KEANEKARAGAMAN HAYATI

Nama : Faradillah Komalasari

NPM : 21901061040
Kelas : A

Tumbuhan invasive
1. Amaranthus sp.

Summary of Invasiveness
Amaranthus spinosus is a serious weed in tropical and subtropical regions of the
world. For instance, it is a troublesome weed in agricultural areas, pastures, and
orchards in Africa, Asia, Europe, Australia, and the Pacific region. In those
regions, it is also a serious environmental weed in disturbed sites, secondary
forests, along forest edges, and around water troughs (Lemmens and
Bunyapraphatsara, 1999; Motooka et al., 2003; PIER, 2015; PROTA,
2015; USDA-ARS, 2015). The plant has large thorns which make it unpalatable
for grazing livestock and make weeding difficult in parts of the world where hand
weeding and harvest are done by hand. Like other amaranths, it produces large
numbers of seeds, which can mature after the plant has been cut, and remain
viable for long periods.
Amaranthus spinosus merupakan gulma yang terdapat pada daerah tropis dan
subtropis di dunia. Tanaman ini merupakan gulma yang berbahaya/merugikan
bagi daerah pertanian, padang rumput, kebun buah-buahan seperti di Afrika, Asia,
Eropa, Australia, dan kawasan Pasifik. Tanaman ini termasuk tanaman invasive
dan termasuk gulma yang dapat merugikan tanaman lain. Tanaman ini dapat
hidup dalam waktu yang lama.
Description
Plants glabrous or sparsely pubescent in the distal younger parts of stems and
branches. Stems erect or sometimes ascending proximally, much-branched and
bushy, rarely nearly simple, 0.3-1(-2) m; each node with paired, divergent spines
(modified bracts) to 1.5(-2.5) cm. Leaves: petiole ± equaling or longer than blade;
blade rhombic-ovate, ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, 3-10(-15) × 1.5-6 cm, base
broadly cuneate, margins entire, plane or slightly undulate, apex acute or
subobtuse. Inflorescences simple or compound terminal staminate spikes and
axillary subglobose mostly pistillate clusters, erect or with reflexed or nodding
tips, usually green to silvery green. Bracts of pistillate flowers lanceolate to ovate-
lanceolate, shorter than tepals, apex attenuate. Pistillate flowers: tepals 5, obovate-
lanceolate or spatulate-lanceolate, equal or subequal, 1.2-2 mm, apex mucronate;
styles erect or spreading; stigmas 3. Staminate flowers: often terminal or in
proximal glomerules; tepals 5, equal or subequal, 1.7-2.5 mm; stamens 5. Utricles
ovoid to subglobose, 1.5-2.5 mm, membranaceous proximally, wrinkled and
spongy or inflated distally, irregularly dehiscent or indehiscent. Seeds black,
lenticular or subglobose, 0.7-1 mm diameter, smooth, shiny (Flora of North
America, 2015).
The striated, often reddish, stem with two sharp, long spines at the base of the
petioles, and the fruit which opens by a line around the centre are distinguishing
characteristics of this species.
Habitat
A. spinosus is found in cultivated fields, waste places, roadsides, garbage heaps
and abandoned fields. It will grow both in wet or dry sites, but grows best when
soil moisture levels are below field capacity. Waterlogging retards its growth.
Maximum growth is obtained on soils that are high in organic matter, loamy in
texture and that have sufficient nitrogen (Holm et al., 1977).
A. spinosus often grows as a weed in crops, pastures, orchards, disturbed ground,
along roadsides, and in secondary forests (Waterhouse, 1994). It grows in arid
lowlands and moist uplands on the Galapagos Islands (McMullen, 1999). In
Australia, it grows as an environmental weed in disturbed areas and rainforest and
as an agricultural weed in areas from near sea level to 820 m (Lazarides et al.,
1997). 
 2. Cyperus rotundus.

Summary of Invasiveness
C. rotundus has been considered as one of the world’s worst weeds. It has been
reported in more than 90 countries where it grows as a weed infesting at least 52
different crops worldwide (Holm et al. 1977). It grows in all types of soils and can
also survive high temperatures. C. rotundus can be found in a wide variety of
habitats including cultivated fields, waste areas, roadsides, pastures, riverbanks,
sandbanks, irrigation channels, river and stream shores and natural areas.  It is
considered a headache for gardeners and farmers because of its insidious and
rapid growth and its herbicide tolerance. C. rotundus produces an extensive
system of underground tubers from which they can regenerate and consequently is
very difficult to control once it is established (USDA-NRCS, 2014). 
Description
C. rotundus is a highly variable perennial sedge. Flowering stems are erect, up to
60 cm tall, 3-sided, smooth with swollen bases (basal bulbs). The leaves have a
distinct midrib, are linear, usually shorter than the flowering stem, up to 7 mm
wide and emerge from a sheath around the shoot base. The inflorescence is a
terminal, open umbel subtended by several leafy bracts. Several unequal rays, 2-6
cm long, support 3-8 reddish-brown to purplish-brown, flattened spikelets, 1-2 cm
long and 2 mm wide, each with up to 30 glumes, 3.5-4 mm long. Roots are
fibrous. Rhizomes are wiry, dark and persistent, connecting a network of daughter
shoots and tubers. The tubers are dark brown to black, irregularly shaped and 1-2
cm long when fully grown. Each tuber has an apical bud and several lateral buds.
The fruit (often, but erroneously, known as the seed) is a 3-angled achene, 1.5 mm
long, dark brown or black.

Habitat
C. rotundus is widespread in the tropics and subtropics, growing in almost every
soil type, altitude, humidity, soil moisture and pH, but not in soils with a high salt
content (Holm et al., 1977). Its range at increasing latitudes and altitudes is
limited by cold temperatures. It occurs in cultivated fields, fallow land, neglected
areas, road and rail sides, banks of irrigation canals and streams, edges of woods
and sand dunes. Generally, it does not tolerate shade.

3. Cammelina benghalensis L.

Description
C. benghalensis belongs to a family with 500-600 species with distinct
characteristics. C. benghalensis has creeping stems which assume an ascending
position, are 15-40 cm long, branched and rooting at the nodes. The leaves are
ovate or elliptical, acuminate, 3-7 cm long, 1-2.5 cm wide with a base narrowed
into a petiole. The flowers are subtended by bracts with their edges fused to a
length of about 10 mm to form a flattened funnel-shaped spathe, 1.5 cm long and
wide. Flowers have three lilac blue petals 3-4 mm long, the lower rather smaller
than the two laterals and occasionally white. There are two anterior cells which
are two-ovuled. The fruit consists of a pear-shaped capsule with five seeds and the
capsule open when mature(dehiscent). Seeds which sometimes appear sugar-
coated are 2 mm long, ribbed-rough (rugose) and greyish brown in colour. C.
benghalensis produces white underground rhizomes with reduced leaves and
closed modified flowers which produce subterranean seeds. These seeds are fewer
but remain viable longer than the aerial ones. The species is distinguished from
others by the blue flowers, the short flower stalk which does not extend above the
spathe, the partially joined spathe margins and the reddish brown hairs on the leaf
sheath (Ivens, 1967; Holm et al., 1977; Drummond, 1984).

Habitat
C. benghalensis is an annual or perennial herb with fleshy creeping stems that root
readily at the nodes. It is equally abundant on all soil types and pH; grows in a
wide range of habitats, varying from water-saturated to dry soils; grows rapidly
and forms dense mats at the nodes under optimum conditions. C. benghalensis is
found in arable and plantation crops, and non-crop lands.

4. Paspalum urvillei.

Summary of Invasiveness
Paspalum urvillei is a well-known weed of agricultural fields and disturbed areas,
but it has been widely introduced as a forage grass to ecosystems outside its native
range in South America. It is now widely naturalized and is able to invade
grasslands, shrublands and wetlands. It invades and establishes in highly disturbed
natural ecosystems where it grows in dense stands, displacing indigenous
vegetation and altering the lower strata, especially in humid forests. The species is
listed as invasive in Hong Kong, Japan, Réunion, USA, Cuba, American Samoa,
Australia, Cook Island, New Caledonia, New Zealand and the US Minor Outlying
Islands.
Description
Grass species are notoriously difficult to identify. P. urvillei is a perennial grass
that grows in clumps or tufts of a few to many stems growing from a short
rootstock. The stems are purplish and hairy at the base but green and smooth
towards the top; they are from 0.75 to 2.5 metres tall. The blades are green, vase-
shaped, bristly and firm, 12 to 48 cm long (commonly 20 to 30 cm) and 3 to 15
mm wide; rarely, they can be up to 65 cm long and 2 cm wide. The inflorescences
are 10-20 cm long, borne on a central axis 4-13 cm long. Each flower cluster
bears six to 25 spikes. Four to thirty seedheads, grouped on spreading branches,
have paired seeds lined up in 4 rows. Seeds are brown when mature and fringed
with fine hairs, and may feel sticky. They characteristically lie on one side of the
branch.
Habitat
Paspalum urvillei is a perennial grass of tropical areas. It is reported as growing in
savannahs, disturbed areas, humid forests, roadsides, forest margins, closed
forests, footpaths, parks, lawns, gardens, farmlands, ditches, swales, streambeds,
wetlands, brackish waters, margins of lakes and meadows (Motooka et al.,
2003; Quattrocchi, 2006; Riefner and Boyd, 2007; CONABIO, 2010; Askew,
2012; FAO, 2012a; Randall, 2012; Weakley, 2012; Catasús Guerra, 2015; Weeds
of Australia, 2016; PIER, 2018; PROTA, 2018).

5. Spermacoce verticillata.
Summary of Invasiveness
S. verticillata is a scrambling annual or perennial native to the Americas. It has
been introduced widely but sporadically across Asia and the Pacific and to
tropical Australia. It can grow on a wide range of land types but often requires
disturbance to establish. S. verticillata can form large clumps which can smother

other vegetation. In its native range it has been recorded as a significant weed of
agricultural crops, for example in the Caribbean it is a problem of sugarcane,
vegetables and root crops (Fournet and Hammerton, 1991). In addition to this, on
St Helena, it is among the exotic plants threatening the critically endangered
fern, Pteris adscensionis.
Description
S. verticillata is an annual, or more usually perennial. Stems straggling, to 100 cm
or more, glabrous or nearly so, usually erect and simple or sparsely branched,
often copiously branched from the base, usually 40 cm high or less, the stems
tetragonous. Stipule sheath very short, the setae about 1.5 mm long; leaves
glabrous, sessile or nearly so, linear or lanceo-linear, mostly 1.5-4 cm long and
1.5-6 mm broad, commonly 1-veined, often with fascicles of smaller leaves in the
axils. Flowers white, very small in sessile clusters at the upper stem nodes or more
usually terminal, then the heads subtended by 2 or 4 leaf-like bracts. Hypanthium
pilose above, the 2 sepals narrowly triangular, 1.5 mm long or less. Corolla of 4
petals, 3 mm long, hispidulous outside at the apex, the lobes about equalling the
tube; anthers exserted. Capsule 2.5 mm long; seeds reddish brown about 1 mm
long (PIER, 2016).
Habitat
S. verticillata grows on a wide range of land types, but often requires disturbance
to establish. In Guatemala, S. verticillata occurs mainly at low elevations but
ascending to about 2,000 m in thickets or savannas, meadows, or in waste or
cultivated ground (PIER, 2016). In West Africa it is described as a weed of
cultivation and waste places (Hutchinson and Dalziel, 1963). It grows on sand and
caliche in prairies and openings in Texas. In Puerto Rico, it grows on roadsides,
construction sites, old fields and pastures and is one of the major invaders of
abandoned pastures and slash-and-burn fields. In Brazil, it is a feature of degraded
pastures (Mascarenhas et al., 1999). In Nigeria it is a component of the weed flora
in cereal mono-crops but is less common in mixed cropping situations, perhaps a
reflection of increased competition (Weber et al., 1995).