Prepared by

M.Ganesh Murugan
9715447621
 The QC circle was
formally organized in
Japan in 1962 by
Japanese Union of
Scientists and Engineers
(JUSE) and the man who
initiated the idea is
Dr.Kaoru Ishikawa
The organization gets the total man
Humanize the work i.e. Quality of work life is
stressed and improved
Brings out extra-ordinary qualities from ordinary
people
To display the human capabilities fully and eventually
draw out infinite possibilities
Prepares the employer and employees to meet the
challenges of the changing time and conditions
Ensure harmony
Effective team work
Job satisfaction
Problem solving capacity
Communication
Self development
Leadership development
Safety awareness and housekeeping
Productivity
Team building
Participation
Self-discipline
Not just for only quality problems
Not a forum for grievances
Not a spring-board for demands
Not a tool for management to unload problems
Not problem-focussed, but performance-oriented
Not for changing the existing organisational structure
or chain of command
Not a “cure all” or “sure cure” technique
Not a panacea for all ills
One of the prime objectives of QC is to improve the
quality of work life and environment
The survival and prosperity of any enterprise depends
on the bottom line of the balance sheet i.E.
Net profit/economic viability and stability. A higher level of
quality will result in satisfied customer, repeat business,
which in turn will improve the profitability, job security and
overall harmony of enterprise.
Hence, the emphasis on “quality”
Everybody participates and contributes in the process
of decision-making
Problems are chosen, not given
Decision by consensus, not by majority
Performance-oriented, not problem-oriented
Bottom-up approach
Management-blessed, not management-directed
Members are responsible from the identification of a
problem to implementation of the solution i.E. For
total performance
Aims at the quality of work life
Does not replace or substitute any of the systems or
structure
Problem identification emanates from
The members of the circle
Management
Staff or technical experts
Several problems are identified and the selection of
the problem is the prerogative of the circle
Problem analysis and discuss alternatives
Data from specialist, if necessary
Arrive at best solution
Circle members discuss various alternatives also before
reaching the best solution
Management presentation
The circle makes its recommendations directly to its in-
charge using a powerful communication
Review of recommendations and approval by
management
Thoroughly in consultation and coordination with peripheral
departments and approves or disapproves
Implementation
Approved recommendations are implemented.
Recommendations that are not approved are
Communicated to the circle members. It is imperative to
explain the reasons to the members of the circle for not
approving their recommendations. Communication should
be effective in either case
From the familiarity of the members as well as
leaders with the operation in which they are involved
In day-to-day work
From the proposals or suggestions by clients
From the suggestions by the HOD’s
From the suggestions or proposals by any employee in
the organisation
From the objectives set out in the company’s annual
plan/target
However, it is the prerogative of the circle to select the
problem although the suggestions can emanate from
various sources
Positive attitude
Frank discussions and brainstorming with everyone
participating in a cooperative manner
QC should exercise a systematic approach
Confirms the existence of the problem
Understands the nature of the problem
Identifies the symptoms
Finds out the causes
Prepares a systematic programs for study
Checks those programs with the other members
Delegates assignment to members
Seeks advice and assistance if required from outside
agencies
Finds out the various possibilities
Uses the relevant techniques that are learnt for problem-
solving
Prepares a report of its proposal once it arrives at a
solution
Evaluates the relevance and practicability of the solution
Recommends the solution
Implements the solution
1.Meeting
A QC meeting must be the focal point of all activities
The meeting time should be such that it is convenient and
acceptable for all members
2.Subject (themes)
The subject chosen should be in consonance with the
policies of management
A subject which is familiar and of common concern to all
the members of the circle should be handled first
Only work related problem should be chosen
A problem whose solution is within the capability of the
members of QC should be selected
The subject should be so chosen for the impact of its
solution
As a rule, a problem should be selected which can be
solved within reasonable period of time
3.Managing the activities
Give opportunities for simple and brief presentation for
those members who are not used to speaking
Before others
Familiarize all the members with the environment gradually
Utilize every opportunity of praise
Suggest better ways of doing things after appreciating their
efforts
What is salt to food is humor to effective discussion without
tension. A sense of humor is a necessary ingredient but
strict discipline should prevail
Circle members should display their respective role by
earmarking their responsibility
Use simple techniques effectively and thoroughly
A problem must be selected and solved only if the members
can assure themselves that it will not reoccur
People must be sufficiently motivated even to the point of
becoming greedy in getting the most out of activities
4.Education of QC members
QC members must make it a habit to study
Read text books as many times as possible and make the
best use of them
Develop the habit of getting as much data as possible from
as many sources as possible and utilize them to the
maximum extent
Knowledge is not sufficient, but the application of
knowledge is more important
What is digestion to food is contemplation to knowledge.
Hence applying the knowledge that is acquired in solving
the problem is key to the success of circle
Apply the techniques in such a simple manner that
everyone can understand
5.Key factors for the success of QC activities
Make a master plan and divide into elements
Study, discuss and solve the problem with the co-operation
of all the members so that their commitment is assured for
the implementation
Constantly review the progress and the status of the
solution
 6.How is a QC program organized?
A qc program is an integrated system made up of several
components –
The members
The leader
The facilitator
The executive committee

The facilitator takes direction from the executive committee and

co-ordinates the activities of the circle meeting and the leader
conducts the meeting in such a way that the members of the
circle participate
 7.How to ensure longevity of QC activities?
The following essential ingredients are imperative
7.1.To be problem conscious
The leader, who is normally the group head/shift head
should understand the role and function of
Leading the sub-ordinates. They should continuously and
constantly learn about the technique.
Support from top and middle management is essential to
make qc self-motivating
Peripheral departments also must give their blessings for
the continued effort of QC activities. Participation by
everyone should not only be encouraged but ensured
7.2.To enhance people’s awareness in 3 areas
Quality (quality of entire working life)
Problem
Improvement
People must be quality conscious in order to promote
QC activities. Once people become problem
conscious, improvement is bound to follow
7.3.Ensuring voluntary participation
People get real satisfaction when they are totally
committed to think and act on their own
For the overall prosperity. If one understands why the
activities should be carried out voluntarily, the
commitment is bound to follow
 7.4.To find pleasure and sense of satisfaction in the
QC activities
There are ten kinds of happiness in QC activities
Happiness of developing self-confidence
Happiness of being recognized for one’s activities
Happiness of displaying one’s ability and capability
Happiness of acquiring the ability to identify one’s
capability
Happiness to develop and enrich one’s potential ability
Happiness to be able to recognize one’s potential ability
Happiness to understand and co-operate with the members
of the circle
Happiness to have friends and affectionate sub-ordinates
Happiness to belong to a company where the QC activities
are encouraged and promoted
Happiness of gaining indirect material reward through the
prosperity and growth of the company
7.5.Training
Training and re-training from the top management to the
circle member is an indispensable and inevitable part of
ensuring longevity of circles
The members must also be taught value engineering, job
instruction, job method, job relations, creativity
development and leadership qualities
7.6.How often the circle meetings are held?
As a rule of the thumb, circle meetings are held once in a
week
However, some companies have introduced variations
 It is desirable to reduce the duration and increase the
frequency of the meeting.

Format enclosed
Format enclosed
The QC circle is program is an integrated system
consisting of the following
Steering committee
Divisional review committee
Coordinators and facilitators
Circle leader
Circle members
Steering committee
This committee comprises of the executive director,
general managers and a member secretary (nominated by
management). This committee sets goals and objectives for
the QCC activities and establishes operational guidelines
It meets as often as necessary but at least once a quarter
to review the progress. The secretary is responsible for the
overall coordination of QC circle activity in the company
Divisional review committee
This committee comprises of the divisional head,
departmental heads, coordinators and facilitators(member
secretary). It provides active support to the circles
The committee meets as often as necessary but at least
once a month to review the progress
Coordinators
Organizes training programs for members as and when new
circles are formed
Convenes the steering committee meeting regularly once in
two to three months and maintains the minutes thereof.
Organizes top management presentations regularly once in
two to three months
Centrally registers circles as and when formed and also
maintains records of number of members, frequency of
management representations, etc.
Co-ordinates and evolves a consensus for norms to asses the
performance of different quality circles and of different
divisions
Co-ordinates and ensures availability of common facilities
to all quality circles
Prepares a budget for the functioning of quality circles and
submits the same to the steering committee for adoption
Facilitators
Is responsible for the successful operation of the quality
circles in his area. He has to be a guide, counselor, teacher
and a catalyst
Ensures necessary facilities for quality circles to operate
effectively lends assistance and support to the leader
whenever required and also helps in the training of
members
Is invited to the meetings of the departmental or steering
committees wherein he gives a resume of the activities of
quality circles in his jurisdiction
Circle leader/deputy leader
Makes the necessary facilities available, with the help of
facilitators and others, for enabling quality circles to
perform without constraints
Assigns tasks to different member from time to time to
maintain a high degree of individual involvement and
participation
Trains the members in various problem-solving techniques
and other facets of quality circle operations, and gives
them necessary guidance whenever required, with the help
of the facilitator and others, if necessary
Maintains a high degree of cohesiveness of his team. He
does not act as a boss in quality circle activities but as a
friend and partner so that conflicts are avoided and group
cohesiveness is maintained all the time
Ensures that every circle member is involved in circle
activity and a high level of enthusiasm and involvement is
maintained
Plans the agenda of meetings carefully and conduct
meetings regularly and effectively
Ensures discipline and decorum during the meetings
Chalks out action plans for a progressive solution of
problems through data collection, interaction and sets time
bound programs for implementation of the circle’s
recommendations
Encourages and evolves consensus decision-making
processes so that win-lose situations are obviated
Ensures that record-notes of meetings and progress of
problems are maintained in two separate registers regularly
and effectively
Interfaces with other levels of management, the facilitator
and different functional agencies to ensure the effective
working of his quality circle
Takes necessary steps continuously in conjunction with
other members, facilitators, executives and the
department head to ensure that his quality circle maintains
a high degree of morale and enthusiasm continuously and
thereby catalyses the quality circle movement in the
organization to grow steadily and healthily
Organizes presentations to departmental head and top
management at least once in two to three months
Feeds the information relating to the highlights of his circle
activities to the agency concerned for publication in
appropriate newsletters and journals
Circle members
Participate actively in the discussions during the meeting
and all other activities of the circle. They willingly execute
specific assignments that may be given to them as decided
in the circle meetings. Thus they actively assist
leader/deputy leader in effectively and efficiently
conducting the circle activities
Contribute towards building of a cohesive group through
which they try to achieve the highest standards of
performance
Take part in management presentation
Through their personal conduct and enthusiasm, help in
propagating the quality circles concept in other areas
where circles are yet to be launched
Assimilate the inputs given to them during training and
develop in themselves the capability for systematically
identifying analyzing and resolving problems and also attain
leadership qualities
Check sheet
Stratification
Pareto chart
Cause and effect diagram
Histogram
Scatter diagram
Graph and control chart
A scientific approach of solving problems and making
workplace improvements
Helps individuals/teams of diagnose, solve and
prevent problems
Can be used to solve 90% of workplace problems
Simple yet powerful histogram
Check sheet is a systematic method of collecting,
recording and presenting the relevant data in a
simple manner Helps individuals/teams of diagnose,
solve and prevent problems
Rationale and Benefits
To make data gathering simple, systematic, easy and
effective
To arrange and present data in such a way that it can be
understood and used easily
Enables “management by facts” as opposed to
“management by opinion”
Process performance check sheet
Defect item check sheet
Defect location check sheet
Defect cause check sheet
Task conformation check sheet
Establish what information is needed
Establish “operational definition” for the data to be
collected
Determine 5W and 2H of check sheet
Construct the check sheet
Test the check sheet
Use the check sheet
Use the information (remember three rules of QC)
Why is the data needed?
What type of check sheet should be used?
Where should the data should be collected from?
(Plant/machine/place)
Who has to collect the data?
(Operator/ supervisor/manager)
When will the data be collected?
(Every hour/ at the time of receipt)
How should the data should be measured?
(Instrument/clock)
How much data is essential?
Check sheet should broadly have three types of
information
Title of the check sheet
Source information
Name of the project/ problem theme
Location of data collection
Date and/or time
Name of the person recording data

Content information
Column with defect/event name
Column to record frequency
Column to record total
Test the check sheet with at least three different
collectors
Check if the operational definition is really
“operational”
Reconfirm that the columns are relevant and required
Check if the check sheet is easy to record and use
Make changes based on the feedback
Explain the check sheet to the data collector
Ensure that the data collector understands the reason
for which the data is being collected
Collect data
Standardize its use to assure consistency
Tally mark =5
Pay particular attention to irregular data and
irregular conditions
Use data from the check sheet for further analysis
- Pareto chart, histogram, scatter diagram
Ensure that all the data that is recorded is put to use
OR is likely to be put in future
Regularly audit the use and the usefulness of check
sheet
Goals are too vague
No agreed operational definition
Data is not collected on time
Too much time and effort being spent on recording in
the check sheet
Check sheet is too complex
Different people are using different check sheet for
the same issue
Project Name:
Name of Data Recorder:
Location:
Data Collection Dates:

Dates
Defect Types/
Event Occurrence Sunday Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday TOTAL

Defect 1

Defect 2

Defect 3

Defect 4

Defect 5

Defect 6

Defect 7

Defect 8

Defect 9

Defect 10

TOTAL
check-sheet-histogram.xls
A technique used to divide the data into sub-
categories or classification to provide useful insight
into the problem
Root word is “strata” which means
Group
Division
Sub-class
Levels
Layers
Stratification is an act of dividing the data based on
groups, division, sub-class, causes etc.
Data comes from different sources. e.g: different
machines, instruments, cities, operators etc.
Data sometimes masks real information.
Stratification helps in getting meaningful information
from data.
Divide the data and conquer the information
List all conditions

Collect and stratify data

Interpret the data

List all conditions that may seem to be cause of the problem

Shift Raw material source

Location Day of week

Operator Time of the day

Product Material batch

Machine Inspector

Inspection equipment Production batch

Collect additional data based on classification, if

necessary

Stratify data based on the classification

Calculate average of each classification or plot

appropriate graph

Look for significant differences or abnormalities in

data

Generate a list of possible causes

Un – stratified data

Date 23/2 24/2 25/2

Rejection 33 30 32
Stratified data
Time 23/2 24/2 25/2
9:00-10:00 15 14 16
10:00-11:00 1 2 0
11:00-12:00 2 0 1
12:00-1:00 1 0 1
1:00-1:30 lunch
1:30-2:30 10 11 12
2:30-3:30 3 1 0
3:30-4:30 0 2 1
4:30-5:30 1 0 1
Pareto chart is a diagram that shows the order of the

largest number of occurrences by item or by classes,

and the cumulative sum total

Vilfredo Pareto (1848-1923), an

Italian economist discovered in 1897

that 80% of a nation’s wealth was

owned by 20% of the population

Dr. Joseph.M.Juran applied this

principle to quality management and

called it the pareto principle

Pareto principle: 80% of the problems come from 20%

of the causes

Distinguishes between vital few and trivial many

Displays relative importance of causes of problem

Helps the team to focus on those causes that will have

the greatest impact when solved

Inputs
Causes 20%
Effort

80%

Outputs
Effects
Results
Select the problem
Collect data
Sort data & calculate cumulative frequency
Draw the axes
Construct the bars
Draw the cumulative percentage line
Title and label the chart
Identify vital few from the trivial many and plan
further action
Select the problem for investigation
Decide what data will be necessary and how to classify
them
Determine the method of collecting data and period of
data collection
Design a separate check sheet if necessary
E.g: causes for service complaints of computer system
 Causes Frequency
Print problems 11
Rodent problems 3
Server crash 23
Boot problems 8
Bad configuration 6
Virus attack 52
System re-configuration 3
Operating system corrupted 9
Email not functioning properly 4
Loose connection 5
Others 12
 Cumulative Cumulative
Code Causes Frequency
frequency percentage
A Virus attack 52 52 38.24
B Server crash 23 75 55.15
C Print problems 11 86 63.24
Operating system
D 9 95 69.85
corrupted
E Boot problems 8 103 75.74
F Bad configuration 6 109 80.15
G Loose connection 5 114 83.82
Email not functioning
H 4 118 86.76
properly
I System re-configuration 3 121 88.97
J Rodent problems 3 124 91.18
K Others 12 136 100.00
136=100%
It is undesirable that “others” represent high
percentage (should be < 10%)
If the cause of a problem can be solved easily,
implement it even if it belongs to trivial many
Wherever possible, compare monetary data with
frequency data
Draw the Pareto chart before and after improvement
A diagram which represents meaningful relationship

between an effect and its causes

A diagram which shows the relation between a

quality characteristic and the cause factor

Enables a team to identify, explore and graphically
display all the possible causes related to a problem

A cause and effect diagram is good for seeing the

whole “causal” relationship

Enables identification of root causes and not

symptoms
Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa developed the
first cause and effect diagram in
1943 while consulting for Kawasaki
steel works

Dr.Joseph.M.Juran named it as
Ishikawa diagram
Big Bone

Medium
Sized Bone

Effect
(characteristic)

Small Bone
 Dispersion Analysis Type.

Process Flow Classification Type.

Cause – Enumeration Type.

Note

Dispersion analysis type and Cause – Enumeration type

differ only in the method of construction
State the undesirable effect

Identify the main cause groups

Identify causes and sub-causes

Identify potential root causes

Draw the back Bone and draw a line
 Such as man, machine, method, material,
measurement, tool

Measurement Machine Man

Environment Material Method

 Brainstorm: Ask “why” questions

Measurement Machine Man

Poor handling

Rod bent

Environment Material No Method

Inspection
High Hardness
 Runs out of ideas, focus attention to place

Measurement Machine Man

Poor handling

Rod bent

Environment Material No Method

Inspection
High Hardness
 that some ideas appear in two different places. “Calibration” shows up
under “methods” as a factor in the analytical procedure, and also under
“measurement” as a cause of lab error. “Iron tools” can be considered a
“methods” problem when taking samples or a “manpower” problem with
maintenance personnel.
State the undesirable effect

Identify the main process flow diagram

Identify the causes and sub – causes at each stage of

the process

Identify the potential root cause(s)

Draw a vertical line state the undesirable effect
Draw a vertical line state the undesirable effect
State the undesirable effect

List all possible causes using brainstorming

Arrange causes and sub – causes showing the

relationship between cause and effect

Identify potential root cause(s)

Identify all the relevant causes (factors) & the causes

most strongly influencing the effect (characteristic)

Express the effect (characteristic) “negatively”

The linking question between effect and its cause is

“why?”

Make the same number of causes and effect diagrams

as that of effects
It is a type of run chart used for studying the process

performance over time in order to understand and

reduce variation
Dr.Walter.A.Shewart invented the

control chart

He was working in bell labs on a project

to make all telephones alike

Published the book called “Economic

control of quality of manufactured

product” in 1931
Every process is subject to variation

More the variation in the process, more the loss to the

society

Two types of causes affect variation

Common cause (also known as chronic cause, chance cause)

 The cumulative effect of many small and “individually

uncontrollable” causes of variation in a process. Express the

effect (characteristic) “negatively”

 Special cause (also known as sporadic or assignable cause)

 One of a few causes of variation that result in a large variation in

the process

Action on variation entirely depends on type of cause

identified
Common cause Special cause
Consists of many individual
Consists of one or few causes
causes
Results in relatively smaller
Results in large variation
variation

Process need not be tampered Process need to be investigated

with and corrected

Process is considered stable Process is unstable

Control chart is used for differentiating between

common causes and special causes of variation

Control charts also helps in determining whether the

Process is stable

Process is capable

It helps in predicting process performance

Variable data

Data that can be measured

E.g. Weight, height, length, hardness, diameter, angle

Attribute data

Data that can be counted

E.g. Defects, scratches, dent, spatters, blow, holes, cracks

 Control
chart

Variable Attribute
data data

-R chart p chart

X – mR
chart c chart

mX – mR
chart np chart

u chart
40

30

20

10

-10

-20

-30
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 103 109 115 121

40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
1 7 13 19 25 31 37 43 49 55 61 67 73 79 85 91 97 103 109 115 121
Y - Axes
Variable Data
Central line

Control
limits

Data
Points

subgroups
Sub groups

Smaller groups of sample data collected over time

Central line

The average of all the sub group averages

Control limits

The outer limits of “Process Variation”

 Control limit Specification limit

Variation in the process Requirement of the

“Noise of the process” customer

Limits changes with “voice of the customer”

setting, correction, process Limits changes only

change, etc. when customer wishes to

Indicates capability change

Indicates requirement
Collect the data

Calculate sub – group average

Calculate overall average

Calculate the range

Compute average of range

Calculate control limit for X and R

Plot the chart

Interpret the chart

Collect and stratify data into sub groups

Sub-groups X1 X2 X3 X4 X5

1 47 32 44 35 20

2 19 37 31 25 34

3 29 11 16 11 44

4 28 29 42 59 38
 1 = X1+X2+X3+X4+X5
n

1 = 47+32+44+35+20
5
= 35.6

Where n is the size of the groups

 = 1+ 2+ 3+ 4
K

= 35.6+29.2+22.2+39.2
4
= 35.6

Where K is the size of the sub group

= Maximum value – Minimum value

= 47 – 20 = 27
 = 1+ 2+ 3+ 4
K
= 27 + 18 + 33 + 31
4

Where K is the size of the sub group

Central line =

Upper control limit : UCL = + A2

Lower control limit : LCL = - A2

A2 is the coefficient whose value depends on the

subgroup size
Central line =

Upper control limit : UCL = D4

Lower control limit : LCL = D3

D3 and D4 are the coefficient whose value depends on

the subgroup size

Subgroup
R chart
size Chart

n A2 D3 D4 d2

2 1.880 0 3.267 1.128

3 1.023 0 2.574 1.693

4 0.729 0 2.282 2.059

5 0.577 0 2.114 2.326

6 0.483 0 2.004 2.534

Vertical axis : and R values

Horizontal axis : sub – group number

Draw the central line : and R

Draw the control limits

Plot the and R values and join the points

Write necessary items like name of the process,

product, size of the subgroup, work conditions, shift,

etc.
 Process stability Process capability

Look at the pattern of Establish process variation

variation Compare with specification
Should be random and not and establish process
a systematic pattern capability

Look for presence of

special causes

5 rules of special cause

identification
Random variation and no systematic pattern

No action required (if Cpk > 1.67)

Presence of special cause

Identify root cause and take action

Presence of special cause

Process has shifted

Presence of special cause

Process is deteriorating
Presence of special cause

Periodic Interference in the process

Presence of special cause

Identify root cause and take action

Process capability is a measure of inherent variability of

the process when compared with the customer

requirements
Assess capability of a process to meet customer’s

requirement

Assist in selecting or modifying a process

Assist in selection of machine

To build quality into the product and process rather

than achieving quality by inspection

 Establish process variation

process variation = 6σ

σ = .
d2

d2 is a constant based on sub – group size

Refer slide number 124

 Capability = Customer Requirement
Process variation

Cp = USL –LSL
6σ

Cp > 1.33; Process is more capable than customer

requirement
Cp = 1.0; Process is just capable of meeting customer’s
requirement
Cp < 1.0; Process is not capable of meeting customer’s
requirement
Cpk = Minimum (USL - );( - LSL)
3σ 3σ

Cpk = Cp; process is centered with respect to

customer’s requirement

Cpk љ Cp; Process is not centered with respect to

customer’s requirement
Histogram is a type of bar chart representing the
frequency distribution of the data from a process
Displays large amount of data, that are difficult to
interpret in tabular & graphical form

Shows the relative frequency of occurrence of the

various data values

Provides useful information for understanding the

present performance and predict future performance
of the process
Reveals the centering, variation & shape of the data

Helps evaluate process capability & the question “is

the process capable of meeting customers
requirements?”

Enables corrective action to keep the process within

specification limits

Excellent planning and forecasting tool

When the data are numerical

When you want to see the shape of the data’s

distribution, especially when determining whether
the output of a process is distributed approximately
normally

When analyzing whether a process can meet the

customer’s requirements

When analyzing what the output from a supplier’s

process looks like
When seeing whether a process change has occurred
from one time period to another

When determining whether the outputs of two or

more processes are different

When you wish to communicate the distribution of

data quickly and easily to others
Decide on the process measure

Gather data

Prepare of frequency table

Calculate range, class intervals, class width and boundaries

Draw the axes

Draw the bars

Interpret the histogram

Only one parameter can be used for constructing the
histogram

The data should be variable data, i.e., Measured on a

continuous scale (weight, time, temperature,
dimensions, speed, etc.)
Example : weight of a rice bag
For accurate analysis of mean, dispersion and
patterns, collect at least 50 to 100 data points

98.7 100.6 100.2 100.6 100.3 100.3 98.6 99.6

100.0 100.3 99.9 99.9 99.9 100.8 100.5 99.5

100.4 99.7 100.2 99.8 100.1 99.7 100.4 99.8

99.6 100.3 99.4 100.4 99.0 99.9 99.5 99.2

101.5 99.3 101.3 99.2 100.9 100.1 101.6 100.2

100.5 101.1 100.0 101.2 100.1 99.4 99.1 100.1

99.2 100.0 99.6 100.0 100.2 101.4 101.0 100.2

101.0 98.8 100.7 100.3 100.8 100.1 100.0 100.9

Calculate the number of data points, n

Determine the range, R

Determine the number of class intervals, k

Determine the class width, H

Establish the class boundaries

Establish class intervals

Construct the frequency table

Calculate the number of data points, n
Count the number of data points “n” in the sample

n = 64 data points
Calculate the number of data points, n

Determine the range, R

Determine the range “R” in the sample. Range is the
smallest value in the set of data subtracted from the
largest value

R = Xmax – Xmin

R = 101.6 – 98.6 = 3.0

Calculate the number of data points, n

Determine the range, R

Determine the number of class intervals, k

Determine the number of class intervals, “k” needed. The
following table can be used as a thumb rule

No. of data points No. of classes “k”

< 50 5–7
50 – 100 6 – 10
100 – 250 7 – 12
> 250 10 - 20
Calculate the number of data points, n
Determine the range, R
Determine the number of class intervals, k
Determine the class width, H
Determine the class width “H”. The formula for this is
H = R/k
This should be rounded off to a suitable value depending
upon the data collected
H = 3.0 / 7
H = 0.428 ~ 0.5
Calculate the number of data points, n
Determine the range, R
Determine the number of class intervals, k
Determine the class width, H
Establish the class boundaries
Use the smallest individual measurement in the sample or
round off to the next appropriate lowest round number.
This will be the lower end point for the first class interval
Do the same for the highest number. This will be the higher
end point for the last class interval

Class Boundaries – 98.5 & 102.0

Establish class intervals
Add the class width “H” to the lower end point. This will be
the lower end point for the next class interval

Each class interval must be mutually exclusive

Add the class width to the lower class boundary until the
“K” class intervals and/or the range of all the numbers are
obtained

98.50 – 98.99 100.00 – 100.49

99.00 – 99.49 100.50 – 100.99

99.50 – 99.99 101.00 – 101.49

101.50 – 101.99
Construct the frequency table

Class Class
Frequency Total
# Boundaries
1 98.50 – 98.99 3
2 99.00 – 99.49 8
3 99.50 – 99.99 13
4 100.00 – 100.49 23
5 100.50 – 100.99 9
6 101.00 – 101.49 6
7 101.50 – 101.99 2
Process Centering
Process Variation (Dispersion)

Histogram Shape
Process Comparison with specification(Process
Capability)
Process Centering
Process Centering
Process Centering
 Process Variation (Dispersion)

Process
within
What is the
requirements
variation or
spread of
the data? Is Process
it too
too
Variable?
variable
Histogram Shape

Normal Bi-modal
distribution distribution

Distribution with isolated

Skewed island
distribution
Process Comparison with specification(Process
Capability)

Process capable Process capable

and centered but not centered

Maintain Process Re-set to centre

the Process
Process Comparison with specification(Process
Capability)

Process just Process just

capable and capable but not
centered centered
Reduce variation Centre process and
to avoid defects reduce variations
Process Comparison with specification(Process
Capability)
Process not capable
but centered
Reduce process
variation to avoid
defects
Choose critical process parameters
Gather as much as data as possible

Choose appropriate class intervals, width, boundaries

and scale
Specify targets and specification limits
Take corrective action and verify
Before drawing any conclusions from your histogram,
satisfy yourself that the process was operating
normally during the time period being studied. If any
unusual events affected the process during the time
period of the histogram, your analysis of the
histogram shape probably cannot be generalized to
all time periods
Analyze the meaning of your histogram’s shape
A chart used to study and identify the possible
relationship between two variables
To identify the possible relationship between the
changes observed in two variables
To establish the

Existence of correlation

Type of correlation

Strength of the relation

To confirm a hypothesis (assumption) that two
variables are related
Provide both visual and statistical means to test the
strength of a potential relationship
Provide a good follow up to a cause and effect
diagram to find out if there is more than just a
consensus connection between causes and effects
Cake height and Oven temperature
Weight and Height of a man
Population & Literacy levels in a state
Weight error and Earthing voltage
Nonconformance & Operator experience. Hardness
and carbon content
Inspection mistakes and Illumination levels
Elongation of threads and moisture content
Child’s height and Father’s height
Quality characteristic and the factor affecting it
Weight and Height of a Person
Collect paired data
Choose independent and dependent variable

Draw the axes

Plot the points
Label and title the charts
Interpret the chart
Collect 50 – 100 paired data (X,Y) between which you
want to study the relation, and construct a data
chart

Sample Oven temperature Cake height

1 60o 3.2cm
2 49o 2.8cm
3 57o 3.0cm
. . .
. . .
60 68o 3.3cm
Always choose ‘X’ axis for the cause and ‘Y’ axis for
the effect, when the two variables consists of a
factor and quality characteristics

Oven temperature = independent

Cake height = dependent

Find the respective maximum and minimum values of

the variables
M.Ganesh Murugan
9715447621