University of Technology

Chemical Engineering
Department

Equipment Design

Materials of Construction
Riyadh S Almukhtar
 Materials of Construction
1- MATERIAL PROPERTIES
The most important characteristics to be
considered when selecting a material of
construction are:
1. Mechanical properties
a. Strength: tensile strength
b. Stiffness: elastic modulus (Young’s modulus)
c. Toughness: fracture resistance
d. Hardness: wear resistance
e. Fatigue resistance
f. Creep resistance
 Materials of Construction

2. The effect of high temperature, low temperature,

and thermal cycling on the mechanical properties
3. Corrosion resistance
4. Any special properties required, such as thermal
conductivity, electrical resistance, and magnetic
properties
5. Ease of fabrication: forming, welding, casting (see
Table
6. Availability in standard sizes—plates, sections, tubes
7. Cost
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
•Tensile Strength
The tensile strength (tensile stress) is a measure of
the basic strength of a material. It is the maximum
stress that the material will withstand, measured
by a standard tensile test.

Stiffness
Stiffness is the ability to resist bending and buckling.
It is a function of the elastic modulus of the
material and the shape of the cross-section of the
member (the second moment of area).
 MATERIAL PROPERTIES
Toughness is associated with tensile strength, and is a
measure of the material’s resistance to crack propagation.
The crystal structure of ductile materials, such as steel,
aluminum, and copper, is such that they stop the propagation
of a crack by local yielding at the crack tip. In other
materials, such as the cast irons and glass, the structure is
such that local yielding does not occur and the materials are
brittle.
Brittle materials are weak in tension but strong in
compression.
Under compression any incipient cracks present are closed
up.
Hardness
The surface hardness, as measured in a standard test, is an indication of a
material’s ability to resist
wear. This will be an important property if the equipment is being designed
to handle abrasive
solids, or liquids containing suspended solids that are likely to cause erosion.
Fatigue
Fatigue failure is likely to occur in equipment subject to cyclic loading; for
example, rotating equipment, such as pumps and compressors, and
equipment subjected to temperature or pressure cycling.
A comprehensive treatment of this subject is given by Harris (1976).
Creep
Creep is the gradual extension of a material under a steady tensile stress,
over a prolonged period of
time. It is usually only important at high temperatures, for instance, with
steam and gas turbine blades. For a few materials, notably lead, the rate of
creep is significant at moderate temperatures.
 Effect of Temperature on the Mechanical
Properties
•The tensile strength and elastic modulus of metals
decrease with increasing temperature.
For example, the tensile strength of mild steel (low
carbon steel, C < 0.25 %) is 450 N/mm2 at
25 °C falling to 210 N/mm2 at 500 °C,
• and the value of Young’s modulus is 200,000
N/mm2 at 25 °C falling to 150,000 N/mm2 at 500
°C.
 CORROSION RESISTANCE
•The corrosion rate will be dependent on the
temperature and concentration of the corrosive fluid.
An increase in temperature usually results in an
increased rate of corrosion, though not always. The
rate will depend on other factors that are affected by
temperature, such as oxygen solubility.
 ELECTION FOR CORROSION RESISTANCE

•The following factors must be considered:

1. Temperature—affects corrosion rate and
mechanical properties
2. Pressure
3. pH
4. Presence of trace impurities—stress corrosion
5. The amount of aeration—differential oxidation cells
6. Stream velocity and agitation—erosion-corrosion
7. Heat-transfer rates—differential temperatures
The conditions that may arise during abnormal operation,
such as at start-up and shutdown, must be considered, in
addition to normal, steady state, operation.
 MATERIAL COSTS

•The quantity of a material used will depend on the

material density and strength (maximum
allowable stress) and these must be taken into account
when comparing material costs. Moore
(1970) compares costs by calculating a cost rating
factor defined by the equation
 COMMONLY USED MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Iron and Steel

Low carbon steel (mild steel) is the most commonly used
engineering material. It is cheap, is available in a wide range of
standard forms and sizes, and can be easily worked and welded. It
has good tensile strength and ductility.
The carbon steels and iron are not resistant to corrosion, except in
certain specific environments, such as concentrated sulfuric acid and
the caustic alkalis. They are suitable for use with most organic
solvents, except chlorinated solvents; but traces of corrosion
products may cause discoloration. Mild steel is susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking in certain environments.
 COMMONLY USED MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

•The high silicon irons (14 to 15% Si) have a

high resistance to mineral acids, except
hydrofluoric acid. They are particularly
suitable for use with sulfuric acid at all
concentrations and temperatures.
They are, however, very brittle.
 COMMONLY USED MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

Stainless Steel
The stainless steels are the most frequently used corrosion
resistant materials in the chemical industry.
To impart corrosion resistance the chromium content must be
above 12%, and the higher the chromium content, the more
resistant is the alloy to corrosion in oxidizing conditions. Nickel
is added to improve the corrosion resistance in non-oxidizing
environments
Types
 COMMONLY USED MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION

•A wide range of stainless steels is available,

with compositions tailored to give the
properties required for specific applications.
They can be divided into three broad classes
according to their microstructure:
1. Ferritic: 13–20% Cr, <0.1% C, with no
nickel
2. Austenitic: 18–20% Cr, >7% Ni
3. Martensitic: 10–12% Cr, 0.2 to 0.4% C, up
to 2% Ni
 Alloy Content Stainless Steels

Super austenitic, high nickel, stainless steels, containing

between 29% to 30% nickel and 20% chromium, have a good
resistance to acids and acid chlorides. They are more expensive
than the lower alloy content (300 series) of austenitic stainless
steels.
Duplex and super-duplex stainless steels contain high
percentages of chromium. They are called duplex because their
structure is a mixture of the austenitic and ferritic phases. They
have a better corrosion resistance than the austenitic stainless
steels and are less susceptible to stress corrosion cracking. The
chromium content of duplex stainless steels is around 20%, and
around 25% in the super-duplex grades. The super-duplex steels
were developed for use in aggressive off-shore environments.
•Nickel
Nickel has good mechanical properties and is easily
worked. The pure metal (>99%) is not generally
used for chemical plant, its alloys being preferred
for most applications. The main use is for
equipment handling caustic alkalis at temperatures
above that at which carbon steel could be used,
above 70 °C. Nickel is not subject to corrosion
cracking like stainless steel.
•Monel
Monel, the classic nickel-copper alloy with the metals in the
ratio 2:1, is probably, after the stainless steels, the most
commonly used alloy for chemical plant. It is easily worked
and has good mechanical properties up to 500 °C. It is more
expensive than stainless steel but is not susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking in chloride solutions. Monel has good
resistance to dilute mineral acids and can be used in reducing
conditions, where the stainless steels would be unsuitable. It
may be used for equipment handling alkalis, organic acids
and salts, and sea water
•Inconel and Incoloy
Inconel (typically 76% Ni, 7% Fe, 15% Cr) is
used primarily for acid resistance at high
temperatures. It maintains its strength at
elevated temperature and is resistant to furnace
gases, if sulfur-free. It is not suitable for use in
sulfidizing environments. Nickel alloys with
higher chromium content such as Incoloy 800
(21% Cr) and RA-33 (25% Cr) have better
oxidation resistance at higher temperatures.
•The Hastelloys
The trade name Hastelloy covers a range of nickel,
chromium, molybdenum, and iron alloys that were
developed for corrosion resistance to strong mineral
acids, particularly HCl. The corrosion resistance,
and use, of the two main grades, Hastelloy B (65%
Ni, 28% Mo, 6% Fe) and Hastelloy C (54% Ni, 17%
Mo, 15% Cr, 5% Fe), are discussed in papers by
Weisert (1952a,b).
•Copper and Copper Alloys
Pure copper is not widely used for chemical
equipment. It has been used traditionally in the
food industry, particularly in brewing. Copper is
a relatively soft, very easily worked metal, and
is used extensively for small-bore pipes and
tubes.
•Aluminum and its Alloys
Pure aluminum lacks mechanical strength but has
higher resistance to corrosion than its alloys. The main
structural alloys used are the Duralumin (Dural) range
of aluminum-copper alloys (typical composition 4%
Cu, with 0.5% Mg), which have a tensile strength
equivalent to that of mild steel
Lead
Lead was one of the traditional materials of
construction for chemical plant but has now, due
to its price, been largely replaced by other
materials, particularly plastics. It is a soft, ductile
material, and is mainly used in the form of sheets
(as linings) or pipe. It has a good resistance to
acids, particularly sulfuric.
•Titanium
Titanium is now used quite widely in the chemical industry,
mainly for its resistance to halide solutions, including sea water
and wet chlorine. It is rapidly attacked by dry chlorine, but the
presence of as low a concentration of moisture as 0.01% will
prevent attack. Like the stainless steels, titanium depends for its
resistance on the formation of an oxide film. Titanium is also
used in other halide services, for example, in liquid phase
oxidation processes, such as the manufacture of terephthalic
acid, that use bromide as catalyst or promoter.
Alloying with palladium (0.15%) significantly improves the
corrosion resistance, particularly to HCl.
•.
Tantalum
The corrosion resistance of tantalum is similar to that of glass,
and it has been called a metallic glass. It is expensive, about
five times the cost of stainless steel, and is used for special
applications, where glass or a glass lining would not be suitable.
Tantalum plugs are used to repair glass-lined equipment
Tantalum
The corrosion resistance of tantalum is similar to that of glass,
and it has been called a metallic glass. It is expensive, about five
times the cost of stainless steel, and is used for special
applications, where glass or a glass lining would not be suitable.
Tantalum plugs are used to repair glass-lined equipment.
•Silver
Silver linings are used for vessels and equipment handling
hydrofluoric acid. It is also used for special applications in the
food and pharmaceutical industries where it is vital to avoid
contamination of the product.
Gold
Because of its high cost, gold is rarely used as a material of
construction. It is highly resistant to attack by dilute nitric acid
and hot concentrated sulfuric acid,

Platinum
Platinum has a high resistance to oxidation at high temperature.
One of its main uses has been in the form of an alloy with
copper, in the manufacture of the spinnerets used in synthetic
textile spinning
processes.
 PLASTICS AS MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION FOR
CHEMICAL PLANT

•Plastics are being increasingly used as corrosion-resistant

materials for chemical plant construction.
They are also widely used in food processing and
biochemical plants. They can be divided into two
broad classes:
1. Thermoplastic materials, which soften with increasing
temperature; for example, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and
polyethylene.
2. Thermosetting materials, which have a rigid, cross-
linked structure; for example, the polyester and epoxy
resins.
•Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
PVC is probably the most commonly used thermoplastic
material in the chemical industry. Of the available grades,
rigid (unplasticized) PVC is the most widely used. It is
resistant to most inorganic acids, except strong sulfuric and
nitric, and inorganic salt solutions.

Polyolefins
Low-density polyethylene is a relatively cheap, tough,
flexible plastic. It has a low softening point and is not suitable
for use above about 60 °C. The higher density polymer (950
kg/m3) is stiffer, and can be used at higher temperatures.
•Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)
PTFE, known under the trade names Teflon and Fluon, is
resistant to all chemicals, except molten alkalis and fluorine,
and can be used at temperatures up to 250 °C. It is a relatively
weak material, but
its mechanical strength can be improved by the addition of
fillers (glass and carbon fibers). It is expensive and difficult to
fabricate.
Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF)
PVDF has properties similar to PTFE but is easier to fabricate.
It has good resistance to inorganic acids and alkalis, and
organic solvents. It is limited to a maximum operating
temperature of 140 °C.
•Glass-fiber Reinforced Plastics (GRP)
The polyester resins, reinforced with glass fiber, are the
most common thermosetting plastics used for
chemical plant. Complex shapes can be easily formed using
the techniques developed for working
with reinforced plastics.

• Glass-reinforced plastics are relatively strong and have a

good resistance to a wide range of chemicals. The
mechanical strength depends on the resin used; the form of
the reinforcement (chopped mat or cloth); and the ratio of
resin to glass.
•Rubber
Rubber, particularly in the form of linings for tanks and
pipes, has been extensively used in the chemical industry
for many years. Natural rubber is most commonly used,
because of its good resistance to acids (except
concentrated nitric) and alkalis.
•It is unsuitable for use with most organic solvents.
Synthetic rubbers are also used for particular applications.
•CERAMIC MATERIALS (SILICATE MATERIALS)
Ceramics are compounds of nonmetallic elements and
include the following materials used for chemical plant:
• Glass, the borosilicate glasses (hard glass)
• Stoneware
• Acid-resistant bricks and tiles
• Refractory materials
• Cements and concrete
• Ceramic materials have a cross-linked structure and are
therefore brittle.
•Glass
Borosilicate glass (known by several trade names,
including Pyrex) is used for chemical plant as it
is stronger than the soda glass used for general purposes;
it is more resistant to thermal shock and chemical attack.
Glass equipment is often used in small-scale manufacture
of specialty chemicals. Glass can be used up to
moderately high temperatures (700 °C) but is not suitable
for pressures above atmospheric unless used as a lining.
•Stoneware
Chemical stoneware is similar to the domestic variety, but
of higher quality; it is stronger and has a better glaze. It is
available in a variety of shapes for pipe runs and columns.
•As for glass, it is resistant to most chemicals, except
alkalis and fluorine.
•Acid-resistant Bricks and Tiles
High-quality bricks and tiles are used for lining
vessels, ditches, and to cover floors. The linings are
usually backed with a corrosion-resistant membrane
of rubber or plastic, placed behind the tiles, and
special acid-resistant cements are used for the joints.
•Refractory Materials (Refractories)
Refractory bricks and cements are needed for equipment
operating at high temperatures, such as fired heaters, high-
temperature reactors, and boilers. The refractory bricks in
common use are composed of mixtures of silica (SiO2) and
alumina (Al2O3). The quality of the bricks is largely determined
by the relative amounts of these materials and the firing
temperature. Mixtures of silica and alumina form a eutectic
(94.5% SiO2, 1545 °C) and for a high refractoriness under load
(the ability to resist distortion at high temperature) the
composition must be well removed from the eutectic
composition.
•CARBON
Impervious carbon, impregnated with chemically
resistant resins, is used for specialized equipment,
particularly heat exchangers. It has a high conductivity
and a good resistance to most chemicals, except
oxidizing acids of concentrations greater than 30%.
Carbon tubes can be used in conventional shell and
tube exchanger arrangements, or proprietary designs
can be used, in which the fluid channels are formed in
blocks of carbon
•PROTECTIVE COATINGS
A wide range of paints and other organic coatings is used
for the protection of mild steel structures.
Paints are used mainly for protection from atmospheric
corrosion. Special chemically resistant paints have been
developed for use on chemical process equipment.
Chlorinated rubber paints and epoxybased paints are used.
In the application of paints and other coatings, good surface
preparation is essential to ensure good adhesion of the paint
film or coating.
GOOD LUCK