than doubles. This reduces tax revenues for national governments and makes it more difficult for
them to finance schools, hospitals and other essential services.
However, the problems are not only financial. The Internet has seen potentially harmful fake products
being offered for sale. The most dangerous of all are fake medicines. (3) (A) Some people purchase cheaper
options deliberately, knowing they aren't genuine but hoping they won't do any harm.
Others, who would never deliberately buy any drugs not regulated by the government, are fooled by
authentic-looking websites. Whatever the reason, the purchase can be deadly. Large numbers of children
have been killed by fake drugs and baby products in countries such as China, Panama and Nigeria
in recent years. Almost certainly individuals have suffered in the same way in many other places.
It is easy to avoid fake products. (4) A Some people purchase cheaper options deliberately, knowing they
aren't genuine but hoping they won't do any harm. By careful searching, you can find which of these stores
is selling the products you want for the lowest prices.
You can save even more money, though, by searching for cheap, but legal alternative products. A quick search shows
that a Rolex Explorer II watch can cost from about $3,000 to over $5,000 depending on the model you prefer. A fake
Rolex is cheaper but it may not work or it may not even arrive. However, an original Steinhart Ocean II can be yours
for under £500 and it is reasonably similar to a Rolex. It doesn't have the more famous name on it and people may not
be as impressed by it as by a fake Rolex. (5) (B) However, unlike an illegal fake, you have got an item of superb quality
and you won't have broken the law by buying it. You will also have a receipt in case anything goes wrong.
We all like a bargain and some products are extremely expensive but buying counterfeit goods is not the best way to
find one.
C The problem with these products is that they look so similar to the real thing that police officers and customs
officials are unable to distinguish between them.
473. Preferences: Prefer, Would prefer, Would rather
prefer, would prefer, and would rather to talk about things or activities that you like better than other things or
activities:
• Prefer is often used to express a general preference;
• Would prefer and would rather are used to talk about a preference in a specific situation;
• A comparison with to can follow prefer or would prefer plus a noun or gerund;
• A comparison with than can follow would rather plus a base form.
Subject + Would prefer/prefer*+ Noun / Gerund / Infinitive: I would prefer/prefer TV news (to newspapers)
I would prefer/prefer Watching the news (to reading newspapers)
*Like modals, would rather does not have -s in the third-person singular.
He prefers (not) to watch the news.
Yes / No Questions
Do/Would + Subject + Prefer + Noun / Gerund / Infinitive TV news? watching the news? to watch the
news?
does + he/she + Prefer + Noun / Gerund / Infinitive TV news? watching the news? to watch the news?
Subject+Would rather*+Base Form of Verb: I would rather watch the news (than read newspapers)
I would rather not read newspapers.
Yes / No Questions
Would + Subject + Rather + Base Form of Verb: Would you rather read?
Short Answers: Affirmative (she would) Negative (She’d rather not).
474. Necessity: Have (got) to, Don't Have to, Must, Must not, Can't
the uses of have (got) to, must, don’t have to, must not, and can’t to express different degrees of necessity:
• The affirmative forms have, have got to, and must express necessity;
• The negative form don’t have to expresses lack of necessity;
• The negative forms must not and can’t express prohibition.
Subject + Have to / Have got to + Base Form of Verb: I have got to/have to leave
Negative statement: I don’t have to leave. He/she doesn’t have to leave
Subject + Must* (not) + Base Form of Verb: I must leave early. I must not arrive late.
Subject + Can’t + Base Form of Verb: You can’t sit here.
475. Gerunds after Prepositions
Prepositions can be followed by nouns, pronouns, or gerunds;
Many common expressions formed by verb + preposition or adjective + preposition can be followed by
gerunds;
Expressions with the preposition to (look forward to, object to) are followed by a gerund, not an infinitive
Preposition + Gerund: Do you have ideas about improving life at school?
Are the teachers against increasing tuition?
Verb + Preposition + Gerund: I plan on joining the Student Council. We’ll succeed in improving the school.
Adjective + Preposition + Gerund: I’m interested in studying math. Are you tired of hearing complaints?
476. Infinitives after Certain Verbs
Some verbs can be followed directly by an infinitive.
Some verbs need an object before the infinitive.
Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or an object+infinitive.
Many verbs and adjectives are followed by infinitive constructions, either with bare infinitive (for example:
go) or to-infinitive (to go). Some verbs followed by bare infinitive are make and let (make/let + object +
bare infinitive) and would rather: Parents make their children watch tv before going to sleep.
My parents don’t let me stay out late at night.
Do you want to eat pizza? No, we’d rather sleep.
verbs followed by bare infinitive or to-infinitive = help, dare (help/dare + object + bare infinitive/to-
infinitive): Computers can help us process/to process numbers.
Nobody dared to speak/speak.
verbs followed by to-infinitive = aim, fail, intend, learn how, long, manage, need, offer, plan, prefer,
refuse, try, want: Julie aims to complete the essay by next week.
Please try to arrive punctually at 9.
verbs followed by to-infinitive, or that-clause = decide, expect, hope, promise, threaten, warn:
We decided to leave early. I promise to tell you that secret.
NOTE! As these verbs often refer to the future, the that-clause often contains would: We decided that we
would leave early.
NOTE! With the verb pretend, the that-clause often contains a past tense verb: Phil pretended to be ill. Phil pretended
that he was ill.
verbs followed by an object and to-infinitive = advise, allow, dare, encourage, forbid, force, instruct, order, permit,
persuade, remind, teach, tell: Luke and Mary advised me to go back.
verbs followed by to-infinitive, or -ing form = begin, start, hate, like, love: After two hours, people began to leave the
cinema. After two hours, people began leaving the cinema.
477. Gerunds and Infinitives
Some verbs, are followed by a gerund (base form + -ing): appreciate, avoid, can’t stand, end up, fell like,
keep, mind, recall, regret
Some verbs are followed by an infinitive (to + base form): afford, agree, decide, expect, need, offer, plan,
want, would like
Some verbs can be followed by a gerund or an infinitive: begin, continue, hate, like, love, prefer
The gerund is the only verb form that can follow a preposition
For general statement we can use: gerund as subject / it+infinitive
478. Infinitives with Too and Enough
We use too+adjective/adverb+infinitive to give a reason: she’s too young to drive
We can also use adjective/adverb+enough+infinitive to give a reason: My grandfather is old enough to play
football.
Too comes before the adjective or adverb
Enough comes after the adjective or adverb
479. Infinitives of Purpose
It’s used to explain the purpose of an action. A purpose can be expressed with an infinitive (to + base form
of verb) or in order to + base form of verb.
To + base form of verb is more common in informal speech and writing.
A negative purpose can be expressed with in order not to + base form of verb. Because + a reason is more
common in everyday spoken English.
Affirmative I left at 9:00 (in order) to be on time.
Negative I left at 9:00 in order not to be late.
• A to-infinitive can be used to express purpose: I'm calling to book a holiday
• In order and so as can be used before a to-infinitive for emphasis in more formal styles:
He took a friend in order to have a witness.
• The negative is always in order not + to-infinitive or so as not + to-infinitive:
He whispered so as not to be heard.
The infinitive of purpose can only be used if the doer of the action expressed by the infinitive is the
same as the subject of the main clause. If the subjects are different, we can use so + that-clause with
the present simple tense or with the modal verbs may, can, will, might, could or would:
Bobby makes two jobs so that his daughter can attend college.
In order + that-clause is also possible in this case; however, it is more formal and less common. In the
that-clause, we can use the modal verbs may, shall, might or should:
Our company does everything in order that the clients will be totally satisfied.
With come and go, we can use the infinitive of purpose with the verb in any present or past tense or
with the gerund form of the verb: I'm just coming to open the door
NOTE! But if come and go are used as infinitives or as imperatives, we use and instead of to:
I must go and buy the milk.

52. Write an email to your friend Albert and tell him about the city/town/place you live in. Write 100 words
Hi Albert,
How are you? I hope you’re all right…
I came back to Cardano Al Campo a week ago from my holiday in Alghero. I would rather have stayed in Alghero. I
don’t know if I told you, but I live in a small town near Malpensa Airport.
It is a safe and quiet town distant 35 km from Milan. It counts more or less 15.000 people.
In this “town” there are a Church, a kindergarten, elementary school and a middle school and my favourite Ice Cream
shop. We also have some shops, a supermarket, a couple of bars and a few tobacco shops. I really like the fact that
behind my building there is a park where I can take my child to play every evening.
53. Write a brief report about a topic of your choice
54. Choose one of the articles you have studied and provide a short summary covering the key points.
Write 100 words
55. What did you do last weekend? Write 100 words.
56. How do you think the world will be different in 50 years' time? Write 100 words
The world is changing with technological advances as well as the development of artificial intelligence, so what kind of
world will we see in 2073? Smart robot servants or flying cars.
Underground roads: Underground means of transport that are capable of traveling at the speed of sound
will be developed.
Self-cleaning houses: When you are not at home or you are sleeping, technology will be developed that will
clean the house via a button.
Space hotels: Journeys to the moon and other planets will be possible. These journeys will be performed
with a system that will adapt to the gravity of each planet.
Body implants: These implants will be used to learn how the health of our bodies is and to measure our
body values. Moreover, they will work as translators.
57. What kind of holiday do you like best and why? Write 100 words
58. What are the advantages and disadvantages of being a student? Write 100 words
59. Describe a festival that is celebrated in your local area. Include information about when and where it
happens, what it is for and what people do during it. Write 100 words.
The Ambrosiano Carnival celebrated in Milan starts on the first day of Lent (Ash Wednesday) and ends on
the following Saturday. The Milan Carnival takes its name from Sant ‘Ambrogio, bishop and patron of Milan,
who, being out of the city for a pilgrimage, asked to postpone the end of the carnival by 4 days just to allow
him to return in time to start to the liturgical rites of Lent. In various locations throughout the city, there
are usually events and activities for all, including families and children. Piazza Duomo and the surrounding
areas are the main locations for festivities. Street performers, clowns parades and concerts all day and
evening long.
60. What do you do to relax? Write 100 words
61. What would you do if you had more free time? Write 100 words.
62. Your friend James is coming to visit your town/city/village for the first time. Write him an email and tell
him what he should do and see during his trip. Write 100 words.
63. Describe your typical Sunday. In your description, include information about where you go, what you do
and who you see. Write 100 words.
64. Write an email to your friend Helen and tell her how you celebrated your last birthday.
Write 100 words.
65. Write a short review of the last film you saw.
In your review, include the following information: the title, the main characters, the plot/story, your
opinion of the film. Write 100 words.
Title: Anna Karenina by Joe Wright
Main characters: Keira Knightley
Anna Karenina
Aaron Taylor-Johnson
Vronsky
Jude Law
Karenin
Domhnall Gleeson
Levin
Alicia Vikander
Kitty
Matthew Macfadyen
Oblonsky
Story: Anna Karenina (Keira Knightley), the wife of a Russian imperial minister (Jude Law), creates a high-society
scandal by an affair with Count Vronsky (Aaron Taylor-Johnson), a dashing cavalry officer in 19th-century St.
Petersburg. Anna's husband, Alexei, offers her a difficult choice: Go into exile with Vronsky but never see her young
son again, or remain with her family and abide by the rules of discretion. Meanwhile, a farmer named Levin pines for
Princess Kitty, who only has eyes for Vronsky.
In my opinion this movie is a very successful version of the book. I really liked the choice of the actors, the costumes
and the ambience.
66. How do you usually spend your free time? Write 100 words.
67. If you could go anywhere in the world, where would you go and why? Write 100 words.
69. Describe a member of your family. In your description, include information about: his/her appearance, age,
personality and job. Write 100 words
70. Describe a typical week day in your life. Write 100 words.
71. Write an email to your friend David and tell him about your plans for next weekend.
Write 100 words.
Title: plans for the next weekend
Greetings: Hello David,

How are you? I hope you are doing well.

Body: •Update them on your life or require an update on their life; I don’t know if I already told you that I
started working since November last year. It’s been quite busy and didn’t really had time to write to you in
a long time.
•Write about the purpose of your message; I decided to take a weekend away to relax and I am thinking to
go at the SPA. If you don’t have any plans already maybe you would like to join.
•Apologize for not having written before;
•Express your feelings («I’ve been missing you since the day you’re gone»)

Closing: Send wishes; The SPA is called Primia and if you would like to know more about the services you
can check it online.
Let your addressee know that you’ll wait his answer; I can’t wait for it and hope to see you there.
Tell your addressee you hope to see him/her soon.

I send you a big hug

Love
Bianca
Conclude with expressions such as «Love» or «best wishes» and then add your signature.
Remember! it is an e-mail, not a letter: if you want, you can attach photos to your text and send them to
your addressee!
77. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule
below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it.
He .......... .................. (sleep) when I called.
78. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule
below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it.
So far today I ......... ................ (eat) a bowl of cereal and a sandwich.
79. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule
below. In your explanation, include: the name of the structure, how it is formed and when we use it.
We ........... ....................... (cook) dinner when the phone rang.
80. Complete the sentence using the verb in brackets. Use the correct grammar rule and explain the rule
below. In your explanation, include: the name of the
structure, how it is formed and when we use it. Last night I ............. (see) a great film at the cinema.
81. Write an email to your friend Alice and tell her about your recent trip. Include the following
information: where you went, how long you stayed, what you did
there, your opinion of the trip. Write 100 words
….
I wanted to tell you about my last trip to Alghero, which is a city in Sardinia. I was there with my family and
we stayed 2 weeks. Every day we were going to the beach in the morning. We used to have lunch at home
and than alittle nap. In the evening we used to go for a walk and an ice cream by the sea. It was hard to
come back to work and every day routine. If you are thinking to go on a holiday I really recommend you
Alghero.
82. Why do you think English is important for your future career? Write 100 words
English is a language that, especially in recent years, is becoming very important and is meant to become a
“universal language”, as many countries are starting to use it as a mother tongue: so within a maximum of
10 years, it will become the language used to communicate with people from a different state. In the
context of Digital Marketing, being able to speak English is very important as many software or programs
used for advertising and for marketing in general, are written in English. So it is essential to know this
language and know how to use it to both communicate with people all over the world and to grow in any
work environment.
83. What are some of the things that bring you joy? Write 100 words
Spending time with my son and husband.
Eating sushi
My days off from work, especially when we manage to go for a small trip or spending time with friends
84. Your teacher has asked you to write a description of the most famous building in your town for the
school magazine. Write your description in no more than 180 words and include historical facts as well as
describe its exterior and interior
A little history of the Milan Cathedral
The construction of the Duomo of Milan began in 1386 and ended in 1965, it took place in the same
location where the St. Ambrose basilica was located since the 5th century to which in the year 836 the
Basilica of St. Tecla was added and destroyed by a fire in 1075. The construction of the Cathedral Visconti
with the aim of renovating the area and celebrate the policy of territorial expantion of the Visconti.
The construction of the cathedral took place over a period of five centuries during which different
architects, sculptors and artists made their professional contribution in the famous "Fabbrica del Duomo"
In 1389, the Frenchman Nicolas de Bonaventure was appointed chief architect giving the cathedral a strong
Gothic imprint. Thus, the exterior of the Cathedral is covered in pink white marble as well as the top that
finishes with an infinity of pinnacles and towers crowned by statues that contemplate the city. Giuseppe
Perego sculpted a golden copper statue in 1774 that was located at the highest point of the temple and is
known as the Madonnina which became the symbol of Milan.
This impressive project resulted in a unique architectural work, which fuses the international Gothic style
with the traditional Lombard architecture.
the interior of the Milan Duomo is incredibly welcoming. The beautiful, colorful stained-glass windows
depicting scenes from the Bible are visible, reflecting an ethereal light on the floor of the church, composed
in its interior by big dark marble blocks
85. Write an e-mail to your friend to tell him/her about your accademic carrier
86. Write 3 short notes
87. Write an e-mail to your professor to ask for information about the course schedule
88. What would you do if you were a millionaire? Write 100 words
90. Write a brief letter of complaint.
Appropriate greetings: Dear Mr Jones, or Dear Sirs)
oIntroduction (where you express your reason for writing)
oParagraph 1( I am writing to complain about, or draw your attention to the problem of…
I am writing to express my disappointment, or dissatisfaction, with…
I am writing to express my annoyance/extreme dissatisfaction with/anger at…)
oState reason(s) for writing
oMain Body
oParagraphs 2-3*
oState complaint(s) with justification
oParagraphs 4-5*
oSuggest what should be done
oConclusion
oFinal Paragraphs
oClosing remarks (I hope, or I trust, this matter will be dealt with, or resolved as soon as possible.
I hope this matter will receive your immediate attention.
I feel that you should…
I am entitled to compensation/a refund/a replacement.
I must insist on…
I will be forced to take further/legal action.)
An appropriate ending (for example, Yours sincerely, or Yours faithfully)
oFull name
Dear Sirs,
I am writing to protest about the imminent closure of the library in Oxford Street. I believe that closing the
library will not only be unjustified, but will also have a terrible impact on the neighbourhood.
What it is probably true that fewer people borrow books from the library nowadays. I believe there are
important reasons which explain why. First of all, the books in the library are all old since no new books
have been added in the last five years.
Secondly, the Internet has become more and more popular as you stated. In that case, may I suggest you to
install computers with Internet access in the library? This step would encourage more people to use the
library, and to read.
It has been stated that one of the reasons for closing the library is that it has become nothing more than a
meeting place for young people. This is true in part, but the reason why young people meet over there is
that there are no alternative places where they can meet. If the library is closed, young people will be
forced to meeting in the street.
Last but not least, I would like to state clearly that young people do not create any disturbance in the
library. The truth is that numerous students from my school use the library to study as it is such a quiet
place, and we can concentrate there.
In conclusion, what amazes me is that the local council is investing any excuses they can to justify closing
the library.
I urge you to reconsider your plan.
Yours faithfully
Colin Swift
94. Your English pen friend has asked you to provide him/her with some information about a typical
Bulgarian festival or celebration . Write a letter to your friend in which you describe a festival or a
celebration . In your letter, include the following information about the event :
name, time, place and reason(s) for celebrating preparations and what usually happens on the actual day
how people feel about the event, your own comments or thoughts
95. A cookery magazine is running a competition, asking its readers to submit a recipe for a typical dish
from their country. Write your recipe.
Moussaka
Take some potatoes, peel and slice them in uniform disks, rinse under running water. Bake them for 20
minutes at 180C.
Slice the eggplants in uniform disks. Rinse them with water and season them with a good sprinkle of salt.
Bake them for 20 minutes at 180C. It’s time to prepare your Moussaka meat sauce. In essence, a Moussaka
meat sauce is very similar to a basic Bolognese sauce. The ground meat is sautéed in olive oil, onions and
garlic. It is then deglazed with some red wine and, finally, it is simmered with chopped tomatoes until
thickened. Once the Moussaka sauce has thickened season with salt and pepper. Have some beshamel
sauce ready. It’s time to assemble your dish: start by layering your potatoes at the bottom of your baking
dish. Split your aubergines in two lots. You’ll need the first lot to layer over the potatoes and the second lot
to cover the meat sauce. Pour your meat sauce over your aubergines and spread it evenly. Spread your
second aubergine layer over the meat sauce. Add the béchamel. Finally sprinkle a bit of grated cheese on
top.
96. A friend of yours is visiting your town and wants to visit you. Write a letter to him/ her, giving directions to reach
your house.
An address; located at the top right corner of the page,
Street name and number;
Postal code and city;
Country.
A date; located below your own address, insert month, day and year
A opening; "Hi + (name)", "Dear + (name),“
The body; You would normally start with a greeting. Then, you can fill the body of your letter with:
Referring to news;
Giving news;
Apologies;
Invitations;
Requests;
Making suggestions and recommendations
In the first paragraph of your body, you should state your reason for writing.
In the second and following paragraphs, expand on what you mentioned in the first paragraph.
In the final paragraphs, you can make some concluding remarks.
A closing; •Give a reason why you’re ending the letter;
•Send greetings and/or make reference for future contact;
The signature
 Via Trento 11
21010, Cardano Al Campo
Italy
Dear Alex,

How are you? I was so surprised to hear that you are coming to visit me.
I would like to inform you first of all that in Cardano Al Campo there is not much to do, but fortunately
we have the lakes not far away and also Milan is 30 minutes by train distant from my town.

I believe that when arrive on the first day you can catch the bus from the train station, after 3 stops you
get off and walk straight until you reach the church of the town and take the first right. Go straight for 5
minutes and when you reach Via Trento check for number 11.

I will organize the trips to do and you will tell me if is interesting for you. Do not hesitate to write if you
have any specific place you wanna visit.

See you soon

All the best

Bianca
97. You have decided to enter a short story competition. You should write a story ending with the words:
"It was only then that I realiszed they had mistaken me for someone else". (180 words)
98. Write a note for each of the examples we studied in the previous lesson: celebratory card - condolence
card - birthday card. ?Use no more than 80 words for each note (including opening, closing and signature).
Dear Jane,
HAPPY BIRTHDAY!
It’s been a year since we ate that huge chocolate cake on your last birthday, but what now? here I am to
celebrate your special day again! With another cake, of course!
I can’t believe all the fantastic things we did together this year: our holidays in Croatia, your move, your
first car! It’s been a terrific year and I’m sure that the next will bring you lots of happiness too!
You are the best sister of the world and I’m looking forward to making a lot of exciting things together!!
With all my love,

Ozzy

Dear Luke,
Congratulations for your new job! I knew you would make it!
This is a very special day for you and for your family. Your parents and your brother has always supported you. This is the best reward
for all your efforts and also for the sacrifices your family made to make your dreams come true! You deserve it!
Maybe you’re a little scared because you don’t know what to expect, but rememb er: I’ll always be with you! If you can’t stand the
pressure, just call me and everything will be ok!
I wish you all the best that life can give you, buddy!

Dear Misha,
There are no words to express the pain you’re going through. I am so sorry for your mom, she was an
excellent woman.
I remember the breakfast she made for us when we were kids and visited France all together: she was so
sweet!
Bonnie was such a wonderful person, and I’m sure she will never leave our hearts and our thoughts.
I think about you every day, and I know that no letter will wash the pain away from your heart, but thank
God you have a beautiful family! Your husband and your children will help you to go on, and Bonnie will
watch over you from the most shining star in the sky.
I’ll come back home next week. Meanwhile, know that my heart is with you.
Your friend
Margery
99. Your English teacher has asked you to write a story. Your story must begin with this sentence. "I was
walking along the path by the river when suddenly I saw a small silver box on the ground!". Write about
150 words.
100. A health magazine has asked its readers to write an article giving their opinion on junk food (150
words)
102. What do you plan to do immediately following graduation?
Include the following details: where you plan to go, what you plan to do, who you plan to do it with.
Write 100 words
103. This is part of a letter you received from your English friend, Jo. Write an email to Jo, answering her
questions. "I recently went on a class trip to the science museum in our town. It was fantastic!
Tell me about a great trip you went on. Where did you go and why? What did you do there? And did you
enjoy it?". Write about 150 words.
104. You would like to get some work experience during your last year at school and you have seen this
advertisement in the local newspaper. Write a letter of application for the position.
WORK EXPERIENCE STUDENTS REQUIRED AT CITY HOSPITAL
We can offer work experience for one month in the following areas:
delivering meals and drinks to patients
working in the visitors' café
helping visitors at our Information Desk
Send an email to Mrs Sharp, HR Manager, giving information about yourself, and saying which area of the
hospital you would like to work in and why.
Don’t forget to add at the bottom of your e-mail:
•Your full name;
•Your address;
•Your e-mail address;
•Your mobile phone number;
•Your home phome number;
•Your fax number or any contact details.
For the opening greetings: “Dear Sirs, or Dear Sir / Madam” or “Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms+ Surname + comma”
For the body: 1. For example: I am writing to apply for the position (or, I am writing in response to your
advertisement) of Hotel Manager advertised in The Times on 2 February 2017.
2. After explaining how you got to know about this opportunity, use the second paragraph to talk about
your skills, your scholar and professional carrier (if there are any) and what do you expect from this job.
3. For the last paragraph, inform the recipient about the documents you’ve attached to the e-mail and
thank him/her for reading you application.
For the closing: Yours sincerely (if you have opened the letter with Dear Mr /Mrs / Ms + the surname of the
person;
Yours faithfully (if you have opened the letter with the general “Dear Sirs”, or “dear Sir / Madam”, or “To
Whom It May Concern”.

Object: Work experience students required at city hospital

Dear Mrs Sharp,

I am writing in response to your advertisement in the local newspaper for a student required at the city
hospital.
I would like to get some work experience during my last year of school. I believe I can fit in any of the areas
you advertised. If I can choose I would prefer to help visitors at the Information Desk.
You can find attached to this email my resume with additional information.
Looking forward to hearing from you.

Yours Sincerely
Bianca Avram
105. You travel to college by bus every day. However, the bus service is not very good and you often have problems
getting to college. Write an email of complaint to Mr Jones, the manager of the bus company. In your email, you
should:
give details of your usual bus journey to college
give examples of the problems you have on your journey
tell Mr Jones what you would like him to do
Write about 150 words.
106. Where can you picture yourself in three years?
Include the following details: where you will be living, what you will be doing, what will be different.
Write 100 words
107. The newspaper you are working for has asked you to write an article on a recent disaster which hit a
capital city you have recently been in. (150 words)
108. You have seen an advertisement in the newspaper for the position of English teacher at a popular
College in Manchester. Write a letter of application giving information about yourself, your qualifications,
and your previous experience, as well as explaining why you would be suitable for the job.
109. You have recently travelled by train and have been really disappointed with the service provided by
the staff, and the delays you encountered. Write a letter of complaint to the company to complain and
demand compensation. (150 words)
110. Cars are the greatest danger to human life today. Write an opinion essay.
111. Your teacher has asked you to write a composition giving arguments for and against owing a mobile
phone.
112. A local sports team in your town needs new facilities where they will train for national competitions.
As assistant coach of the team, you have been asked to visit a new sports centre and to write a report
assessing the suitability of the centre. Write your report in no more than 150 words. Use the structure and
the useful phrases highlighted in the previous lesson.

51. Provide the main significant traits of Old English

Old English (450 – 1150); the period of full inflections
Old English is the name for all the dialects spoken by Angles, Saxons and Jutes. Nearly all of Old English
literature is preserved in manuscripts transcribed in this region. The English language has undergone such
change in the course of time that one cannot read Old English without special study. The differences
between OE and MnE concern spelling and pronunciation, the lexicon, and the grammar.
1)The pronunciation of OE words commonly differs from that of their modern equivalents.
– The long vowels in particular have undergone considerable modification – (stān – stone; hū – how;
hēafod - head).
2)The rarity of words derived from Latin and the absence of French loanwords (the vocabulary of OE is
almost purely Germanic)
- About 85% of OE words are no longer in use.
1.Phonologically, -the consonant system was similar to that of Present-Day English (PDE), but included
phonemically long consonants, eg OE BED 'prayer' versus BEDD 'bed';
-it lacked / η / and phonemically voiced fricatives /v, z, ž /;
-length was also phonemic for vowels.
2.Morphologically: - OE was still a heavily inflected language, - including four cases, - three genders, - two
numbers, - two tenses, - three persons, - and three moods.
3.Syntactically: - OE word order resembled that of PDE (present day English), - but was freer and more
varied.
[analytic languages -- languages that make extensive use of prepositions and depend upon word order to
show other relationships - synthetic language-- a language that indicates the relation of words in a
sentence largely by means of inflections - phonemic difference -- denoting speech sounds that belong to
different phonemes (e.g. ship – sheep; bin – been)] > OE was a synthetic language.
(ie, it was made up from local varieties, not a uniform language)
4. Lexically, -OE had a rich native vocabulary
-and extensive resources for forming new words;
-loanwords comprised an insignificant part of the lexicon.
53. What are the main features of early modern English?
•Early Modern English (1450 – 1750).
-The Renaissance, the Elizabethan era, Shakespeare.
-The role of the church, of Latin and of French declines and English becomes a language of science and government.
-Britain grows commercially and acquires overseas colonies.
-Attempts to standardize the language.
-THE PERIOD OF LOST INFLECTIONS.

Early Modern English (1500-1800)

•The Renaissance brought with it widespread innovation in the English language.
•The rediscovery of classical scholarship created an influx of classical Latin and Greek words into the
language.
•While Latin and Greek borrowings diversified the language, some scholars adopted Latin terms awkwardly
and excessively, leading to the derogatory term “inkhorn.”
•It was from the beginning a term of "gentlemanly abuse", referring to words which were being used by
scholarly writers but which were unknown or uncommon in ordinary speech.
•The word derives from the then standard name for the container in which ink was stored, originally made
from a real horn; later, when this term had itself become obsolete, it was sometimes rendered as "inkpot
term".
•The phrase “inkhorn term” came into English in the early to middle sixteenth century, with the first
attested usage dating from 1543 and referred to "invented words" almost exclusively from classical Latin
and Greek origins
•The Renaissance was a revival of classical literature; the purifying of Latin diction and grammar, the revival
of Greek, and a return from Middle Age compilation to the old classical texts.
•Italian humanists from 1393 onward went to Constantinople to learn Greek and brought Greek
manuscripts back with them.
52. Provide the main significant traits of Modern English
•Old English (450 – 1150); the period of full inflections
•Middle English (1150 – 1500); the period of leveled inflections
•Modern English (1500 – ); the period of lost inflections
The Modern English period began in 1500 and lasts until the present day.
The complex inflectional system of Old English had been simplified during the ME period.
Modern English is often called the period of lost inflections.

•Modern English (c. 1750 – 1950).

-Britain experiences industrial revolution and consolidates imperial power, introducing English medium
education in many parts of the world.
-English becomes an international language of advertising and consumerism.
•Modern English is analytic (languages that make extensive use of prepositions and depend upon word
order to show other relationships).
54. Provide the main features of Global English
Recently, English has become a lingua franca, a global language that is regularly used and understood by
many countries where English is not the first/native language.
•In fact, English is used in over 90 countries, and it is the working language of the Asian trade group ASEAN
and of 98 percent of international research physicists and chemists.
•It is also the language of computing, international communication, diplomacy, and navigation.
•Over one billion people worldwide are currently learning English, making it unarguably a global language.
•Its large number of speakers (over 508 million) , plus its worldwide presence, have made English a
common language for use in such diverse applications as controlling airplanes, developing software,
conducting international diplomacy, and business relations.

55. What is the Great Vowel Shift? What does it imply?

The Great Vowel Shift was a change in pronunciation that began around 1400 and separates Middle English
from Modern English. In linguistic terms, the shift was rather sudden, the major changes occurring within a
century. The shift is still not over, however, vowel sounds are still shortening although the change has
become considerably more gradual.
In the fifteenth century, the Great Vowel Shift--a series of changes in English pronunciation--further changed the English language.
These purely linguistic sound changes moved the spoken language away from the so-called “pure” vowel sounds which still
characterize many Continental languages today.
•An important phonological change of English vowels took place between 1450 and 1650, when all long vowels changed their
quality to a great extent.
•Each long vowel came to be pronounced with a greater elevation of the tongue and closing of the mouth.
•Those vowels that could be raised were raised and those that could not be raised became diphtongs.
•Diphtongs are sounds where two vowels are pronounced after another so closely that they become one
acoustic phenomenon, like in German "Eule" or "Auto". "Raising" here refers to the position of the tongue
in the mouth.
56. Provide the main significant changes from Middle to Early Modern English
While modern English speakers can read Chaucer with some difficulty, Chaucer's pronunciation would
have been completely unintelligible to the modern ear.
57. What are the main features of Middle English?
The Norman Conquest and the Development of Middle English (1100-1500)
William the Conqueror invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD.
Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English language, mainly
through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh
century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and masscame into the language this way). Now there
was a wholesale infusion of Romance (Anglo-Norman) words.
The Merging of Two Languages
The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly
eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended
the casttle, retained the Germanic cow.
Many legal terms, such as indict, jury, and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the
courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and words
frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances
Middle English: 1100-1500
It was not until the14th century—300 years later—that English became dominant in Britain again. In 1399,
King Henry IV became the first king of England since the Norman Conquest whose mother tongue was
English. By the end of the 14th Century, the dialect of London had emerged as the standard dialect of what
we now call Middle English. The most famous example of Middle English is Chaucer's Canterbury Tales.

61. Provide the definition of suprasegmental phonology

Phonology deals with the individual segments speech is made up of and also studies those phonological
properties that extend over more than one segment, hence the name suprasegmental phonology.
• Suprasegmental phonology involves two different aspects: First, this type of phonology is concerned with
the combination of segments into larger units such as syllables. Second, it studies the phonological
properties of longer stretches of speech such as stress, rhythm, tone and intonation, often collectively
referred to as prosody.
62. Transcribe phonetically the following words: 1. Grass: gra:s; 2. Tea: ti:; 3. Teacher: ti:tʃə; 4. Check: tʃeK;
5. Environment: ɪnvaɪərənmənt; 6. Vegetables: vɛ́ʤɪtəbəlz; 7. Organize: ɔːɡ(ə)naɪz; 8. Sword: sɔːd; 9. Heart:
|hɑːt|; 10. Imagination: ɪˌmædʒɪˈneɪʃ(ə)n
63. Provide a definition of Phonetics, and its main objectives
Phonetics focuses on the sounds of language. Is the scientific study of human speech sounds independent of specific
languages. According to David Crystal, Phonetics is “the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-
making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their description, classification and
transcription.”
There are three types of phonetics, each of them reflecting three different manners to approach speech sounds:
1.articulatory phonetics: is the study of the production of speech sounds. It describes how the organs of speech, also
called articulators, are used to produce, and so to articulate, the individual speech sounds, and classifies them
according to the involved mechanism of production. It has a wide range of applications in the learning and teaching of
pronunciation.
2. acoustic phonetics: is the study of the transmission and the physical properties of speech sounds. It is an objective
way to describe sounds, which measures and analyses the physical properties (such as duration, frequency and
intensity) of the sound waves one produces when speaking.
3.auditory phonetics: is the study of the perception of speech sounds. It studies how sounds are perceived and
processed by the listener
64. Give a definition of assimilation and provide some examples
In connected speech, sounds often influence each other so that they become more like a neighbouring sound in terms
of one or all of its articulatory features. This process is called assimilation.
One of the main motivations for assimilation seems to be our wish to increase the ease of articulation (or:
minimise the effort) as we speak. When we pronounce, for example, the sequence ten bats, the usually
alveolar nasal /n/ at the end of ten is realised as a bilabial nasal [m] because of the immediately following
bilabial plosive /b/ in bats, i.e. the places of articulation become more alike. In cases like these, the
assimilation moves backwards to the preceding segment, which is known as regressive assimilation (or
anticipatory assimilation, because during the production of the preceding sound the organs of speech
already anticipate the articulation of the following sound). Occasionally, but much rarer in English, one or
more articulatory features of a preceding sound can influence the following sound. In phrases such as
Church Street, the /s/ in Street can become identical with the / / at the end of Church. This type of
articulation is called progressive assimilation, because the assimilation moves forward to the following
element.
Assimilation by which sounds become more similar with each other are called partial assimilation. When
the assimilated sounds become identical, we speak of total assimilation.
65. Give a definition of yod coalescence and provide some examples
Yod is the name of the smallest letter in the Hebrew alphabet – it stands for the vowel /i/ or the semi-
vowel /j/. In English phonetics Yod coalescence is a form of assimilation – it is a phenomenon which takes
place when /j/ is preceded by certain consonants most commonly /t/ and /d/:

…but use your head! /b@tSu:z j@ hed/

what you need…. /wotSuni:d/
the ball that you brought /th@bo:lth@tSu:bro:t/
last year…. /la:stSi@/

IT CAN OCCUR: - BETWEEN WORD BOUNDARIES (AS ABOVE EXAMPLES)

- WITHIN WORDS E.G. TUBE /TJU:B/ = /TSU:B/
The fact that two extremely recurrent words in English, you and your, start with /j/ means that
understanding of this simple mechanism is vital to the understanding of spoken English. Do you and also
did you are often pronounced as /dZ@/:

Do you live here? /dZ@ liv hi@/

Did you live here? /(di)dZ@ liv

67. Identify all the IPA symbols below which represent a) plosives b) fricatives c) voiced sounds
[b]; [s]; [ʊ]; [w]; [ʃ]; [x]; [k]; [l]; [θ]; [ŋ]; [d]
Manner of exemple
articulation
plosives b, d, k,
fricatives s, [θ], [ʃ],
Voiced sounds B, d , l, k, w, [ŋ], ,

68. What is Prosody?

prosody: The phonological properties of longer stretches of speech such as stress(the degree of force used
in producing a syllable/accent), rhythm (), tone(a tone may be rising or falling, or a combination of these)
and intonation (the pattern of rises and falls in pitch across a stretch of speech is called intonation/is the
variation of voice pitch in connected speech)Errore. Riferimento a collegamento ipertestuale non valido..
71. What is Phonotactics?
The study of the possible combinations of phonemes in a language is referred to as phonotactics.
All languages have such sets of constraints concerning the combination of phonemes, but the actual rules
are language-specific and differ extensively between individual languages.
81. Derivational morphemes: discuss and provide examples
In English, the most productive word formation processes are derivation and compounding.
Derivation: when a new lexeme is formed by adding an affix to an existing word, this morphological process
is called derivation. The English language uses mainly prefixes and suffixes for its derivational processes.
Derivational prefixes modify the meaning of English words without any changes regarding their lexical class.
Many bases of these words are of Latin or Greek origin as well:

Nominal suffixes are often employed to derive abstract nouns from verbs, adjectives, and nouns: -age (This
suffix derives nouns that express an activity (or its result) as in coverage, leakage, spillage,)
-al (Several verbs take -al to form abstract nouns denoting an action or the result of an action, such as
arrival, overthrowal, recital, referral, renewal)
-ance (with its variants -ence/-ancy/-ency) Attaching mostly to verbs, -ance creates action nouns such as
absorbance, riddance, retardance.
-ant This suffix forms count nouns referring to persons (often in technical or legal discourse, cf. applicant,
-dom The native suffix -dom is semantically closely related to -hood, and -ship, which express similar
concepts: professordom
82. Provide a definition as well as meaningful examples of: 1. clipping; 2. coinage; 3. Blending
English has constantly undergone lexical change throughout its history, some ways in which this type of change
occurs: clipping: where a word is extracted from a longer one with the same meaning, as in phone from telephone,
photo from photograph, bra from brassiere, fridge from refrigerator, pram from perambulator, and flu from influenza.
blending: Blending is another process which involves a sort of combination of clipping and compounding, as can be
seen in brunch (breakfast+lunch), smog (smoke+fog), motel (motor+hotel). Coinage is a type of word formation
process that involves the invention of a totally new word. This often occurs with scientific names and trade names of
new products For example: Google. nylon, aspirin
83. Provide a definition as well some meaningful examples of bound morphemes
Some morphemes,such as plural endings, or the morpheme un- in words such as unkind, only appear in combination
with free morphemes and never on their own. Therefore, they are defined bound morphemes. All bound morphemes
are affixes, that is to say, morphemes that are attached to other morphemes. Affixes play an important role in various
morphological processes. On the one hand, we use affixes to express grammatical information such as in books. On
the other, we use affixes to build new words. For instance, the noun reader is derived from the verb read by adding
the affix -er.
84. Open and close word classes: discuss and provide some examples.
In morphology, we have 2 groups of word classes: open classes that frequently adopt new members(noun, verbs,
adjectives and adverbs), also known as content words or lexical classes; and closed classes that
usually do not adopt new members(contains word classes such as determiners (e.g. the), prepositions (e.g.
from), quantifiers (e.g. every) and conjunctions (e.g. and).), also known as function words or grammatical
classes.
Let’s consider the word book, which consists of one morpheme. If we want to convey the idea that a
particular book is a really small book, we may turn it into a minibook adding mini- at the beginning of book.
If we want to consider more than one book, we add the plural marker -s at the end of this noun, so that we
can talk about books. Book, mini- and -s are all individual morphemes. The morpheme mini- is used to
create a new word from an existing word by adding lexical information, whereas the morpheme -s is used
to add the grammatical information [plural].
85. Provide a definition of Morphology and of morpheme
The linguistic term for any smallest meaning-bearing unit of language is morpheme.
Morphemes may carry lexical information but also grammatical information
86. Provide a definition as well as meaningful examples of: 1. back.formation; 2. conversion; 3.
Reduplication
• Back formation: A word (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a
verb). Backformation are words (usually verbs) formed by removing from a noun what is thought to be a
suffix, and adding a verb ending. Basically it is the opposite of what we do when we add an affixe to obtain
a derived word.
Emotion emote
Enthusiasm enthuse
Liaison liaise
Priority prioritise
Television televise
editor edit
donation donate
burglar burgle
zipper zip
television televise
babysitter babysit
•CONVERSION when a word changes its word class
to swim (verb) a swim (noun)
to rain rain
to bicycle a bicycle
to cheat a cheat
•REDUPLICATION a lexeme with two identical, or very similar, constituents : ping-pong, teeny-weeny
87. The following words are made up of either one or two morphemes. Isolate them and decide for each
one whether it is free or bound, what kind of affix is involved and (where applicable) if it is inflectional or
derivational.
a) cats: 2 M(CAT+S), inflectional; b) unhappy: 2M (un+happy), derivational; c) milder: 2M(mild+er)
inflectional; d) bicycle:2M(bi+cycle), derivational; e) signpost: 1M; f) rejoin: 2M (re+join), derivational; g)
greedy: 2M(greed+y), derivational; h) hateful: 2M(hate+ful), derivational.
88. Provide a definition as well some meaningful examples of free morphemes
some morphemes are identical with words, such as mail. They can combine with other morphemes or
stand alone. Consequently, these morphemes are called free morphemes. Other example, eat, date, weak.

51. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of symbol and icon.
Symbol type of sign for which the form of the linguistic expression or other meaningful representation is
related to what it refers to by cultural convention (The dove is a symbol of peace)
Icon type of sign for which the form of the linguistic expression or other meaningful representation
resembles what it refers to (woof, meow)
52. Identify the presupposition in each of the following sentences:
a sentence presupposes or takes for granted another statement.
e.g. Would you like another cup of tea? presupposes that the addressee already had a cup of tea.
1. Some books written by Chomsky are not very expensive;
Chomsky wrote some books
2. The present pope is German;
There is an alive pope/ there is just one pope
3. I am glad that my colleague sent me an e-mail;
The speaker has a job or asked for an email .
4. They intend to close more libraries.
They already closed some libraries.
53. One of the two sentences in each of the following pairs of sentences contains a presupposition.
Decide for each pair which sentence contains the presupposition and identify the presupposition-trigger:
1a) Anna thought she was in debt - 1b) Anna realised she was in debt;- Anna is in debt
2a) Have you stopped running marathons? -2b) Have you tried running a marathon? You had ran
marathons before.
54. Provide some meaningful examples of: synonymy, antynomy, and hyponymy.
Synonymy: two or more lexemes have the same meaning (even if they may differ stylistically):
e.g: correct; right
present; gift
unhappy; sad
The relation of synonymy depends on the context; this means that two lexemes may have the same
meaning in one context, but not in all contexts. We can say
The colour of that skirt is pale/light
but not
The weight of that book is pale/light.
Some synonyms may differ in intensity, such as rain;downpour;shower.
Antonymy (or oppositeness): two lexemes have opposite meaning. There are three relations of
oppositeness. The opposites can be gradable(hot-cold / large-small), relational (husband/wife, son/father
or buy/sell) and complementary (male/female; dead/alive).
Hyponymy or entailment: it is the semantic relation between a superordinate, more general, term (the
hypernym) and a set of more specific terms (cohyponyms) which are subordinated and included into it. For
instance, the hypernym tree includes several cohyponyms, such as oak, maple, willow, pine, birch, so that
we can draw a sort of hierarchy of lexemes.
If in a sentence a hyponym is replaced by its hypernym we can say that the superordinate entails its
subordinate lexeme.
E.g. Susan planted tulips versus Susan planted flowers.
55. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of: metonymy and antonymy.
Part-whole (or metonymy): a lexeme describes a part of a whole, as in leg to body or branch to tree.
56. Provide a definition of presupposition and paradox.
presupposition: In the branch of linguistics known as pragmatics, a presupposition (or PSP) is an implicit
assumption about the world or background belief relating to an utterance whose truth is taken for granted in
discourse.
Examples of presuppositions include:
Jane no longer writes fiction.
Presupposition: Jane once wrote fiction.
Have you stopped eating meat?
Presupposition: you had once eaten meat
Have you talked to Hans?
Presupposition: Hans exists.
A presupposition must be mutually known or assumed by the speaker and addressee for the utterance to
be considered appropriate in context. It will generally remain a necessary assumption whether the
utterance is placed in the form of an assertion, denial, or question, and can be associated with a specific
lexical item or grammatical feature (presupposition trigger) in the utterance.
Paradox

57. Provide a definition of Semantics and its main objectives

Semantics (from Greek semantikos=meaningful) is the study of the meaning of words, phrases and
sentences. A definition of meaning is difficult to give, according to Saussure, each linguistic sign is made of
two parts, a signifier (that is a sound sequence) and a signified (the concept we have in mind when using a
word). The relationship between the two parts of a sign is arbitrary, therefore when we use a certain word,
we are aware of the conventionally agreed-upon meaning of that word (or lexeme). Semantics is divided
into three branches:
1. lexical semantics, which focuses on the meaning of lexemes;
2. phrasal semantics, which examines larger meaningful units, such as the meaning of sentences;
3. discourse semantics, which investigates spoken or written discourse
58. Provide a definition, as well as some meaningful examples, of reference and sense.
The sense of word can be described as the meaning it has within a language and it is its relation with other
words (within its network of synonyms and antonyms, etc) that defines the sense of a word.
The reference of a word can be described, on the other hand, as its direct relation to persons, objects,
entities and state of affairs in the extra-linguistic world.
E.g.: elephant
The sense of elephant is “a large mammal with a long trunk”, but the reference of the word elephant are all
the elephants in the real world.

55. What is the so-called "horizontal variation"?

Horizontal variation is the same thing with geographical variation: language variation that is caused by the
background of speakers develops when people are separated geographically or socially. As a result, the
boundaries of geographical dialect areas frequently coincide with geographical barriers like mountain
ranges, oceans or rivers. Geographical variation takes time to develop.
56. What is genderlects?
The study of issues concerning language and gender is one of the most dynamic fields of current research
and has led to two main areas of investigation, one of those is genderlects or gender varieties (linguists
have long studied linguistic features of women’s and men’s ways of communicating.
57. What is the so-called "vertical variation"?
Vertical variation or Social variation: Socio-economic status, ethnic group membership, gender, and age are
just some of the social factors that can act as linguistic barriers and may prevent innovations from
spreading. More frequently, the social distance between groups such as young and old speakers or upper
class and lower class speakers slows down the spread of innovations from one group to the other just as
geographical distance does. Social variation is a very complex phenomenon, as speakers usually have only
one main geographical background, but belong to a multitude of social groups. For example, a speaker can
be upper class, African American, female and old at the same time.
58. Provide a definition of dialectology.
The study of geographical differentiation of language, which is now an integral part of sociolinguistics, is rooted in the
field of traditional dialectology and it focuses on phonological and lexical variation in the speech of predominantly
rural dialect speakers. The methodology of dialectology for data collection has usually included the transcription and
analysis of aspects of speech by interviewers and the use of questionnaires. For several decades now, dialectologists
have additionally employed tape- recorded interviews to lend greater accuracy to their work.
59. Provide a definition with examples of: 1. Time deixis; 2. Space deixis; 3. Person deixis
What you need to successfully communicate in face-to-face conversation, on the telephone, or when writing letters,
e-mails or text messages, is pragmatic competence. One core notion of pragmatics is deixis. It is often and best
described as “verbal pointing”, that is to say pointing by means of language. All linguistic expressions that are used to
point at someone or something, such as me and you, or here and there, are called deictic expressions (or deictics).
Occasionally, deictic expressions are also called indexicals, corresponding to the Latin verb indicare, which also means
‘to point’ or ‘to show’.
types of deixis: person deixis, place deixis, time deixis, social deixis, discourse deixis
time deixis: deictic expressions to point at points of time. Expressions like now, today or this week for a time close to
the moment of speaking, and then, yesterday or next month for a time remote from the moment of speaking, i.e.
either in the past or in the future.
• Expressions like soon, ten minutes later or two weeks ago also mark points or periods of time relative to a speaker’s
current situation.
•Another important device for establishing temporal reference is the choice of verb tense.
place deixis: deictic expressions to point at places of individuals or things (here and there)
person deixis: deictic expressions to point at persons (me and you). Another dimension of person deixis can be
observed in the so-called T/V distinction. It derives its name from the initial letters of the polite forms of personal
pronouns in many Romance languages, as in French tu (singular) and vous (singular and plural).
As indicated above, all dimensions of deixis have in common that they cannot be understood out of their
context. Therefore, understanding deixis has a lot to do with finding out from which perspective something
is being communicated. This perspective is called the deictic centre.
60. Analyse the following statement in terms of register: «The sternum requires great force to fracture».
Registers are usually characterised by a set of specialised vocabulary or specialised meaning of words that
certain groups of people use in certain situations. Registers are often associated with occupational groups.
For instance, lawyers use words such as felony, tort or vagrant, in their register also referred to as
“legalese”. Pilots and aviation enthusiasts use the word fuselage whereas laypeople would more likely call
the same “thing” the body of an aircraft.
The sternum requires great force to fracture.
As the above example sentence from a conversation between doctors shows, doctors and other medically
trained people usually refer to the long, flat vertical bone in the centre of our chest as the sternum and
normally use fracture instead of break when they talk among themselves.
They would, however, probably use the word breastbone when they explain a diagnosis to a medically
untrained patient. Other registers are associated with criminals, politicians, sports commentators and
journalists (“journalese”), to name just a few. Registers are varieties of language used in different
situations, which are identified by the degrees of formality.
The intentional mixture of different registers arouses conversational implicatures.
Registers can vary from vocabulary, phonology, grammar to semantics.
61. What is accommodation? Provide some examples.
We have said that speakers often signal that they belong to a certain group by making their language more
similar to that of the other group members. Depending on the communicative situation we thus adapt our
language, dialect, accent, style and/or register to that of our addressee or addressees. This process is called
speech accommodation. Among the reasons for accommodation may be our desire to identify more closely
with the addressee(s), to achieve social acceptance or simply to increase the efficiency of the
communication. Accommodation theory also provides explanations for the opposite process, namely the
deliberate distancing from another person or a group of people by making our speech less like theirs. For
example, people simplify their vocabulary and grammar when talking to children or foreigners.
62. What is language variation?
Language variety refers to the various forms of language triggered by social factors.
•Language may change from region to region, from one social class to another, from individual to individual, and from
situation to situation. This actual changes result in the varieties of language.
•Thus, language varieties cover:
Standard language
Dialects
Registers
Pidgins
creoles
64. What is the so-called dialectic continuum?
A dialect continuum or dialect chain is a series of language varieties spoken across some geographical area such that
neighboring varieties are mutually intelligible, but the differences accumulate over distance so that widely separated
varieties may not be. Greater geographical distance generally means greater linguistic differences as well. example for
the predominant importance of non-linguistic criteria involves the relationship between German and Dutch. Along the
German-Netherlands border there are some places in which the dialects spoken on either side of the border are very
similar and to a large extent mutually intelligible. The speakers on the German side of the border will often find it
much easier to communicate with neighbouring people on the Dutch side of the border than with speakers of other
German dialects from distant parts of southern Germany, Austria or German-speaking Switzerland. Still we would not
hesitate to say that people on one side of the border speak Dutch and those on the other side German, although there
is no linguistic justification for our decision. This situation is the result of a West Germanic dialect continuum which
links the dialects of Flemish, Dutch and German from Belgium through the Netherlands and Germany to Austria and
Switzerland.
65. What do we mean with the phrase "superposed variety"?
Types of varieties
1. Standard (superposed variety) : which has a special position and does not fit into any of the other types of varieties
2. geographical varieties (regional dialects)
3. sociolect (social dialects) depending on the background of the speaker
4. functional varieties (register and style): depending on the context
66. How are "Styles and registers" called? Why?
Styles and registers are so-called functional varieties, as they depend on the context of a communicative
situation. Styles and registers are characterised by the function of language in a particular situation and the
consideration of such factors as addressee,
topic, location and interactional goal rather than the background of the speaker. The exact definition of
style and register is difficult. Both terms are used in a number of different and often overlapping ways,
even by linguists. A common distinction is that style refers to the level of formality of an utterance or a text,
whereas register refers to the choice of vocabulary in a specific communicative situation.
(1) A not as such inexpensive domicile has recently been purchased by our family.
(2) We have just bought a pretty pricey house.
the above sentences mean more or less the same. The difference between the sentences is essentially a
stylistic one: they differ by their level of formality. Sentence (1) is written in a formal style, whereas
sentence (2) is relatively informal. Most speakers of English would agree that the sentence We have just
bought a fairly expensive house fits stylistically somewhere in between sentence (1) and sentence (2).
Styles are organised along a continuum that ranges from very informal to extremely formal.
67. Provide a definition of Upward and downward convergence
Speech convergence when talking, the speech of the speaker converges towards the speech of the
person he/she is talking to > speech accommodation > polite speech strategy
Upward convergence: convergence towards the speech of someone with more power and status, or
someone deserving respect in the context
Downward convergence: convergence towards the speech of someone with less power and status
Example: people simplify their vocabulary and grammar when talking to children or foreigners > converge
downwards towards a lesser linguistic proficiency of their addressee.
68. What is register?
Register is the style o language used in a particular situaltion (e.g. formal, informal, spoken, written, slang,
etc.) and it can be determinated by:
-the relationship between the writer and the reader or the speakers;
-the kind of writing (whether it is an official letter or a friendly note);
-the subjetc matter (what we are talking about);
-the specific purpose of a writing or speech (scientific English, medical English, language of an
advertisement).
69. Identify the direct speech acts performed by uttering the following sentences:
Direct speech acts are associated with corresponding basic sentence types.
• For instance,
declarative sentences are commonly used for representative (or assertive) speech acts.
Interrogative sentences are commonly used for questions (which are often interpreted as subtypes of
directive speech acts, because they can be seen as requests for information).
Imperative sentences are associated with directive speech acts,
exclamative sentences are used for expressive speech acts.
Indirect speech acts are speech acts that depart from this pattern.
For instance, declarative sentences may be used as indirect directives, either in order to avoid giving
orders, as in the above-mentioned utterance It’s hot in here, or, in some social contexts, to intensify the
force of a command.
a) Berlin is the capital of Germany; declarative sentence, commonly used for representative (or assertive)
speech acts.
b) I hereby name this ship Mary Anne; declarative sentence, commonly used for representative (or
assertive) speech acts.
c) Pass the salt, please; Imperative sentence
d) I promise you to be on time; declarative sentence, commonly used for representative (or assertive)
speech acts.
e) What a lovely morning! exclamative sentence
76. What is sociolinguistics? What are the main objective of sociolinguistics?
Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society. It studies how social factors influence the
structure and use of language. It is study of the interrelationships between language and social structure;
centrally concerned with how language varies (at a single point in time) and changes (over time) according
to how people in society use it.
What are the objectives of sociolinguistics?
 identify aspects of socioeconomic factors in language variation;
 identify aspects of gender and ethnicity as factors in language variation;
 describe how shifts in speech contexts cause changes in speaking styles;
 list the reasons why “standard” national dialects are problematic propositions;
77. Comment on the following statement by Holmes:
"Sociolinguists aim to describe sociolinguistic variation and, if possible, explain why it happens".
The observation, description and explanation of linguistic variation is one of the main concerns of sociolinguistics.
Such variation shows in different language use at all levels of linguistic analysis, including pronunciation, vocabulary,
morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. For example, a speaker from America who takes the elevator to the
second floor usually does exactly the same as an English person who takes the lift to the first floor. In this case, it is
obviously lexical variation that could lead to a misunderstanding between these two speakers.
According to the extralinguistic factors that motivate the use of a variety, we distinguish three major types of
varieties: geographical varieties (traditionally called regional dialects or simply dialects), sociolects (or social dialects)
that are motivated by social factors such as socio-economic status, occupation, ethnic group, gender, age and religion,
and functional varieties that depend on the particular communicative situation. Additionally, in most societies there is
another variety, the so-called standard, which has a special position and does not fit into any of the other types of
varieties.
78. Provide a definition of Adjacency pairs
Utterances that usually appear in pairs in dialogue are called adjacency pairs. All first parts are associated
with preferred or dispreferred second parts.
Conversation is often structured around pairs of utterances that are dependent on each other.
“good morning” “good morning”
“what’s the time?” “3 o’clock”
These are called adjacency pairs.
If you break an adjacency pair (e.g. not answering a question, answering “hello” with “goodbye”), you are
causing “trouble” in the conversation which needs to be repaired.
Preference and dispreference are usually associated with characteristic verbal and nonverbal features.
Whereas preferred second parts of adjacency pairs are usually delivered immediately, fluently and in a brief
form, dispreferred second parts are often preceded by a pause and accompanied by so-called dispreference
markers, for example:
• silence, delays and hesitations such as pauses or er, em
• prefaces like well or oh
• token yes, often followed by but
• expressing doubt or uncertainty
• apologies, accounts, referring to obligations
• appeals for understanding, generalisations
For instance, imagine asking a colleague whether they would like to have a cup of tea with you. A preferred
second part to the request would be Yes, I ’d love to!, uttered spontaneously, whereas a dispreferred
second part would be some initial silence, followed by an utterance like Well, I ’m awfully sorry, but you
know I’ve got to finish this essay today.
Some linguists assume that there is a direct relationship between the amount of communicative effort
employed and the relative weight of the dispreferred response within a particular social context.
Repair is needed when the turn taking rules are failing to operate. Simultaneous speech often needs repair
when two people are speaking at once. Silence needs repair because no one is talking.
Example
D: I was thinking we could have fish
J: Fine
A: well, actually, I’ve stopped eating fish now because of, you know, the damage it does to the ocean.
J’s response is a preferred response; it is short and not hesitant A’s response is a dispreferred response; it is
hesitant and elaborate.
83. What are Preferred and dispreferred responses? Provide some examples

91. What are the locutionary, illocutionary and perlocutionary acts?

92. What are speech acts? Provide a thorough definition

Human face-to-face communication is full of exchanges that may appear, at first sight, rather unrelated,
such as the following example:
A Can you tell me the time?
B Well, the milkman has come
Herbert P. Grice in “Logic and Conversation” (1975), presents a basic principle that governs human
interaction: the so-called Cooperative Principle (CP):
«Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs, by the accepted
purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged»
From this principle, four maxims are derived:
The Maxim of Quantity
1. Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purpose of the exchange.
2. Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.
The Maxim of Quality
Try to make your contribution one that is true, specifically:
1. Do not say anything that you believe to be false.
2. Do not say anything for which you lack adequate evidence.
The Maxim of Relation (or relevance)
Make your contribution relevant.
The Maxim of Manner Be perspicuous (= be clear). More specifically:
1. Avoid obscurity.
2. Avoid ambiguity.
3. Be brief.
4. Be orderly.
For instance, in the example provided, B does not observe the Maxim of Relation.
• Well, the milkman has come is, at first sight, not a relevant answer to the question Can you tell me the time? However, we are
able to bridge the gap between what is said and what is meant by interpreting B’s answer as a cooperative attempt of giving A at
least some helpful hint if not the exact time.
•Apparently, B does not know the exact time but knows that A knows the time at which the milkman usually comes and will
interpret B’s utterance accordingly. This is what we can infer from B’s reply.
The example shows that finding out about speakers’ communicative intentions plays an important role for our interpretation of
utterances. At the same time, human communication is also about making things happen in the real world.
•Such aspects of meaning in interaction are discussed in speech act theory.
Take the simple utterance
It’s hot in here.
What does it mean? Who could say it to whom in what situation?
At first sight, this is a statement about the temperature in a particular room. However, this is not always the communicative
intention with which this declarative sentence is uttered. Most people who say
It’s hot in here to another person will want this person to do something about the hot. In this case
It’s hot in here may mean Could you please open the window?
or
Could you please turn off the heating?
or
Could you please lend me one of your short-sleeve t-shirts?
In short, the utterance may serve as a polite request for some appropriate action in order to make the speaker more comfortable.
Depending on the relationship between the participants of the conversation, it could also be used as a command.
As we have seen, utterances can be used to perform actions. Actions performed via utterances, such as requesting, threatening, or
thanking, are based on speech acts.
The systematic study of speech acts is based on speech act theory.
Speech act theory has its roots in thoughts formulated by John L. Austin in How to Do Things with Words
(1962) and John R. Searle in Speech Acts. An Essay in the Philosophy of Language (1969).
All actions performed by utterances can be divided into three related acts:
the locutionary act, (is the physical act of producing understandable language that may be regarded as
meaningful within a given context.)
the illocutionary act, (What we intend to do by producing an utterance)
the perlocutionary act. (The cognitive or emotional effect an illocutionary act has on an addressee or
addressees in reality)
The locutionary and the illocutionary act are within our control, whereas the perlocutionary act is not.

81. "Those unhappy students failed the final exam". Draw the tree diagram of that sentence.

82. Draw the three diagrams of the following sentences:

1. I love you
2. Anne bought a new car
3. He smiled at me
83. What is syntax? What are its main objectives?
Syntax examines how words are combined to form larger grammatical units such as phrases, clauses, and
sentences. Syntax outlines the basic rules and principles which enable speakers to recognize and produce
syntactical structures. Human memory is limited. Therefore, speakers do not store all possible sentences of
their languages in their brains. Instead, they store words and their grammatical properties, as well as a
system of rules according to which words and their forms may be combined into larger grammatical units
such as phrases, clauses and sentences.
Syntax seeks to describe the structure of sentences in a manner that reveals more about the relationships
between their elements
Syntax is the branch of linguistics that seeks to describe the rules which enable us to recognize and
generate an unlimited number of such units from a limited set of means.
84. Determine the sentence types.
1. Twinkle, twinkle, little star! IMPERATIVE SENTENCE
2. How I wonder what you are! EXCLAMATORY
3. Is the little star twinkling? INTEROGATIVE
4. The little star is twinkling. DECLARATIVE
85. Draw the tree structure of the following sentences:
1. He loves carrots
2. She solved the mystery
3. The cat killed the mouse
86. Which of the following examples based on tongue twisters, nursery rhymes, and songs are grammatical
sentences? Why?
1. She seashore sells on shells the.
2. The looked man in the moon out of the moon.
3. Pussycat ate the dumplings. CORRECT
4. Old Mother Hubbard to went cupboard the.
5. On the first day of Christmas my true love gave to me a partridge in a pear tree. CORRECT
87. What do linguists mean with null-subject languages and non-null-subject languages?
A general principle states that declarative sentences must contain a subject. Languages such as English
usually mention the subject of a sentence explicitly, whereas it may appear either explicitly or implicitly in
other languages. For instance, the Italian sentence Parla francese (‘she speaks French’) is perfectly
grammatical without an explicit subject, whereas most speakers of English would consider the literal
equivalent *Speaks French to be ungrammatical. Languages such as Italian are called null-subject
languages, whereas languages such as English are called non-null-subject languages. The corresponding
parameter is known as the Null-Subject Parameter, which states whether the subject has to be mentioned
explicitly.
88. What are the three criteria for determining a word's category? Explain.
The three criteria for determining a word’s category are meaning, inflection, and distribution.
Meaning refers to the traditional semantic notion of the word classes, for example, stating that all words
that name persons, objects, and places are nouns.
Inflection refers to the morphological properties of a word, such as the plural and possessive forms of a
noun.
The distribution of a word depends on its syntactic properties, such as its potential positions and functions
within a phrase, clause or sentence.
We can try to determine the category of the word teacher by applying the meaning criterion first.
A teacher is a person, and we know that words naming persons, objects, and places are generally nouns.
According to its meaning, the word teacher is a noun.
Secondly, we could check which inflections may occur with the word teacher. Teacher may occur in a plural
form teachers and a possessive form teacher’s, as in the teacher’s book.
Words that have a plural form are generally nouns.
Thirdly, we may check the distribution of teacher in phrases or sentences.
This works by finding words in a given sentence for which we can substitute teacher.
In the sentence The student went quickly to the new library, we can substitute both student and library by
teacher, as in The student went quickly to the new teacher or The teacher went quickly to the new library.
Teacher occurs with both a determiner in the teacher and an adjective in the new teacher, which are
typical distributions for English nouns.
We can now say that teacher is a noun.
89. Give a definition of competence and performance.
The knowledge native speakers have of the language they grow up with is called competence.
What humans actually produce in their spoken or written utterances only reflects their competence
without necessarily matching it in detail.
Especially in spoken discourse, humans often do not strictly follow the rules of syntax. They do so either
unintentionally, due to impairing factors like lack of concentration, or deliberately, for the sake of certain
effects.
Actual language behaviour is called performance.
90. What do these two statements by Chomsky imply? 1. Colourless green ideas sleep furiously. 2. Furiously sleep
ideas green colourless.
Native speakers can usually intuitively tell the difference between a grammatical sentence and an ungrammatical
string of words without necessarily being able to explain why.
Native speakers as well as proficient non-native speakers of English will recognise the first sentence as being
grammatical, in spite of its absurd meaning, whereas they will judge the structure of the second example as not
possible in English.
Some linguists also use the terms well-formed for grammatical sentences and ill-formed for ungrammatical
combinations.
On the basis of their competence, native speakers are able to state that the sentence Colourless green ideas sleep
furiously conforms to the grammatical rules of English, while Furiously sleep ideas green colourless does not.
93. Draw the three diagrams of the following sentences:
1. I love you
2. Anne bought a new car
3. He smiled at me