Lecture 9-10 (ME664)

ME664A
Fundamentals of Casting and Solidification
Dr. Arvind Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Lecture 9
Solidification Lab
Dr. Arvind Kumar Liquid Metals Group IIT Kanpur
Some common defects in any casting process
3
4
Microporosity
Typical hot tear at

change of section
6
Macrosegregation defects in a representative industrial scenario
Experiment / Model
L b t
Laboratory casting
ti
Macrosegregation
and mesosegregation
7
Macrosegregations due to convection of solid particles (grains)
8
Mesosegregation (Channel) defects - freckles
d et al., Aluminium, vol. 72

T. Nishimurra, Japan
A.F. Giamei, UTRC
R.C. Dorward
(d) Cracks in a test section under
(b) Section of a tension test (in the regions of
turbine blade Microstructure around meso segregates)
(c) meso segregates
(a) Steel ingot
L b t
Laboratory casting
ti
Mesosegregations
• Considerable variations in composition
and microstructure
L b t
Laboratory casting
ti
• Serious defects in industrial parts
• Difficult to detect
• Critical applications: nuclear, aviation
9
Examples of mesosegregation (channel) defects - freckles
10
Examples of mesosegregation (channel) defects - freckles
Mesosegregations
• Considerable variations in composition
and microstructure
• Serious defects in industrial parts
• Difficult to detect
• Critical
C iti l applications:
li ti nuclear,
l aviation
i ti
11
Uneven grain size and morphology variations
Hot top
Columnar dendritic
Equiaxed dendritic
Equiaxed globular
Equiaxed mixed
globular/dendritic
globular
Experiment Model
Microstructure : grain
morphology
12
Sand casting
13
Some common defects in sand casting process
14
Some common defects in sand casting process
15
16
ME664A
Fundamentals of Casting and Solidification
Dr. Arvind Kumar

Department of Mechanical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur
Lecture 10
Solidification Lab
Hot Tear
18
19
If the contracting solid is constrained by a rigid or even an expanding mold, stresses may
build up within the solid portion of the casting which are ultimately relieved by tensile failure
along some convenient dendrite - liquid interface. The casting is literally torn apart. This failure is
known as a “hot
hot tear”
tear , an opening which may or may not be filled by the liquid that is present
present.
Consider the tensile bar shaped casting in a sand casting.

Relatively thick solid layers at the external corners (large mold
volume to extract heat) and thin solid layers at the internal corners
(th so-called
(the ll d h
hot-spots
t t where
h th
there iis only
l a smallll mold
ld volume
l tto
extract heat) form during solidification. The continuity of the solid
combined with the reality of this continuity over the temperature
range TA - TE results in the weak solid skin wanting to contract. At the
same time the mold is heating g and it wants to expand.
p The clash
between the expanding mold and the contracting solid metal will
generate tensile stresses in the solid metal and compressive stresses
in the mold. It is apparent that something will have to give. If the mold
remains rigid and expanding it is inevitable that the solid skin of the
casting will “tear”
tear at the weakest points in the system
system, the hot
spots shown on the above sketch. These tears often will extend to
the surface resulting in what appears to be cracks. The presence of
the liquid during this event may allow the hot tear to be filled as it is
happening. In this case the integrity of the casting will not be lost but
it is possible that the liquid “filler”, because of segregation, could
have a significantly different composition than the solid and thus act
as a weak point in the structure. If, on the other hand, the liquid
cannot fill the expanding tear, then the integrity of the casting is lost.
20
When a tube, i.e. a cylindrical shell, is to be cast, special precautions have to be taken. The
massive sand core in the centre is cold and is warmed by the hot melt. The sand cylinder tends
to expand.
p Simultaneously,y the melt in the mould solidifies and cools, which results in shrinkage
g
of the space inside the tube. These opposing effects lead to strong mechanical stress in the
tube. The result may be that the tube cracks and has to be discarded.
Crack formation in the tube can be avoided if a less durable binding agent is used in the inner
part of the sand mould
mould. It breaks owing to the mechanical pressure and solidification and cooling
shrinkage can occur without any restrictions
Two tube castings, one with a rigid core and the other
with a more fragile core, after cooling. The former has cracked
during the cooling process, owing to strong mechanical stress.
21
Example
Macroscale Microscale
22
− The form is that of a ragged, branching crack.
− The main and subsidiary branches generally follow an intergranular form.
− The failure surface has a dendritic morphology and is heavily oxidized prior to any subsequent heat
treatment.
− Tears are often located at hot spots.
− They can occur randomly and their extent is also variable under apparently identical casting conditions.
− Tears occur readily in some alloys, whereas others are virtually free from this problem.
23
• A simple model of hexagonal grains of diameter ‘a’ separated by a liquid film which initially has a
thickness of ‘b’. At this stage, if the mixture is subjected to a tensile strain, usually as a result of the
contraction of the casting as it cools, separation of grains occur. This causes the residual liquid to
rearrange itself somewhat and will effectively create segregation defects in the form of layers of a
solute-rich low melting point constituent in the casting.
• If strain continues to be applied to the solidifying casting,

casting then the ability of the residual liquid to
rearrange itself to fill the volumes left by the rearranging grains is now used up. At this point the further
separation of the grains draws air into the space, forming a defect known as a hot tear.
• The hot tear is so-called because it forms at particularly high temperatures, in the solid/liquid regime.
Also, its ragged form, often with branching tributaries, is nicely described as a tear. It contrasts with
tensile failures in the solid state such as quench cracks formed on quenching castings into water
following solution treatment, in which the failure is a fairly straight, smooth, narrow crack. 24
• The percentage of residual liquid in the solidifying casting is critical to the development of hot tears. For
those alloys
y in which there are large
g qquantities of a residual eutectic, the abilityy of the casting
g to contract
without danger of exhausting the supply of liquid means that such alloys are not easily susceptible to hot
tearing. Such alloys include the Al-Si family and their hot tearing resistance explains the popularity of
these alloys as casting alloys. In contrast, the Al-Cu family of alloys, although strong, are subject to
severe hot tearing problems as a result of the character of solidification; only a small amount of residual
liquid surrounds the grains for a relatively long period at a late stage of freezing
freezing.
• The final aspect of hot tearing is worth emphasizing. Hot tears usually have to be nucleated. If no
suitable nucleus is present, then it is difficult, or impossible in some alloys, to form a tear. Since it seems
that, in aluminium alloys, oxide films are excellent nuclei for hot tears (and excellent for nucleating other
volume defects such as the various forms of porosity) then it follows that improving the design of the
filling system and increasing the quality of the liquid metal will often cause hot tears to disappear. This
non-traditional technique is recommended as the most effective method of all to deal with hot tears. 25
There are various 'traditional' techniques for dealing with hot tearing:
• It may be possible to alter the geometry of the casting to reduce stress concentrations and hot spots, for
example by providing generous radii at vulnerable sections
example, sections.
• Local hot spots can be reduced by local chilling which will strengthen the metal by taking it out of the
susceptible temperature range.
• There are various ways of reducing the mould strength so that it provides less constraint to the
contracting casting.
casting
• Brackets and webs can be placed across a vulnerable corner or hot spot to provide mechanical support
and to enhance local cooling.
• Grain refinement should help to reduce tear initiation since the strain will be spread over a greater
number of grain boundaries
boundaries.
• A reduction in the casting temperature can sometimes help, probably because it reduces the grain size.
• It is sometimes possible to benefit from varying the alloy constituents within the specified composition
ranges. In particular, increasing the volume fraction of eutectic liquid may help by increasing the pre tear
extension and by decreasing the cracking susceptibility
susceptibility.
• Finally, it is sometimes possible to site feeders carefully so that the casting is effectively split up into a
series of short lengths to reduce the strain concentration.
26
27
28
Defects analysis: How to
control them
29
Defects in casting: macro/meso segregation
• Redistribution of solute at the macro/

meso scale during solidification
• Redistribution caused by
- diffusive transport
- convective transport
natural convection
o ced co
forced convection
ect o
Shrinkage driven flow
Marangoni convection (surface tension)
driven flow
30
31
How betas control macro/ mesosegregation by

governing flow directions
C-C0
βT = 6.0×10-5 °C-1
mL = -1.286 °C wt %-1
5 3×10-33 wt %-11
βC = -5.3×10
βC ( - 5.3×10-3 wt %-1 )
Sn-5%Pb alloy (Solute Pb, heavier) C

N   65
mL  T
Pb-5%Sn alloy (Solute Sn, lighter)
Opposite βC ( + 5.3×10-3 wt %-1 )

32
Density inversion in thermally stable solidification situation
C
N 
mL  T
33
Recap
 Defects in casting
 Defects analysis
34

Lecture 9-10 (ME664)

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ME664A

Fundamentals of Casting and Solidification

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Typical hot tear at

Macrosegregations due to convection of solid particles (grains)

d et al., Aluminium, vol. 72

(a) Steel ingot

Examples of mesosegregation (channel) defects - freckles

Uneven grain size and morphology variations

Some common defects in sand casting process

Dr. Arvind Kumar

Consider the tensile bar shaped casting in a sand casting.

• If strain continues to be applied to the solidifying casting,

Defects in casting: macro/meso segregation

• Redistribution of solute at the macro/

How betas control macro/ mesosegregation by

Sn-5%Pb alloy (Solute Pb, heavier) C

Pb-5%Sn alloy (Solute Sn, lighter)

Opposite βC ( + 5.3×10-3 wt %-1 )

Dr. Arvind Kumar Liquid Metals Group IIT Kanpur

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