CHAPTER FIVE

MATERIALS AND FABRICATION SELECTION

INTRODUCTION
As chemical process plants turn to higher temperatures and flow rates to boost yields and
throughputs, selection of construction materials takes on added importance because these severe
conditions intensify corrosive action. Fortunately, a broad range of materials is now available for
corrosive service. However, this apparent abundance of materials also complicates the task of
selecting the "best" material because, in many cases, a number of alloys and plastics will have
sufficient corrosion resistance for a particular application. Final choice cannot be based simply
on selecting a suitable material from a corrosion table, but must be based on a sound economic
analysis of competing materials. The purpose of this chapter is to provide the design engineer
with a working knowledge of some of the major forms and types of materials available, what
they offer, and how they are specified. With this background, the engineer can consult a
materials specialist during the early stages of the design to establish the materials that best meet
the process conditions.

PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
The most important characteristics to be considered when selecting a material of construction
are:
1. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
(a) Strength-tensile strength
The tensile strength (tensile stress) is a measure of the basic strength of a material. It is the
maximum stress that the material will withstand, measured by a standard tensile test. The older
name for this property, which is more descriptive of the property, was Ultimate Tensile Strength
(UTS).
(b) Stiffness elastic modulus (Young’s modulus)
Stiffness is the ability to resist bending and buckling. It is a function of the elastic modulus of the
material and the shape of the cross-section of the member (the second moment of area).
(c) Toughness fracture resistance
Toughness is associated with tensile strength, and is a measure of the material’s resistance to
crack propagation. The crystal structure of ductile materials, such as steel, aluminium and
copper, is such that they stop the propagation of a crack by local yielding at the crack tip. In
other materials, such as the cast irons and glass, the structure is such that local yielding does not
occur and the materials are brittle. Brittle materials are weak in tension but strong in
compression. Under compression any incipient cracks present are closed up. Various techniques
have been developed to allow the use of brittle materials in situations where tensile stress would
normally occur. For example, the use of pre-stressed concrete, and glass-fibre-reinforced plastics
in pressure vessels construction.
(d) Hardness wear resistance
The surface hardness, as measured in a standard test, is an indication of a material’s ability to
resist wear. This will be an important property if the equipment is being designed to handle
abrasive solids, or liquids containing suspended solids which are likely to cause erosion.
(e) Fatigue resistance
Fatigue failure is likely to occur in equipment subject to cyclic loading; for example, rotating
equipment, such as pumps and compressors, and equipment subjected to pressure cycling.
(f) Creep resistance
Creep is the gradual extension of a material under a steady tensile stress, over a prolonged period
of time. It is usually only important at high temperatures; for instance, with steam and gas
turbine blades. For a few materials, notably lead, the rate of creep is significant at moderate
temperatures. Lead will creep under its own weight at room temperature and lead linings must be
supported at frequent intervals. The creep strength of a material is usually reported as the stress
to cause rupture in 100,000 hours, at the test temperature.

2. THE EFFECT OF HIGH AND LOW TEMPERATURES ON THE MECHANICAL

PROPERTIES
The tensile strength and elastic modulus of metals decrease with increasing temperature. For
example, the tensile strength of mild steel (low carbon steel, C < 0.25 per cent) is 450 N/mm 2 at
25oC falling to 210 at 500oC, and the value of Young’s modulus 200,000 N/mm 2 at 25oC falling to
150,000 N/mm2 at 500oC. If equipment is being designed to operate at high temperatures,
materials that retain their strength must be selected. The stainless steels are superior in this
respect to plain carbon steels. Creep resistance will be important if the material is subjected to
high stresses at elevated temperatures. Special alloys, such as Inconel (International Nickel Co.),
are used for high temperature equipment such as furnace tubes. The selection of materials for
high-temperature applications is discussed by Day (1979). At low temperatures, less than 10oC,
metals that are normally ductile can fail in a brittle manner. Serious disasters have occurred
through the failure of welded carbon steel vessels at low temperatures. The phenomenon of
brittle failure is associated with the crystalline structure of metals. Metals with a body-centred-
cubic (bcc) lattice are more liable to brittle failure than those with a face-centred-cubic (fcc) or
hexagonal lattice. For low-temperature equipment, such as cryogenic plant and liquefied-gas
storages, austenitic stainless steel (fcc) or aluminium alloys (hex) should be specified; see
Wigley (1978). V-notch impact tests, such as the Charpy test, are used to test the susceptibility of
materials to brittle failure: see Wells (1968) and BS 131.
The brittle fracture of welded structures is a complex phenomenon and is dependent on plate
thickness and the residual stresses present after fabrication; as well as the operating temperature.

3. CORROSION RESISTANCE
The conditions that cause corrosion can arise in a variety of ways. For this brief discussion on the
selection of materials, it is convenient to classify corrosion into the following categories:
 General wastage of material–uniform corrosion;
 Galvanic corrosion–dissimilar metals in contact;
 Pitting–localized attack;
 Inter-granular corrosion;
 Stress corrosion;
 Erosion–corrosion;
 Corrosion fatigue;
 High-temperature oxidation and sulfidation;
 Hydrogen embrittlement.
Metallic corrosion is essentially an electrochemical process. Four components are necessary to
set up an electrochemical cell:
1. Anode—the corroding electrode;
2. Cathode—the passive, noncorroding electrode;
3. The conducting medium—the electrolyte—the corroding fluid;
4. Completion of the electrical circuit—through the material;
Cathodic areas can arise in many ways:
i. Dissimilar metals;
ii. Corrosion products;
iii. Inclusions in the metal, such as slag;
iv. Less well-aerated areas;
v. Areas of differential concentration;
vi. Differentially strained areas.
SELECTION FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE
In order to select the correct material of construction, the process environment to which the
material will be exposed must be clearly defined. In addition to the main corrosive chemicals
present, the following factors must be considered:
 Temperature—affects corrosion rate and mechanical properties;
 Pressure;
 pH;
 Presence of trace impurities—stress corrosion;
 The amount of aeration—differential oxidation cells;
 Stream velocity and agitation—erosion-corrosion;
 Heat transfer rates—differential temperatures.
The conditions that may arise during abnormal operation, such as at startup and shutdown, must
be considered, in addition to normal, steady-state operation.
4. ANY SPECIAL PROPERTIES REQUIRED; SUCH AS, THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY,
ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE, MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
5. EASE OF FABRICATION FORMING, WELDING, CASTING
6. AVAILABILITY IN STANDARD SIZES PLATES, SECTIONS, TUBES
7. COST
The actual cost of metals and alloys will fluctuate quite widely, depending on movements in the
world metal exchanges. The quantity of a material used will depend on the material density and
strength (maximum allowable stress) and these must be taken into account when comparing
material costs. Moore (1970) compares costs by calculating a cost rating factor defined by the
equation
C×ρ
Cost rating =
σd
Where;
C = cost per unit mass, $/kg;
ρ = density, kg/m3;
σd = maximum allowable stress, N/mm2.

COMMONLY USED MATERIALS FOR CONSTRUCTION

Materials used in the process industry may be divided into two general classifications, namely,
metals and nonmetals. Pure metals and metallic alloys are included under the first classification.

1. FERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS

 IRON AND STEEL
 Low carbon steel (mild steel) is the most commonly used engineering material. It is cheap; is
available in a wide range of standard forms and sizes; and can be easily worked and welded. It
has good tensile strength and ductility.
The carbon steels and iron are not resistant to corrosion, except in certain specific environments,
such as concentrated sulphuric acid and the caustic alkalis. They are suitable for use with most
organic solvents, except chlorinated solvents; but traces of corrosion products may cause
discoloration.
Mild steel is susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in certain environments. The corrosion
resistance of the low alloy steels (less than 5 per cent of alloying elements), where the alloying
elements are added to improve the mechanical strength and not for corrosion resistance, is not
significantly different from that of the plain carbon steels. The high silicon irons (14 to 15 per
cent Si) have a high resistance to mineral acids, except hydrofluoric acid. They are particularly
suitable for use with sulphuric acid at all concentrations and temperatures. They are, however,
very brittle.
 STAINLESS STEEL
The stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical
industry. To impart corrosion resistance the chromium content must be above 12 per cent, and
the higher the chromium content, the more resistant is the alloy to corrosion in oxidizing
conditions. Nickel is added to improve the corrosion resistance in non-oxidizing environments.
Types
A wide range of stainless steels is available, with compositions tailored to give the properties
required for specific applications. They can be divided into three broad classes according to their
microstructure:
1. Ferritic: 13-20 per cent Cr, < 0.1 per cent C, with no nickel
2. Austenitic: 18-20 per cent Cr, > 7 per cent Ni
3. Martensitic: 12-10 per cent Cr, 0.2 to 0.4 per cent C, up to 2 per cent Ni
2. NONFERROUS METALS AND ALLOYS
 NICKEL AND ITS ALLOYS
Nickel has good mechanical properties and is easily worked. The pure metal (>99 per cent) is not
generally used for chemical plant, its alloys being preferred for most applications. The main use
is for equipment handling caustic alkalis at temperatures above that at which carbon steel could
be used; above 70oC. Nickel is not subject to corrosion cracking like stainless steel.
 MONEL
Monel, the classic nickel-copper alloy with the metals in the ratio 2:1, is probably, after the
stainless steels, the most commonly used alloy for chemical plant. It is easily worked and has
good mechanical properties up to 500oC. It is more expensive than stainless steel but is not
susceptible to stress-corrosion cracking in chloride solutions. Monel has good resistance to dilute
mineral acids and can be used in reducing conditions, where the stainless steels would be
unsuitable. It may be used for equipment handling, alkalis, organic acids and salts, and sea water.
 INCONEL
Inconel (typically 76 per cent Ni, 7 per cent Fe, 15 per cent Cr) is used primarily for acid
resistance at high temperatures. It maintains its strength at elevated temperature and is resistant
to furnace gases, if sulphur free.
 HASTELLOYS
The trade name Hastelloy covers a range of nickel, chromium, molybdenum, iron alloys that
were developed for corrosion resistance to strong mineral acids, particularly HCl. The corrosion
resistance, and use, of the two main grades, Hastelloy B (65 per cent Ni, 28 per cent Mo, 6 per
cent Fe) and Hastelloy C (54 per cent Ni, 17 per cent Mo, 15 per cent Cr, 5 per cent Fe) .

 ALUMINUM AND ITS ALLOYS

Pure aluminium lacks mechanical strength but has higher resistance to corrosion than its alloys.
The main structural alloys used are the Duralumin (Dural) range of aluminium-copper alloys
(typical composition 4 per cent Cu, with 0.5 per cent Mg) which have a tensile strength
equivalent to that of mild steel. The pure metal can be used as a cladding on Dural plates, to
combine the corrosion resistance of the pure metal with the strength of the alloy. The corrosion
resistance of aluminium is due to the formation of a thin oxide film (as with the stainless steels).
It is therefore most suitable for use in strong oxidizing conditions. It is attacked by mineral acids,
and by alkalis; but is suitable for concentrated nitric acid, greater than 80 per cent. It is widely
used in the textile and food industries, where the use of mild steel would cause contamination. It
is also used for the storage and distribution of demineralised water.

 COPPER AND ITS ALLOYS

Pure copper is not widely used for chemical equipment. It has been used traditionally in the food
industry, particularly in brewing. Copper is a relatively soft, very easily worked metal, and is
used extensively for small-bore pipes and tubes. The main alloys of copper are the brasses,
alloyed with zinc, and the bronzes, alloyed with tin. Other, so-called bronzes are the aluminium
bronzes and the silicon bronzes. Copper is attacked by mineral acids, except cold, dilute,
unaerated sulphuric acid. It is resistant to caustic alkalis, except ammonia, and to many organic
acids and salts. The brasses and bronzes have a similar corrosion resistance to the pure metal.
Their main use in the chemical industry is for valves and other small fittings, and for heat-
exchanger tubes and tube sheets. If brass is used, a grade must be selected that is resistant to
dezincification.

 LEAD AND ALLOYS

Lead was one of the traditional materials of construction for chemical plant but has now, due to
its price, been largely replaced by other materials, particularly plastics. It is a soft, ductile
material, and is mainly used in the form of sheets (as linings) or pipe. It has a good resistance to
acids, particularly sulphuric.

 TANTALUM
The corrosion resistance of tantalum is similar to that of glass, and it has been called a metallic
glass. It is expensive, about five times that of stainless steel, and is used for special applications,
where glass or a glass lining would not be suitable. Tantalum plugs are used to repair glass-lined
equipment.

 TITANIUM
Titanium is now used quite widely in the chemical industry, mainly for its resistance to chloride
solutions, including sea water and wet chlorine. It is rapidly attacked by dry chlorine, but the
presence of as low a concentration of moisture as 0.01 per cent will prevent attack. Like the
stainless steels, titanium depends for its resistance on the formation of an oxide film.
  ZIRCONIUM
Zirconium and zirconium alloys are used in the nuclear industry, because of their low neutron
absorption cross-section and resistance to hot water at high pressures. In the chemical industry
zirconium is finding use where resistance to hot and boiling acids is required: nitric, sulphuric,
and particularly hydrochloric. Its resistance is equivalent to that of tantalum but zirconium is less
expensive, similar in price to high nickel steel.

 SILVER
Silver linings are used for vessels and equipment handling hydrofluoric acid. It is also used for
special applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries where it is vital to avoid
contamination of the product.

 GOLD
Because of its high cost gold is rarely used as a material of construction. It is highly resistant to
attack by dilute nitric acid and hot concentrated sulphuric acid, but is dissolved by aqua regia (a
mixture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids). It is attacked by chlorine and bromine, and
forms an amalgam with mercury. It has been used as thin plating on condenser tubes and other
surfaces.
 PLATINUM
Platinum has a high resistance to oxidation at high temperature. One of its main uses has been, in
the form of an alloy with copper, in the manufacture of the spinnerets used in synthetic textile
spinning processes.

3. INORGANIC NONMETALS
Ceramics are compounds of non-metallic elements and include the following materials
used for chemical plant:
i. Glass, the borosilicate glasses (hard glass).
ii. Stoneware.
iii. Acid-resistant bricks and tiles.
iv. Refractory materials.
Ceramic materials have a cross-linked structure and are therefore brittle.
 GLASS AND GLASSED STEEL
Borosilicate glass (known by several trade names, including Pyrex) is used for chemical plant as
it is stronger than the soda glass used for general purposes; it is more resistant to thermal shock
and chemical attack. Glass has excellent resistance and is subject to attack only by hydrofloric
acid and hot alkaline solutions. It is particularly suitable for processes which have critical
contamination levels. A disadvantage is its brittleness and damage by thermal shock. On the
other hand, glassed steel combines the corrosion resistance of glass with the working strength of
steel. Nucerite is a ceramic-metal composite made in a manner similar to glassed steel and resists
corrosive hydrogen chloride gas, chlorine, or sulfur dioxide at 650oC. Its impact strength is 18
times that of safety glass, and the abrasion resistance is superior to that of porcelain enamel.

 STONEWARE AND PORCELAIN

Materials of stoneware and porcelain are about as resistant to acids and chemicals as glass except
alkalis and fluorine, but with the advantage of greater strength. This is offset somewhat by poor
thermal conductivity and susceptibility to damage by thermal shock. Porcelain enamels are used
to coat steel, but the enamel has slightly poorer chemical resistance, because of the presence of
surface imperfections.

 BRICK AND CEMENT MATERIALS

Brick-lined construction can be used for many severely corrosive conditions, where high alloys
would fail. Acid-proof refractories can be used up to 900oC. A number of cement materials are
used with brick. Standard are phenolic and furane resins, polyesters, sulfur, silicate, and epoxy-
based materials. Carbon-filled polyesters and furans are good against nonoxidizing acids, salts,
and solvents. Silica filled resins should not be used against hydrofloric or florosilicic acids.
Sulfur –based cements are limited to 95oC, while resins can be used to about 175oC. The sodium
silicate-based cements provide good protection against acids to 400oC.

4. ORGANIC NONMETALS
In comparison with metallic materials, the use of organic nonmetallics is limited to relatively
moderate temperatures and pressures. Plastics, for example, are less resistant to mechanical
abuse and have high expansion rates, low strengths (thermoplastics), and only fair resistance to
solvents. However, they are lightweight, are good thermal and electrical insulators, are easy to
fabricate and install, and have low friction factors.
 PLASTICS
Generally, plastics have excellent resistance to weak mineral acids and are unaffected by
inorganic salt solutions—areas where metals are not entirely suitable. Since plastics do not
corrode in the electrochemical sense, they offer another advantage over metals: Most metals are
affected by slight changes in pH, minor impurities, or oxygen content, while plastics will remain
resistant to these same changes. Plastics are being increasingly used as corrosion-resistant
materials for chemical plant construction. They can be divided into two broad classes:
1. Thermoplastic materials, which soften with increasing temperature; for example, polyvinyl
chloride (PVC) and polyethylene.
2. Thermosetting materials, which have a rigid, cross-linked structure; for example, the polyester
and epoxy resins.
 Poly-vinyl chloride (PVC)
PVC is probably the most commonly used thermoplastic material in the chemical industry. Of
the available grades, rigid (unplasticised) PVC is the most widely used. It is resistant to most
inorganic acids, except strong sulphuric and nitric, and inorganic salt solutions. It is, due to
swelling, for use with most organic solvents. The maximum operating temperature for PVC is
low, 60oC. The use of PVC as a material of construction in chemical engineering is discussed in
a series of articles by Mottram and Lever (1957).
 Polyolefines
Low-density polyethylene (polythene) is a relatively cheap, tough, flexible plastic. It has a low
softening point and is not suitable for use above about 60oC. The higher density polymer (950
kg/m3) is stiffer, and can be used at higher temperatures. Polypropylene is a stronger material
than the polyethylenes and can be used at temperatures up to 120 oC. The chemical resistance of
the polyolefines is similar to that of PVC.
 Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE)
PTFE, known under the trade names Teflon and Fluon, is resistant to all chemicals, except
molten alkalis and fluorine, and can be used at temperatures up to 250oC. It is a relatively weak
material, but its mechanical strength can be improved by the addition of fillers (glass and carbon
fibres). It is expensive and difficult to fabricate. PTFE is used extensively for gaskets and gland
packings. As a coating, it is used to confer non-stick properties to surfaces, such as filter plates.
It can also be used as a liner for vessels.
 Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF)
PVDF has properties similar to PTFE but is easier to fabricate. It has good resistance to
inorganic acids and alkalis, and organic solvents. It is limited to a maximum operating
temperature of 140oC.
 Glass-fibre reinforced plastics (GRP)
The polyester resins, reinforced with glass fibre, are the most common thermosetting plastics
used for chemical plant. Complex shapes can be easily formed using the techniques developed
for working with reinforced plastics. Glass-reinforced plastics are relatively strong and have a
good resistance to a wide range of chemicals. The mechanical strength depends on the resin
used; the form of the reinforcement (chopped mat or cloth); and the ratio of resin to glass.
By using special techniques, in which the reinforcing glass fibres are wound on in the form of a
continuous filament, high strength can be obtained, and this method is used to produce pressure
vessels. The polyester resins are resistant to dilute mineral acids, inorganic salts and many
solvents. They are less resistant to alkalis. Glass-fibre-reinforced epoxy resins are also used for
chemical plant but are more expensive than the polyester resins. In general they are resistant to
the same range of chemicals as the polyesters, but are more resistant to alkalis. The chemical
resistance of GRP is dependent on the amount of glass reinforcement used. High ratios of glass
to resin give higher mechanical strength but generally lower resistance to some chemicals.

 RUBBER AND ELASTOMERS

Natural and synthetic rubbers are used as linings or as structural components for equipment in
the chemical industries. By adding the proper ingredients, natural rubbers with varying degrees
of hardness and chemical resistance can be produced. Hard rubbers are chemically saturated with
sulfur. The vulcanized products are rigid and exhibit excellent resistance to chemical attack by
dilute sulfuric acid and dilute hydrochloric acid.
Natural rubber is resistant to dilute mineral acids, alkalis, and salts; but oxidizing media, oils,
benzene, and ketones will attack it. Chloroprene or neoprene rubber is resistant to attack by
ozone, sunlight, oils, gasoline, and aromatic or halogenated solvents. Styrene rubber has
chemical resistance similar to that of natural rubber. Nitrile rubber is known for resistance to oils
and solvents. Butyl rubber's resistance to dilute mineral acids and alkalies is exceptional;
resistance to concentrated acids, except nitric and sulfuric, is good. Silicone rubbers, also known
as polysiloxanes, have outstanding resistance to high and low temperatures as well as against
aliphatic solvents, oils, and greases. Chlorosulfonated polyethylene, known as Hypalon, has
outstanding resistance to ozone and oxidizing agents except fuming nitric and sulfuric acids. Oil
resistance is good. Fluoroelastomers (Viton A, Kel-F) combine excellent chemical and high-
temperature resistance. The polyvinyl chloride elastomer (Koroseal) was developed to overcome
some of the limitations of natural and synthetic rubbers. This elastomer exhibits excellent
resistance to mineral acids and petroleum oils.

 CARBON AND GRAPHITE

Generally, impervious graphite is completely inert to all but the most severe oxidizing
conditions. This property, combined with excellent heat transfer, has made impervious carbon
and graphite very popular in heat exchangers, as brick lining, and in pipe and pump systems. One
limitation of these materials is low tensile strength. Threshold oxidation temperatures are 350oC
for carbon and 400oC for graphite.

 WOOD
This material of construction, while fairly inert chemically, is readily dehydrated by concentrated
solutions and consequently shrinks badly when subjected to the action of such solutions. It also
has a tendency to slowly hydrolyze when in contact with hot acids and alkalis.

FABRICATION OF EQUIPMENT
Fabrication expenses account for a large fraction of the purchased cost for equipment. A
chemical engineer, therefore, should be acquainted with the methods for fabricating equipment,
and the problems involved in the fabrication should be considered when equipment
specifications are prepared. Many of the design and fabrication details for equipment are
governed by various codes, such as the ASME codes. These codes can be used to indicate
definite specifications or tolerance limits without including a large amount of descriptive
restrictions. For example, fastening requirements can often be indicated satisfactorily by merely
stating that all welding should be in accordance with the ASME code.
METHODS OF FABRICATION
The exact methods used for fabrication depend on the complexity and type of equipment being
prepared. In general, however, the following steps are involved in the complete fabrication of
major pieces of chemical equipment such as tanks, autoclaves, reactors, towers, and heat
exchangers:
1. Layout of materials
2. Cutting to correct dimensions
3. Forming into desired shape
4. Fastening
5. Testing
6. Heat-treating
7. Finishing
 Layout: The first step in the fabrication is to establish the layout of the various
components on the basis of detailed instructions prepared by the fabricator. Flat pieces of
the metal or other constructional material involved are marked to indicate where cutting
and forming is required. Allowances must be made for losses caused by cutting,
shrinkage due to welding, or deformation caused by the various forming operations. Once
the equipment takes shape, location of various outlets and attachments can be made.
 Cutting: Several methods can be used for cutting the laid-out materials to the correct size.
Shearing is the cheapest method and is satisfactory for relatively thin sheets. The edge
resulting from a shearing operation may not be usable for welding, and the sheared edges
may require an additional grinding or machining treatment. Burning is often used for
cutting metals. This method can be employed to cut and, simultaneously, prepare a
beveled edge suitable for welding. Sawing can be used to cut metals that are in the form
of fit sheets. However, sawing is expensive and is used only when the heat effects from
burning would be detrimental.
 Forming: After the construction materials have been cut, the next step is to form them
into the desired shape. This can be accomplished by various methods, such as by rolling,
bending, pressing, bumping (i.e., pounding), or spinning on a die. In some cases, heating
 may be necessary to carry out the forming operation. Because of work hardening of the
material, annealing may be required before forming and between stages during the
forming. When the shaping operations are finished, the different parts are assembled and
fitted for fastening. When the fitting is complete and all edges are correctly aligned, the
main seams can be tack-welded in preparation for the final fastening.
 Fastening: Riveting can be used for fastening operations, but electric welding is far more
common and gives superior results. The quality of a weld is very important, because the
ability of equipment to withstand pressure or corrosive conditions is often limited by the
conditions along the welds. Although good welds may be stronger than the metal that is
fastened together, design engineers usually assume a weld is not perfect and employ weld
efficiencies of 80 to 95 percent in the design of pressure vessels. In some cases, fastening
can be accomplished by the use of various solders. Screw threads, packings, gaskets, and
other mechanical methods are also used for fastening various parts of equipment.
 Testing: All welded joints can be tested for concealed imperfections by X-rays, and code
specifications usually require X-ray examination of main seams. Hydrostatic tests can be
conducted to locate leaks. Sometimes, delicate tests, such as a helium probe test, are used
to check for very small leaks.
 Heat-Treating: After the preliminary testing and necessary repairs are completed, it may
be necessary to heat-treat the equipment to remove forming and welding stresses, restore
corrosion resistance properties to heat-affected materials, and prevent stress corrosion
conditions. A low temperature may be adequate, or the particular conditions may require
a full anneal followed by a rapid quench.
 Finishing: The finishing operation involves preparing the equipment for final shipment.
1
Sandblasting, polishing, and painting may be necessary. Final pressure tests at 1 to 2 or
2
more times the design pressure are conducted together with other tests as demanded by
the specified code or requested by the inspector

QUESTION
1. Aniline is manufactured by the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene in a fluidised bed reactor.
The reactor operates at 250oC and 20 bar. The reactor vessel is approximately 3 m
diameter and 9 m high. Suggest suitable materials of construction for this reactor.
2. Methyl ethyl ketone (MEK) is manufactured by the dehydrogenation of 2-butanol using a
shell and tube type reactor. Flue gases are used for heating and pass though the tubes. The
flue gases will contain traces of sulphur dioxide. The reaction products include hydrogen.
The reaction takes place in the shell at a pressure of 3 bar and temperature of 500 oC.
Select suitable materials for the tubes and shell.
3. In the manufacture of aniline by the hydrogenation of nitrobenzene, the off-gases from
the reactor are cooled and the products and unreacted nitrobenzene condensed in a shell
and tube exchanger. A typical composition of the condensate is, kmol/h: aniline 950,
cyclo-hexylamine 10, water 1920, nitrobenzene 40. The gases enter the condenser at
230oC and leave at 50oC. The cooling water enters the tubes at 20 oC and leaves at 50 oC.
Suggest suitable materials of construction for the shell and the tubes.
4. A slurry of acrylic polymer particles in water is held in storage tanks prior to filtering and
drying. Plain carbon steel would be a suitable material for the tanks, but it is essential that
the polymer does not become contaminated with iron in storage. Suggest some alternative
materials of construction for the tanks.
5. Coal gasification is carried out at 850oC and 40 atmospheres pressure, by reaction of coal
with steam and oxygen. The empirical formula of the coal is roughly CH 0:8S0:013. What
materials of construction would you recommend for
 The coal addition system;
 The oxygen injection system;
 The gasification reactor;
 The product gas transfer line.
6. Six tanks of different construction materials and six different materials to be stored in
these tanks are listed in the following columns:
Tanks Materials
Brass-lined 20% hydrochloric acid
Carbon steel 10% caustic soda
Concrete 75% phosphoric acid for food products
Nickel-lined 98% sulfuric acid
Stainless steel type 316 Vinegar
Wood Water
All tanks must be used, and all materials must be stored without using more than one tank
for any one material. Indicate the material that should be stored in each tank.
7. Liquid chlorine is to be transferred from a chlorine storage container by pressurizing with
dry chlorine gas. What materials of construction should be selected for this transfer
process? What corrosion effects may be anticipated? How might they be minimized?
8. Review the flow diagram for the manufacture of nitric acid by the ammonia oxidation
process. For each piece of equipment, specify the materials of construction that would
most economically provide a service life of 10 years.