CH8010-PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY

UNITWISE IMPORTANT TWO MARKS QUESTIONS WITH ANSWERS

AND BIG QUESTIONS

R.Vivekanandan.,M.Tech
Assistant Professor,
Department of Chemical Engineering,
AAMEC,
Kovilvenni-614403.
 CH8010 PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY L T P C 3003

OBJECTIVE:
To make the students understand petroleum engineering principles, their application to petroleum
and natural gas manufacturing problems.

UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Refinery products – Refinery Feeds – Crude distillation – Coking and thermal process.

UNIT II CATALYTIC CRACKING 9

Catalytic Cracking - Catalytical hydro cracking – Hydroprocessing and Reused processing hydro treating.

UNIT III CATALYTICAL 9

Reforming and isomerization alkylation and polymerization – Product blending – Supporting processes.

UNIT IV LUBRICIATING 9
Lubriciating oil blending stocks petrochemical feedstocks.

UNIT V COST EVALUATION 9

Cost Evaluation – Economic evaluation of petroleum reused and refineries.

TOTAL: 45 PERIODS

OUTCOME:
On completing this course, the students will be able to understand the concepts of catalytic cracking
lubricating used by the oil and gas production technician today.

TEXT BOOKS:
1. Petroleum Refining: Technology and economics CRC Press V Edition 2007 J.CH Garry, Hardward G.E
and M.J.Kaiser.
2. Modern Petroleum Technology Upstream Vol I A.G. Lucas Hurley Edition 2002.
 UNIT-I INTRODUCTION
Part-A
1. Write down the composition of petroleum crude. (April 2014) (May 2013)
 Petroleum Composition-Petroleum is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons
 Mostly saturated or aromatic (~10%)
 Small amounts of S (up to 10%), O (up to 5%), N (up to 1%), can have trace amounts of Fe, Al, Ca,
Cu, Ni, Na, U.
 Molecules range greatly in size and are separated into fractions based on boiling point.
2. What is meant by desalting process? Why is it necessary? (April 2015)
A desalter is a process unit in an oil refinery that removes salt from the crude oil. The salt is
dissolved in the water in the crude oil, not in the crude oil itself. The desalting is usually the first process
in crude oil refining. The salts that are most frequently present in crude oil are calcium, sodium and
magnesium chlorides. If these compounds are not removed from the oil several problems arise in the
refining process.
3. What are the methods of oil exploration? (Nov 2014)
Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a gravity survey, magnetic
survey, and passive seismic or regional seismic reflection surveys to detect large-scale features of the
sub-surface geology. Visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps, pockmarks
(underwater craters caused by escaping gas) provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation (be it
shallow or deep in the Earth)
4. List out the products by fractionation of crude. (or) Write the different fractions obtained from crude
oil. (Nov 2012, April 2015)
i. Methane, ethane and propane mixture
ii. LPG
iii. Naphthas/Gasoline fractions
iv. Kerosine/ATF
v. High speed diesel oil/light diesel oil
vi. Reduced crude oil.
5. What is petroleum?
Petroleum etymologically means rock oil. It is natural organic material composed principally of
hydrocarbons which occurs in the gaseous or liquid state in geological traps.
6. What are the constituents and impurities in crude oil? (or) List out the impurities present in crude
oils. (May 2013, May 2016, May 2012, May 2019)
The main constituents of crude oils are hydrocarbons. The proportions of the different types of
hydrocarbons vary from one crude oil to another.
In addition to hydrocarbons, petroleum may contain impurities such as water, sulfur compounds,
oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and traces of metals.
7. How will you classify the crude oil? (or) Classify petroleum or crude oil based on the characterization
factor. (Nov 2012, Nov 2014, May 2013)
i. Paraffinic base
ii. Intermediate base
iii. Asphaltic base and
iv. Hybrid base or naphthenic base.
8. What is LPG?
Liquefied petroleum gas known as LPG, the term applied to a mixture of certain light
hydrocarbons derived from petroleum which are gaseous at normal ambient temperature and pressure.
9. Write the composition of LPG. (May 2012, May 2016)
 i. Propane,
ii. Propylene,
iii. n-butane,
iv. Iso-butane,
v. Butylene.
10. What is viscosity index? (Nov/Dec 2012, Dec 2014) (May/June 2018)
It is most widely used way of characterising the effect of change of temperature on the viscosity
of any oil.
11. What distinguishes catalytic cracking and thermal cracking? (Nov/Dec 2012, April 2015)
A major difference between thermal and catalytic cracking is that reactions through catalytic
occur via carbocation intermediate, compared to the free radical intermediate in thermal cracking.
Carbo-cations are longer lived and accordingly more selective than free radicals. Acid catalysts such as
amorphous silica – alumina and crystalline zeolites promote the formation of carbo-cations.
12. Write the purpose of pre-fractionation.
If crude oil contains high percentage of light ends, a flash drum or a pre-fractionation with an
overhead condensing system may be used to recover most of the light ends and a part of the light
naphtha.
13. Write the purpose of reflux.
Reflux serves two purposes: i) it provides liquid in the rectifying section to cause vapour-liquid
contact resulting in fractionation. ii) It is provided to maintain temperature gradient in the column.
14. What is coning?
This takes place when the combination of weir height and the liquid crest over the weir does not
adequately seal the cap slots.
15. What is flooding?
This occurs when the level of the liquid-foam mixture in the downpipe builds up and overflows
to the tray above.
16. What is thermal cracking?
This form of cracking was the earliest method used by refiners to get greater yields of light
distillates from a given crude oil. High temperature (generally above about 315oC) and residence time
were the variables used to determined yields of lighter products.
17. What is diesel index?
It is an indication of the ignition quality of a diesel fuel. It is determined by calculation from the
specific gravity and the aniline point of the sample.
18. Define vis-breaking and its types. (Nov 2014, May 2018)
Vis-breaking, an abbreviated term for viscosity breaking or viscosity lowering is a mild liquid-
phase thermal conversion process to reduce the viscosity of atmospheric and vacuum residues to
produce specification of fuel oil. This is a type of thermal cracking that works by breaking the molecular
bonds of the liquid. Big molecules that made up the liquid are "cracked" into smaller molecules.
There are two general technologies used for inducing visbreak: coil and soaker. The term
visbreaking comes from the words "viscosity" and "breaking." It is a non-catalytic process, which
means that a catalyst is not used to lower the temperature at which the cracking takes place.
19. Mention the process variables which affect visbreaking operations. (May 2012)
The visbreaking process is still a valuable process. The major process variables are
i. Feedstock
ii. Temperature
iii. Pressure
iv. Residence time
20. What is octane number?
It is defined as the volume percentage of iso-octane in a blend with n-heptane which is equal to
the test fuel in knock intensity under standardised and closely controlled conditions of test in a single-
cylinder, variable compression ratio engines, and known as CFR engines.
21. What is performance number?
It is based on engine power output. It represents approximately the maximum knock free power
output.
22. What is cetane number?
It is related to the ignition delay of a fuel in a diesel engine. Hexadecane has a low ignition delay
time and is the arbitrarily chosen high quality reference compound for the cetane number.
23. What is calculated cetane index?
It is based on specific gravity and the 10 percent, 50 percent and 90 percent distillation
temperatures of the fuels and it gives numbers that correlate with the engine-testing method.
24. What is calorific value?
This is the quantity of heat released per unit quantity of fuel, when it is burned completely with
oxygen and the products of combustion returned to ambient temperature.
25. What is smoke point?
It is the maximum flame height in mm at which the fuel will burn without smoking when
determined in a smoke point apparatus under specified conditions.
26. Name the processes used to extract LPG from natural gas.
i. Compression and cooling
ii. Adsorption
iii. Absorption
iv. Cryogenic processes.
27. Write the types of crude oil distillations.
i. Atmospheric distillation
ii. Vacuum distillation.
28. Name the theories of genesis of petroleum.
Organic theory and non-organic theory are the two theories used in the genesis of petroleum.
29. Write the methods employed to recover the remaining oil.
i. Miscible / immiscible displacement process
ii. Thermal recovery processes
iii. Chemical flooding processes.
30. Write the classifications of petroleum refining process.
i. Distillation
ii. Conversion (Decomposition, Unification, Reforming)
iii. Treatment processes
iv. Blending
v. Other refining operations
31. List out the low boiling products in petroleum products.
i. Methane
ii. Ethane
iii. Propane
iv. Butane and the corresponding olefins.
32. Define pour point.
The pour point is defined as the lowest temperature at which the sample will flow. It indicates
how easy or difficult it is to pump the oil, especially in cold weather. It also indicates the aromaticity or
 the paraffinity of the crude oil or the fraction. A lower pour point means that the paraffin content is low.
Pour points for the whole crude and fractions boiling above 232°C (450°F).
33. What is carbon residue in petroleum fraction?
The carbon residue of a crude oil, heavy oil or residue is the weight percent of coke that remains
after evaporation and cracking of the sample in the absence of air.
Depending on the testing procedure used, the result is reported as Conradson or Ramsbottom
carbon residue in weight percent.
The carbon residue indicates the asphalt content of the oil or the amount of lubricating oils that
can be produced from the processing of the oil.
34. Define refractive index.
The refractive index is the ratio of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in the
oil. This parameter is used as a characterization parameter for petroleum fraction composition.
35. Define freezing point.
Petroleum fractions are mostly liquids at ambient conditions. However, heavy oils contain heavy
compounds such as waxes or asphaltenes. These compounds tend to solidify at low temperatures, thus
restricting flow. The freezing point is the temperature at which the hydrocarbon liquid solidifies at
atmospheric pressure.
It is one of the important property specifications for kerosene and jet fuels due to the very low
temperatures encountered at high altitudes in jet planes.
36. What is aniline point of oil?
The lowest temperature at which an equal volume mixture of the petroleum oil and aniline are
miscible is the aniline point. Since aniline is an aromatic compound, a petroleum fraction with high
aromatic content will be miscible in aniline at ambient conditions.
However, if the oil has more paraffins, it will require a higher temperature and thus higher
aniline point in order to be miscible in aniline. This property is important for the specifications of diesel
fuels.
37. Define flash point.
The flash point of a liquid hydrocarbon is the lowest temperature at which sufficient vapours are
produced above the liquid such that spontaneous ignition will occur if a spark is present.
It is an important specification for gasoline and naphtha related to safety in storage and transport
in high temperature environments. Flash point indicates the fire and explosion potential of a fuel. A low
flash point fuel is a higher fire hazard.
38. Define fire point.
The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel will continue to
burn for at least five seconds after ignition by an open flame of standard dimension.
In general the fire point can be assumed to be about 10°C higher than the flash point, although
this is no substitute for testing if the fire point is safety critical.
39. Define cloud point.
Cloud point is the temperature at which wax (paraffin) begins to separate when oil chilled to a
low temperature, and it serves as an important indicator of practical performance in automotive
applications in low temperatures.
The cloud point is analogous to the 'dew point' at which a gas-liquid phase transition called
condensation occurs in water vapour (humid air) to form liquid water (dew or clouds).
40. What is TAN number?
The Total Acid Number was originally used to monitor the oxidation of lubricating oils during
use but now includes acidic crude oils. These crudes are so acidic they cause rapid corrosion of most
crude oil fractionating columns.
 Highly acidic crudes require the use of expensive alloy steel equipment. The TAN is the number
of mg potassium hydroxide required to neutralize 1 g of oil.
41. Define API gravity. (Nov 2013)
The density of petroleum oils is expressed in the United States in terms of API gravity rather
than specific gravity; it is related to specific gravity in such a fashion that an increase in API gravity
corresponds to a decrease in specific gravity. The units of API gravity are °API and can be calculated
from specific gravity by the following.

In above equation specific gravity and API gravity refer to the weight per unit volume at 60°F
(15.6°C) as compared to water at 60°F.
42. What are the main uses of petroleum coke? (Nov 2012, Apr 2014)
Petroleum coke is a byproduct of petroleum refining, useful in the production of electrodes used
as carbon anodes for the aluminum industry, graphite electrodes for steel making, as fuel in the firing of
solid fuel boilers used to generate electricity, and as a fuel for cement kilns.
Petroleum coke used in wide range of applications including aluminum manufacturing, fuels,
and numerous other products including steel, glass, paint, and fertilizers.
43. State the significance of octane number and cetane number. (Nov 2013)
Octane number: Octane number is a measurement of the quality or performance of gasoline. The
higher the number, the better the fuel burns within the engine of a vehicle. Higher performance vehicles
require fuels with a higher octane rating. The octane rating of a specific gasoline mixture is based off
the ratios of two compounds in the gasoline—iso-octane, a compound with the same chemical formula
as octane but with slightly different structure and properties. The higher the octane number, the more
compression from the piston the gasoline can withstand before igniting in the engine.
Cetane number: Cetane number is a measurement of the quality or performance of diesel fuel. The
higher the number, the better the fuel burns within the engine of a vehicle. The cetane number is similar
to the octane rating in that it is a rating assigned to a fuel to rate the quality of its combustion. The
difference is that octane rating rates gasoline whereas cetane rates diesel. Just as higher performance
gasoline vehicles require fuels with a higher octane rating, high performance diesel vehicles require fuel
with a higher cetane rating.
Part-B
1. Give an account of the distillation theory of crude and with neat sketch explain the arrangement of
distillation tower. (or) Give an account of the refinery crude distillation with different reflux
arrangements. (or) Give an account of the fractionation of petroleum crude and the arrangement of
distillation towers. (Nov 2013, Nov 2014, April 2015)
2. Enumerate the processes of coking and visbreaking with neat sketches. Give the effects of operating
variables. (April 2015)
3. Write in detail about production of crude oil and natural gas. (April 2014)
4. Which law is governing the de-salter operation? Why is it necessary? Explain the desalting operation
in detail with flow diagram. (Nov 2013, Nov 2014)
5. Explain the vacuum distillation of crude oil with a neat flow diagram. Also emphasize on the product
profile. (or) Discuss about vacuum distillation. (May 2012, Nov 2012, Apr 2014, Apr 2016)
6. Explain atmospheric distillation of crude oil with a neat sketch. (May 2013, May 2018)
7. List and explain the various refinery products from distillation unit, the temperature range and its
uses. (May 2013)
8. Briefly explain the mechanism of thermal cracking. (Nov 2012, Apr 2016, May 2018)
 9. Explain in detail about delayed coking with neat flow diagram. (Apr 2014)
10. Discuss about the following. i) Fluxi coking ii) Fluid coking
11. Describe the visbreaking operation with a neat flow diagram. (Nov 2012, Apr 2016)
12. Explain the methods of manufacture of naphtha. Present composition of naphtha and explain
important characteristics of naphtha from different crudes. Also give the uses. (May 2012)
13. Write about quality control of petroleum products in detail.
14. Write the characteristics of crude oils in detail.
15. Explain drilling for oil and gas in detail (or) Write about oil and gas exploration.
16. Write the improvements to be made in fractionating column. (or) How will you keep the distillation
column stable?
17. Write the process variables involved in distillation column.
*********************************

UNIT-II CATALYTIC CRACKING

Part-A
1. How to increase the isomerization yield? (April 2014)
a. Isomerization yield is increased by:
b. High temperature (which increases reaction rate)
c. Low space velocity
d. Low pressure
There is no isomerization effect due to the hydrogen-to-hydrocarbon mole ratios, but high
hydrogen-to-hydrocarbon ratios reduce the hydrocarbon partial pressure and thus favor the formation of
isomers.
2. What is Hydrotreating? (or) Define hydro treating. State its advantages features. (Apr 2015, May
2013, April 2015)
Hydrotreating refers to a relatively mild operation whose primary purpose is to saturate olefins
and /or reduce the sulphur and /or nitrogen content (and not to change the boiling range) of the feed.
3. Write about Hydrocracking reactions.
Hydrogen is consumed in all Hydrocracking reactions. Carbon to carbon bonds in paraffin’s are
broken and the fragments hydrogenated to form two or more lower molecular weight paraffin’s.
4. What are the major applications of isomerisation in petroleum refining? (Nov 2012)
Catalytic reforming processes provide high octane constituents in the heavier gasoline fraction,
but the n-paraffin components of the lighter gasoline fraction, especially butane (C4) to hexane (C6),
have poor octane ratings. The conversion of these n-paraffins to their isomers (isomerization) yields
gasoline components of high octane ratings in this lower boiling range (Hydrocarbon processing, 1998,
pp.98-104). Conversion is achieved in the presence of a catalyst (aluminium chloride activated with
hydrochloric acid or a noble metal or zeolite catalyst):

It is essential to inhibit side reactions such as cracking and olefin formation. Various
isomerization processes have been developed that increase the octane numbers of light naphtha from,
say, 70 or less to more than 80. In a typical process, naphtha is passed over and aluminium chloride
catalyst at 120 °C (250 °F) and at a pressure of about 800 psi (5515 kpa) to produce the isomerate.
5. What are the main disadvantages of hydro cracking? (Nov 2012, May 2019)
The disadvantage of hydrocracking is that it requires very severe operating conditions, i.e.
particularly high pressures up to 160 bar and temperatures up to 400°C, which makes the plant very
expensive to build. In addition, the consumption of hydrogen is such that the provision of a hydrogen
generation plant has often been required. In total, the cost of a hydrocracker can be twice that if a
catalytic cracker of the same capacity. The continuing demand for fuel oil combined with these high
costs is the reason for hydrocracking being used less in European refineries.
6. What are the main uses of petroleum coke? (April 2014)
The main uses of petroleum coke are as follows:
i. Fuel
ii. Manufacture of anodes for electrolytic cell reduction of alumina
iii. Direct use as chemical carbon source for manufacture of elemental phosphorus, calcium carbide,
and silicon carbide
iv. Manufacture of electrodes for use in electric furnace production of elemental phosphorus,
titanium dioxide, calcium carbide, and silicon carbide
v. Manufacture of graphite
7. What is aromising?
Aromising is a high severity process using continuous catalyst regeneration which has been
developed specifically for the purpose of producing high purity aromatics starting from either straight
run naphtha’s or from naphtha’s coming from Hydrocracking.
8. Compare Hydrocracking with fluid catalytic unit. (May 2019)
A Hydrocracking unit is generally more costly, of the order of 1.6 times than that of a fluid
catalytic cracking unit. The products from Hydrocracking are very stable as compared to catalytic
cracker products.
9. Write the types of Hydrocracking.
i. Distillate Hydrocracking
ii. Residual Hydrocracking.
10. Write about catalytic alkylation. (May 2019)
It used in petroleum refineries to upgrade light olefins (produced mainly from catalytic crackers
as well as from cokers and visbreakers) and isobutane into highly branched paraffin’s.
11. Write the different types of HF alkylation processes.
The Phillips process, UOP process are the two types of HF alkylation processes.
12. Write the significances of space velocity.
Low space velocity increases octane number and lowers acid requirements. On the other hand,
severe alkylation conditions such as high space velocity increases the formation of acid sulphates which
are corrosive to downstream.
13. What is IFP Dimersol process?
The IFP dimersol process dimerizes propane to hexane which is a high octane number motor
gasoline blending component.
14. Write about the effects of entrainment.
Several undesirable effects due to entrainment as: a) off-grade overhead product, b) a reduction
in tray efficient and c) possibly decreased column capacity.
15. What is flexi coking?
Flexi coking process is an extension of the fluid coking process in that some (over 60 percent) of
the coke is gasified to low heat content gas for refinery use.
16. What is petroleum coke?
Petroleum coke is considered a valuable solid by-product of crude oil refining. It is produced in
refinery coking units using residual oils, ie., heavy fractions of the crude oil as feed stocks.
17. Write the types of coking process (or) Write the types of petroleum cokes.
Coking processes are delayed coking, fluid coking and flexi coking.
18. What is asphalts?
Asphalt is a combination of bitumen and mineral matter in any proportion. Asphalt is referred to
as asphalt mix.
19. How petroleum product is used in explosive industry?
The explosives and detonators use paraffin wax.
20. What are white oils?
White oils are made by sulphuric acid treatment of petroleum distillates.
21. What are lubricating oils? (May 2019)
These are blend of lubricating oil base stock and chemical additives that impart enhanced desired
properties to the finished product.
22. What is fluid catalytic cracking? (May 2019)
Fluid catalytic cracking is a catalytic conversion process for converting heavy gas oils, namely
vacuum distillates into more valuable products such as LPG, gasoline, cycle oils etc.
23. What is flexi coking?
Flexi coking process is an extension of the fluid coking process in that some (over 60 percent) of
the coke is gasified to low heat content gas for refinery use.
24. Write about catalytic alkylation.
It used in petroleum refineries to upgrade light olefins (produced mainly from catalytic crackers
as well as from cokers and visbreakers) and isobutane into highly branched paraffin’s.
25. Classify catalytic conversion.
They are classified as: catalytic cracking, Hydrocracking and polymerization.
26. Write the advantages of bimetallic catalysts over monometallic catalyst.
Higher stable liquid yield, higher octane C5 components, increased hydrogen production,
operation at low pressures, operation at low hydrogen to feed ratio, long run between regenerations.
27. Write the objectives of fluid catalytic cracking.
a. To maximize middle distillates
b. To maximize LPG and gasoline.
28. What is fluid catalytic cracking?
Fluid catalytic cracking is a catalytic conversion process for converting heavy gas oils, namely
vacuum distillates into more valuable products such as LPG, gasoline, cycle oils etc.
29. What is isomerization?
Isomerization is the process that neither changes the carbon number, the carbon to hydrogen
ratio nor the amount of isomerize, only the shape of the molecule is changed along with the quality of
isomerise.
30. What do you mean by Hydro refining? Where do you employ? (Nov 2013, April 2016)
Hydro-refining is a well-known process for upgrading a variety of hydrocarbon fractions.
Naphtha fractions are subjected to hydro-refining by treating with hydrogen and a hydro-refining
catalyst to remove sulfur and nitrogenous compounds which may adversely affect the catalyst used in
subsequent treating processes, such as for example, reforming processes. Deep levels of desulfurization,
such as those required to produce reforming feeds for multimetallic catalysts are difficult to accomplish
in conventional hydrotreating processes. It is known to presulfide hydro-refining catalysts prior to the
hydro-refining step.
31. Distinguish between catalytic cracking and hydrocracking. (Nov 2013, April 2016)
Fluid catalytic cracking produces a high yield of petrol and LPG, while hydrocracking is a major
source of jet fuel, Diesel fuel, naphtha, and again yields LPG.
32. Distinguish between thermal and catalytic cracking. (Nov 2012, April 2015)

(or)
A major difference between thermal and catalytic cracking is that reactions through catalytic
occur via carbocation intermediate, compared to the free radical intermediate in thermal cracking.
Carbocations are longer lived and accordingly more selective than free radicals. Acid catalysts such as
amorphous silica – alumina and crystalline zeolites promote the formation of carbocations.

33. Name the catalysts used in cracking and hydrocracking. (or) What are the catalysts used in
catalytic cracking? (May 2013, Nov 2014)
The catalytic cracking process involves the presence of solid acid catalysts, usually silica-
alumina and zeolites. Major breakthrough in the catalytic cracking process was development of zeolite
catalysts which demonstrated vastly superior activity, gasoline selectivity, and stability characteristics
compared to original amorphous silica alumina catalyst.
All hydrocracking catalysts use silica alumina as the base for cracking activity along with small
amount of rare earths like platinum, palladium, tungsten and nickel promoting hydrogenation. Zeolite
catalyst loaded with noble or non-noble metal form excellent catalysts as they operate upto higher
concentration of ammonia.
34. Short notes on FCC. (April 2014)
Fluid catalytic cracking is now major secondary conversion process in Petroleum refinery. In
fluidized systems, finely powdered catalyst is lifted into reaction zone by the incoming oil which
immediately vaporizes upon contact with the hot catalyst. After reaction is completed it is lifted into the
regeneration zone by air. The three basic functions in the catalytic cracking process are
i. Reaction - Feedstock reacts with catalyst and cracks into different hydrocarbons.
ii. Regeneration - Catalyst is reactivated by burning off coke and recirculated to reactor.
iii. Fractionation - Cracked hydrocarbon stream is separated into various products like LPG and
gasoline, like light cycle oil and heavy cycle oil are withdrawn as side stream.
35. Write down the primary reactions for catalytic cracking. (April 2014)
The reactions that occur in catalytic cracking are complex. In the study of catalytic cracking of
hydrocarbons, hydrocarbons having same carbon number following is the decreasing order of reactivity.
 Olefins  alkyl benzenes  naphthenes  poly methyl aromatics  un-substituted aromatics

36. Explain the applications of hydrotreating process. (May 2012)

i. Better balance of gasoline and distillate production.
ii. Greater gasoline yield with high octane rate.
iii. Production of high amount of isobutane in the butane fractionation.
iv. Upgrade aromatics, cycle oils, coker oils, FCC stocks to high quality gasoline, jet fuels and light
fuel oils.
37. Write down hydrocracking reactions.
i. Large paraffin molecule by hydrocracking produces olefins but hydrogen present saturates then
CnH2n + H2 —> CnH2n+2
Unsaturation in Straight chain or Ring structure gradually gets saturated.
ii. Isomerization takes place
nC4H8 + H —> i-butane
nC4 + H10 —> i-butane
iii. Nitrogen, Sulphur and oxygen compounds gets converted into corresponding Hydrides.
iv. Hydrogenation reactions are exothermic while catalytic cracking reactions ate endothermic, thus
complementary to each other in the sense catalytic cracking gives olefins for hydrocracking while
hydrocracking provides heat for cracking. But exothermic hydrogenation heat gives saturated
compound. Hence gasoline of hydrocracking ate rich in naphthenes and as such is low in quality but
very good feedstock for catalytic reforming to produce gasoline.

Part-B
1. Explain the principles and operation of a fluid catalytic cracking unit with a neat flow diagram. (or)
Discuss the operating conditions and process control with instrumentation for fluidized bed catalytic
cracking process. (or) Discuss in detail about fluidized bed catalytic cracking. (Nov 2012, May 2012,
April 2014, April 2015)
2. Explain the control of process variables in the reactor section. (May 2012)
3. Define catalytic cracking reactions. (April 2014)
 4. What are the different types of catalytic cracking? (Nov 2013)
5. What happens when oil and catalyst mixed in reactor riser and explain how the products obtained? (Nov
2013)
6. Discuss the solvent extraction methods. (April 2014)
7. Write the reaction mechanisms of hydrocracking. (Nov 2013)
8. Write about hydrocracking? Explain the types of hydrocracking.
9. Explain the process of hydrocracking process with a neat flow diagram and reaction mechanism. (Nov
2013, April 2015)
10. Give the reaction mechanism of FCC. (April 2015)
11. Explain the process steps (Nov 2014, April 2016, April 2019)
(i) Involved in treating gas oil in FCCU.
(ii) What is the purpose of riser in FCCU?
12. Why would we couple hydro cracking with catalytic cracking? (Nov 2013, April 2015)
13. Write about UOP process in detail. (May 2019)
14. Compare H2SO4 and HF alkylation process. (May 2019)
15. Explain hydro processing with neat sketches. (May 2013, May 2019)
16. Explain any one process of catalytic cracking with a neat sketch. List the advantages of catalytic cracking
over thermal cracking. (May 2013, April 2014, May 2016)
17. Explain in detail the following (May 2012, May 2016, May 2019)
i) Hydro treating reactions.
ii) Hydro treating process for distillate desulphurization.
iii) Hydro treating process for smoke point improvement.
18. Discuss the effects of process variables (temperature and pressure) on catalytic cracking processes. (Nov
2013, Nov 2014, April 2016)
19. Explain in detail about expanded bed hydrocracking process. (April 2014)
20. What is the speciality of the reactor in hydro treatment (treating) processes? (Nov 2014, April 2016)
21. Discuss briefly the carbonium ion mechanism of catalytic cracking. (Nov 2012)
22. Write a note on hydrocracking catalysts. (Nov 2012)
*********************************
UNIT III-CATALYTICAL REFORMING
Part-A
1. What is catalytic reforming?
Catalytic reforming is a chemical process used to convert petroleum refinery naphthas distilled
from crude oil (typically having low octane ratings) into high-octane liquid products called reformates,
which are premium blending stocks for high-octane gasoline. The process converts low-octane linear
hydrocarbons (paraffins) into branched alkanes (isoparaffins) and cyclic naphthenes, which are then
partially dehydrogenated to produce high-octane aromatic hydrocarbons. The dehydrogenation also
produces significant amounts of byproduct hydrogen gas, which is fed into other refinery processes such
as hydrocracking. A side reaction is hydrogenolysis, which produces light hydrocarbons of lower value,
such as methane, ethane, propane and butanes.
2. State the purpose of polymerization. (May 2013)
Polymerisation, as practised in the petroleum industry, is a process that can claim to be the
earliest to employ catalyst on a commercial scale. Catalytic polymerization came into use in the 1930s
and was one of the first catalytic processes to be used in the petroleum industry. In the usual industrial
sense, polymerisation is a process in which a substance of low molecular weight is transformed into one
of the same composition but of higher molecular weight, maintaining the atomic arrangement present in
the basic molecule. It has also been described as the successive addition of one molecule to another by
 means of a functional group, such as that present in an aliphatic olefin. In the petroleum industry,
polymerisation is the controlled process by which olefin gases are converted to liquid condensation
products that may be suitable for gasoline (hence polymer gasoline, polymerate) or other liquid fuels.
3. List the uses of Blending. (May 2013)
Blending is the process of mixing hydrocarbon fractions, additives and other components to
produce finished products with specific properties and desired characteristics. Products can be blended
in-line through a manifold system, or batch blended in tanks and vessels. In line blending of gasoline,
distillates, jet fuel, and kerosene is accomplished by injecting proportionate amounts of each component
into the main stream where turbulence promotes through mixing. Additives, including octane enhancers,
metal deactivators, anti-oxidants, anti-knock agents, gum and rust inhibitors, detergents, and so on, are
added during and/ or after blending to provide specific properties not inherent in hydrocarbons.
4. Mention different types of gasoline available. (April 2015)
The 87, 89, and 91 represents the “octane rating” of the gasoline, respectively. Anything rated
above 90 is usually referred to as “premium gas.” On the other hand, if the octane rating is below 90,
then it would be considered a “regular unleaded gas.”
5. What are the catalysts used in catalytic cracking? (May 2013, Nov 2014)
Commercial cracking catalysts can be divided into three classes: 1) acid- treated natural alumina
silicates 2) amorphous synthetic silica- alumina combinations, and 3) crystalline synthetic silica-
alumina catalysts called zeolites or molecular sieves.
6. What is fluid catalytic cracking process?
Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is one of the most important conversion processes used in
petroleum refineries. It is widely used to convert the high-boiling, high-molecular weight hydrocarbon
fractions of petroleum crude oils into more valuable gasoline, olefinic gases, and other products.
Cracking of petroleum hydrocarbons was originally done by thermal cracking, which has been almost
completely replaced by catalytic cracking because it produces more gasoline with a higher octane rating.
It also produces by product gases that have more carbon-carbon double bonds (i.e. more olefins), and
hence more economic value, than those produced by thermal cracking.
7. What is coking?
Coking is a refinery process that produces 19% of finished petroleum product exports. Coking is
a refinery unit operation that upgrades material called bottoms from the atmospheric or vacuum
distillation column into higher-value products and, as the name implies, produces petroleum coke—a
coal-like material.
8. List the reforming catalysts and the main reactions that take place during the same process. (Nov
2012, Apr 2016)
Catalytic reforming catalysts contain highly dispersed platinum (Pt), the activity of which is
inhibited by sulphur. Therefore, an upstream hydrotreater lowers the sulphur content of reformer feeds
to ˂1 wppm. In addition to Pt, modern multi-metallic catalysts contain highly dispersed rhemium (Re)
and in some cases tin (Sn). There are four major reactions that take place during reforming. They are:
1) Dehydrogenation of naphthenes to aromatics,
2) Dehydrocyclization of paraffins to aromatics,
3) Isomerization,
4) Hydrocracking.
9. What is Recycle ratio? What is flexicoking?
Recycle ratio = (Recycle feed + equivalent fresh feed) / Equivalent fresh feed.
Flexicoking is a process designed to convert high boiling petroleum fractions (residua) into more
valuable light hydrocarbons, low sulfur fuel gas and coke. The coke produced in the Flexicoking
process is quite different from cokes produced by conventional Fluid Coking or Delayed Coking.
10. Why vacuum is applied for distillation of reduced crude oil?
As the fractionation of reduced crude oil involves higher temperature at atmospheric or above
atmospheric pressure, this is generally carried out at sub-atmospheric pressure, ie., at vacuum. The
operation is called Vacuum distillation.
11. What is refining?
Refining is a process where the separation of various compounds of crude oil occurs. Fractional
distillation is a process used to separate its compounds. The crude oil is heated to a temperature of 400-
degree Celcius, is fed in at the bottom of the column and heated further.
12. Write down the reaction in reforming of naptha. (April 2015)
The four major catalytic reforming reactions are:
i. The dehydrogenation of naphthenes to convert them into aromatics as exemplified in the
conversion methylcyclohexane (a naphthene) to toluene (an aromatic), as shown below:

ii. The isomerization of normal paraffins to isoparaffins as exemplified in the conversion of normal
octane to 2,5-Dimethylhexane (an isoparaffin), as shown below:

iii. The dehydrogenation and aromatization of paraffins to aromatics (commonly called

dehydrocyclization) as exemplified in the conversion of normal heptane to toluene, as shown
below:

iv. The hydrocracking of paraffins into smaller molecules as exemplified by the cracking of normal
heptane into isopentane and ethane, as shown below:

13. What is polymerization?

Polymerization in the petroleum industry is the process of converting light olefin gases including
ethylene, propylene, and butylene into hydrocarbons of higher molecular weight and higher octane
number that can be used as gasoline blending stocks. In polymerization, the light olefins propylene and
butylene are induced to combine, or polymerize, into molecules of two or three times their original
molecular weight. The catalysts employed consist of phosphoric acid on pellets of kieselguhr, a porous
sedimentary rock.
14. What are the catalysts used for olefin polymerization?
The catalysts used are copper pyrophosphates on charcoal, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid.
15. What is DCC?
The deep catalytic cracking (DCC) process is a fluidized catalytic cracking (FCC) process
modified to increase the production of light olefins from heavy oil feedstock. One commercial version,
DCC Type I, maximizes selectivity to propylene and substantially increases the yield of ethylene. In a
second commercial version, DCC Type II, isobutylene plus isoamylene selectivity is maximized. The
two versions use different, novel zeolitic catalysts and their reaction conditions differ. The Type I
operation produces a high-octane, aromatic naphtha rich in toluene and xylenes. Operating conditions
are more severe than those in conventional catalytic cracking but less severe than in steam cracking.
16. What is the function of feedstock injection system?
It is used to achieve the desired temperatures and catalyst and oil contacting which maximize the
selective catalytic reasons.
17. How the products are separated?
The steams and the reaction products leave through the reactor vapour line and enter the main
fractionator where the liquid products are condensed and the separates into the valuable products.
18. What is the octane number given by a polymer?
The octane number given by a polymer is 94 to 97.
19. What is the quantity of polymer produced as a product?
70 gallons of polymer can be produced by a kg of catalyst. High pressure reactors can yield 140
gallons of polymer per kg of catalyst.
20. What are the major applications of isomerization in petroleum refining? (Nov 2012, April 2016)
 The isomerization process upgrades the octane number of light naphtha fractions and also
simultaneously reduces benzene content by saturation of the benzene fraction.
 Isomerization complements catalytic reforming process in upgrading the octane number of refinery
naphtha streams.
 Isomerization is a simple and cost-effective process for octane enhancement compared with other
octane-improving processes.
 Isomerate product contains very low sulfur and benzene, making it ideal blending component in
refinery gasoline pool.
 Isomerization processes have been used to isomerize n-butane to iso-butane used in alkylation and
C5 /C6 n-paraffins in light naphtha to the corresponding iso-paraffins to produce high-octane
number gasoline stocks after the adoption of lead-free gasoline.
 Catalytic isomerization processes that use hydrogen have been developed to operate under
moderate conditions.
21. Write the advantages of alcohol-gasoline blends in IC Engine? (Nov 2014)
 Mixing alcohol with gasoline produces gasohol. Advantages of fuel blends are that alcohol tends to
increase the octane rating and reduce carbon monoxide (CO) and other tailpipe emissions from
the engine. The octane number of a fuel indicates its resistance to knock (abnormal combustion in
the cylinder).
 The addition of ethanol significantly improves thermal efficiency up to 31.12% with
the blending of E40. The reason for this behavior is related to the properties of blending fuel, when
they are used as fuel in a spark-ignition engine, a heat of engine will be increasing at blending
fuel compared with pure gasoline.
 Overall, ethanol is considered to be better for the environment than petrol. Ethanol-fuelled vehicles
produce lower carbon dioxide emissions, and the same or lower levels of hydrocarbon and oxides
of nitrogen emissions.
22. What is the advantage of alkylation process? (Nov 2014)
 In refining, the alkylation unit produces a high-quality gasoline blendstock by combining
two LPG-range molecules to form one gasoline-range molecule.
 This involves reacting isobutane with some type of light olefin, typically
either propylene or butylene coming from the FCC.
 The economic value of the alkylation unit comes from its ability to upgrade low-value light ends
(C3s and C4s) to a high-value gasoline blendstock, one that has a premium quality with relatively
high octane properties and no aromatic components.
 Alkylation units have become more popular as aromatics limits on gasoline have been tightened.
  The alky relies on, and complements, the FCC.
 Most, if not all, of the light olefins generated in a refinery come from the FCC unit. The capacity
and/or throughput of the alky are typically limited by the availability of the olefin to feed it.
23. List out major dehydrogenation reactions. (Apr 2014)
Dehydrogenation of alkylcyclohexanes to aromatics
Dehydrogenation is the chemical reaction that involves the removal of hydrogen, usually from an
organic molecule. It is the reverse of hydrogenation.
The dehydrogenation reactions are highly endothermic and cause a decrease in temperature as the
reaction progresses; dehydrogenation reactions have the highest reaction rates of the reforming reactions,
which necessitates the use of the interheaters between catalyst beds to keep the mixture at sufficiently high
temperatures for the reactions to proceed at practical rates. The major dehydrogenation reactions are

24. How to increase the isomerization yield? (Apr 2014)

Light naphtha that contains C5s and C6s is mixed with a small amount of hydrogen, raised to 200-400F
(93-204C), and injected into a reactor vessel containing a platinum catalyst. The catalyst and heat convert the
C5 and C6 molecules into their isomers. Typically, unreacted C5s and C6s are recycled to increase yield.
Isomerization unit is a petroleum refining process that improves the octane number of gasoline, by
converting the strait chains of paraffin molecules to the branched form of iso-paraffin.
25. List out the different processes by which gasoline produced. (Nov 2013)
i. Separation Process(by distillation or absorption)
ii. Cracking Process (breaking large chains of molecules into smaller ones)
iii. Reforming Process (rearranging of molecular structure)
iv. Combining Process (combining smaller molecules to make larger ones)
v. Treating Process (chemical removal of contaminants)
26. Mention advantage and disadvantages of blending. (Nov 2013)
Advantages
i. Track and improve engagement.
ii. Enhance communication.
iii. Enabled technique.
iv. Personalization.
v. Reduces cost.
vi. Peer support.
vii. Easy access and flexibility.
viii. Enhanced retention.
Disadvantages
i. The Technology Can Be Challenging Rather Than Useful. ...
ii. Blended Learning Makes Teachers Overwork. ...
iii. Credibility Of Sources And Plagiarism Become Even A Bigger Issue.
iv. Disadvantages can help propel you to see your situation from different perspectives and find
approaches to succeed that you might not otherwise have found.
27. State the advantages of bimetallic catalysts over monometallic catalysts used in reforming process.
(May 2012)
NiCo catalysts had higher surface area and dispersion than either monometallic components, and
exhibited superior stability against coking. By decreasing the loading of each metal to a little more than half
of the original loading, these properties were further enhanced, resulting in no carbon deposition at all.
28. Compare the ranges of operating conditions for H2SO4 and HF alkylation. (May 2012)

Part-B
1. What are the different alkylation techniques available? Explain anyone with a neat flow diagram. (Nov
2013, April 2016)
2. How the enhancement of gasoline production will affect the quality of final product? (Nov 2013, April
2016)
3. Explain in detail reforming reactions (or) Discuss the chemical reactions takes place in reforming. (Nov
2013, April 2016)
4. Illustrate with the aid of a schematic diagram, the catalytic reforming operation. (or) With a neat flow
diagram explain catalytic reforming process. (or) Define catalytic reforming and explain any one
process. (May 2012, Nov 2013, April 2014, April 2016)
5. i) Explain stabilization of gasoline. ii) Describe bimetallic catalyst reforming process of naphtha with
the help of a neat diagram. (April 2015)
6. Catalytic reforming process is employed in convert low octane naphtha into gasoline. For this process in
the refinery. (Nov 2014)
7. i) Indicate all reforming reactions and discuss their effects. ii) Mention four important advantages of
using bimetallic catalysts over monometallic catalysts. iii) What is Platforming? (Nov 2014)
8. Draw a block diagram to show the three important conversion processes involved in the enhancement of
gasoline production and explain them. (Nov 2014)
9. With a neat flow sheet explain the production of hydrogen in steam reforming. (Nov 2014)
10. Explain in detail reforming reactions. (May 2012)
11. Explain the typical operating conditions of catalytic reforming process. (May 2012)
12. Explain the manufacture of polymer gasoline. (May 2012)
13. Explain aluminium chloride (liquid phase) isomerization process. Give the flow sheet. (May 2012)
14. Describe the typical isomerisation process with a neat flow diagram clearly stating from operating
parameters, catalysts used and feed types. (Nov 2012)
 15. Write a note on the following: i) reforming catalyst ii) feed stock catalyst for the reforming process.
(Nov 2012)
16. Explain the process of hydro forming with a neat sketch. (May 2013)
17. With a neat sketch, explain the process of thermal reforming. (May 2013)
18. i) What do you mean by gasoline blending? ii) Explain how the enhancement of gasoline can be carried
out with neat flow diagram. (April 2015)
19. Write the applications of Hydrotreating processes. (May 2019)
20. What are sulfolane process and write about the process description. (May 2019)
21. Explain the sulfur conversion processes.
22. Write about sweetening processes. Mention wet oxidation based on aqueous solutions.
23. Write about the Absorption by regenerative solvents. Write about the Adsorption on solid beds.
*********************************
UNIT-IV LUBRICIATING
Part-A
1. What is the use of lubricating oil? (or) What are the essential functions of lubricants? (or) What is
the purpose of lubricating oil? (May 2013, Nov 2013)
Lubricating oil, sometimes simply called lubricant/lube, is a class of oils used to reduce the
friction, heat, and wear between mechanical components that are in contact with each other. Lubricating
oil is used in motorized vehicles, where it is known specifically as motor oil and transmission fluid. Its
use is to provide a thin film of oil between sliding surfaces, lubrication increases the mechanical
advantage, efficiency and the life of a machine.
2. What is deasphalting?
Deasphalting process is an extracting precipitation process which uses propane or butane or
pentane mixture of these to remove selectively asphalt resins from the heavier feed stock and dissolve
de-asphalted oil in the solvent.
3. What is meant by slack wax? State the applications of wax. (Nov 2013, April 2015)
A soft, oily, crude wax obtained from the pressing of petroleum paraffin distillate or wax
distillate. It is yellow to dark-colored crude paraffin wax that is separated from part of the oil in paraffin
distillate by chilling and pressing or by use of a solvent and that contains considerable residual oil.
i. Cosmetics
ii. Pharmaceutical industry
iii. Technical applications
iv. Blending and match industries
4. Name the various treatments adapted to manufacture for lubricating oil feed stocks. (April 2015)
i. Solvent deasphalting
ii. Solvent extraction
iii. Hydrocracking
iv. Solvent dewaxing and selective hydrocracking
5. Short notes on furfural extraction. (April 2014, April2016)
The process flow through the furfural extraction unit is similar to that of the propane deasphalting unit
except for the solvent recovery section, which is more complex. The oil feedstock is introduced into a
continuous counter-current extractor at a temperature which is a function of the viscosity of the feed; the
greater the viscosity, the higher the temperature used. The extraction unit is usually a raschig ring–packed
tower or a rotating disc contactor with a temperature gradient from top to bottom of 60 to 90°F (30 to 50°C).
The temperature at the top of the tower is a function of the miscibility temperature of the furfural and
oil. It is usually in the range 220 to 300°F (105 to 150°C). The oil phase is the continuous phase, and the
furfural-dispersed phase passes downward through the oil. Extract is recycled at a ratio of 0.5:1 to improve the
extraction efficiency.
6. Define Pour point. (May 2013, April 2014, April 2016)
The lowest temperature at which oil will flow under standardized test conditions is reported in 5 F or
3C increments as per the pour point of the oil. For motor oils, a low pour point is very important to obtain
ease of starting and proper start-up lubrication on cold days. There are two types of pour points, a viscosity
pour point and a wax pour point. The viscosity pour point is approached gradually as the temperature is
lowered and the viscosity of the oil increases until it will not flow under the standardized test conditions. The
wax pour point occurs abruptly as the paraffin wax crystals precipitate from solution and the oil solidifies.
Additives that affect wax crystal properties can be used to lower the pour point of paraffin base oil. A related
test is the cloud point, which reports the temperature at which wax or other solid materials begin to separate
from solution. For paraffinic oils, this is the staring temperature of crystallization of paraffin waxes.
7. What are the steps involved in the lube base oil manufacture?
i. Vacuum distillation
ii. Solvent deasphalting
iii. Removal of aromatics
iv. Removal of waxes
v. The removal of nitrogen, sulphur from the streams
8. What is deasphalting?
Deasphalting process is an extracting precipitation process which uses propane or butane or pentane
mixture of these to remove selectively asphalt resins from the heavier feed stock and dissolve de-asphalted oil
in the solvent.
9. Give the composition of lube oil. (Nov 2012, May 2019)
The hydrocarbon composition of new or used automotive lubricating oil sludge consists primarily of
saturated compounds such as linear and branched chain, paraffins, which have at least twice as many
naphthenes. Aromatics generally comprise about 10 to 15 weight percentage of the hydrocarbon base
material.
10. What are the unit washing operations in asphalt phase?
The solvent/asphalt phase ratio: a higher ratio makes the operation more effective Temperature: the
lower the temperature, the greater the amount of repeptized resins. The technology used: the washing zone
should be carefully designed and suitably be equipped.
11. What is solvent deasphalting process?
Solvent deasphalting (SDA) is a separation process in which residues are selectively separated by
molecular type by mixing with paraffinic solvents and precipitating out of solution asphaltenes and other
residue heavy components.
12. What are the uses of asphalt?
The C3 asphalts are used in the formulations for road bitumens or the components of industrial fuel
oils.C4 asphalts are poorer in resins or used as coke or coal, in electric power plants, limekilns and cement
furnaces.
13. What are the technologies used for base oil manufacture by hydroprocessing?
i. Isocracking
ii. Hydrofinishing
iii. Isodewaxing
14. What are the advantages of hydroprocessing routes to base oils?
i. Economically attractive lube yields from non-lube crudes
ii. Higher waxy lube yields
iii. Improved oxidation stability
 iv. Valuable fuel by products
15. What are the advantages of lube iso-cracking technology?
i. Ability to process very difficult crudes to produce high viscosity index base oils
ii. Superior catalysts
iii. Lower investments
iv. Easily converts to transportation fuel mode
16. What are attractive features of the iso cracking process of two stage operation?
i. Separates catalyst function for maximum effectiveness
ii. Produce maximum yields of gasoline stocks
iii. Heavy product naptha is good reformer feed
iv. Produces very high quality kerosene and diesel oil
v. Lowest cost cracker for higher capacity plants
17. What is the premium asphalt process technology?
It involves the catalytic polymerization of straight run asphalt using liquid catalysts supplemented by
air blowing and special inline blending techniques.
18. What are the advantages of lube iso-cracking catalysts?
i. High hydrogenation activity to preserve yield
ii. Layered catalyst system to extend run length
iii. Proper balance between hydrogenation and acidity
19. What are the properties required for the lube base stocks?
i. Viscosity index
ii. Pour point
iii. Stability for product
20. What are the unit operations used in the deasphalting process?
1. Flocculation and precipitation of the asphalt process
2. Asphalt decanting
3. Asphalt washing
21. What are the blending lube oils?
The raw lube oil has a boiling point of above 350degree Celsius and consists of following groups.
i. Sulphuric acid treatment
ii. Clay treatment
iii. Solvent refining
iv. Hydrotreatment
22. Define viscosity index. (Nov 2012, Nov 2014)
Viscosity index (VI) is a dimensionless number that represents how the viscosity of a hydraulic fluid
changes with temperature. It is mostly used to characterize the viscosity-temperature behavior of lubricating
oils. The lower the VI, the more the viscosity is affected by changes in temperature. The higher the VI, the
more stable the viscosity remains over temperature fluctuations. The VI was originally measured on a scale
from 0 to 100.
23. List out the different categories of lube oils. (Nov 2014)
There are 4 types of lubricants:
i. Oil
ii. Grease
iii. Penetrating Lubricants (oil-based, water-based, and silicone-based)
iv. Dry Lubricants
24. Give the characteristics of lube base stocks. (May 2012)
A good lubricant generally possesses the following characteristics:
 i. A high boiling point and low freezing point (in order to stay liquid within a wide range of
temperature)
ii. A high viscosity index.
iii. Thermal stability.
iv. Hydraulic stability.
v. Demulsibility.
vi. Corrosion prevention.
vii. A high resistance to oxidation.
25. Explain the role of lubricating oil additives. (May 2012)
The primary function of Lubricant additives is to improve the properties of the base stock under
different operating conditions and the high performance requirements of any machinery. Lubricant additives
are chemical components that need to blend well with the base oil to function as a single fluid.
Additives in lubricating oils
i. Friction modifiers.
ii. Anti-wear additives.
iii. Extreme pressure (EP) additives.
iv. Rust and corrosion inhibitors.
v. Anti-oxidants.
vi. Detergents.
vii. Dispersants.
viii. Pour point depressants.
Part-B
1. Explain the steps involved in the manufacture of lubricating oil with neat flow diagram. (Nov 2014)
2. What are the various chemical treatments applied to lubricating oils? (Nov 2014)
3. Write short notes on: i) Micro crystalline wax ii) Deoiling iii) Furfural extraction. (Nov 2014)
4. i) Write down the applications of lubricating oils. ii) Indicate the important process units and their brief
functions in a modern lube oil complex. (April 2015)
5. Explain the phenol extraction of lubes in detail with a neat flow diagram. (Nov 2012, May 2019)
6. Explain the furfural extraction of lubes in detail with a neat flow diagram (Nov 2012, April 2015, May
2019)
7. In detail explain the requirements of re-refined lube oil base stocks and industrial lubricating oils. (May
2012, April 2016)
8. Explain the following: (May 2012, May 2013, April 2016)
i. Mineral oil based lubricants.
ii. Synthetic lubricants
iii. Classification of synthetic base oil
iv. Basic functions of lubricants.
9. In detail explain the requirements of re-refined lube oil base stocks and industrial lubricating oils. (May
2012)
10. What are the lubricating oils? Explain the important properties of lubricating oil. (May 2013, April 2015)
11. Why dearomatisation of lube oil is adapted? (April 2015)
12. What are the properties we have to consider in lube oil blending stocks? (April 2014)
13. Explain NMP extraction unit using steam-stripping for solvent recovery. (April 2014)
14. How can produce food grade wax (paraffin) from lube stock? Explain with neat flow diagram. (Nov 2013)
15. Write a note on deoiling of wax. (Nov 2013)
16. Describe the dearomatisation of lube base stocks to manufacture high viscosity index lubricants with neat
diagram. Mention the additives with their applications. (Nov 2013)
17. Explain the solvent extraction process to improve the viscosity index of lubricating oil. (May 2013)
18. Explain solvent deasphalting process with a neat sketch.
19. Write the properties of petroleum waxes and explain the types, manufacture of petroleum wax.
20. Write different classes of petroleum bitumens.
21. Write the properties, types and industrial applications of petroleum coke.
22. What are synthetic lubricants and explain about base oils for synthetic lubricants.
23. Explain the properties and performance of automotive engine oils.
24. With neat sketch, explain the working principle and construction of acid clay process.
25. Write about industrial lubricating oils and explain electrical insulating oils.
26. Write the manufacturing process about white oils. Explain steam turbine oils in detail.
27. Write about metal working oils and explain cutting oils.
*********************************
UNIT-V COST EVALUATION
1. How can you increase the economy of the petroleum products? (April 2015)
Economy of the petroleum products can be increased by ensuring the complete combustion of the
petroleum products in the process. Incomplete combustion and partial combustion leads to less energy out
come and drastically affects the economy of the process.
The factors affecting refinery cost:
i. Refinery complexity
ii. Capacity utilization or stream factor
iii. Refinery size
iv. Quality of the crude
v. Location
vi. Environmental constraints.
2. What are petrochemicals? (April 2015)
Petrochemicals are chemical products derived from petroleum. Some chemical compounds made from
petroleum are also obtained from other fossil fuels, such as coal or natural gas, or renewable sources such as
corn or sugar cane.
The two most common petrochemical classes are olefins (including ethylene and propylene) and
aromatics (including benzene, toluene and xylene isomers).
3. How will you meet the demands of the petroleum products? (Nov 2014)
Demand for the petroleum products are ever increasing due to increase in the energy consumption
which is directly proportional to the population. Exploring new petroleum fields, increasing the process
efficiencies in crude production, transportation, refining and storage are conventional methods of catering the
demands of the petroleum products.
4. Why are secondary refining processes necessary? (Nov 2014, April 2016)
Secondary refining processes are very much necessary to upgrade the feed stock from primary refining

5. How to classify the capital cost estimates in an industrial process plants? (May 2013, April 2014)
All capital cost estimates of industrial process plants can be classified as one of four types:
i. Rule-of-thumb estimates
ii. Cost-curve estimates.
iii. Major equipment factor estimates
iv. Definitive estimates
6. Define pay out time. (or) Write the formula used to calculate the pay-out time for a project. (Nov
2012, April 2014, May 2019)
The pay-out time is the payback period that gives cash recovery period in years.
 Total Investment
Pay out time =
Annual Cash Flow
Annual cash flow = Cash Inflow – Expenditures
7. Write about the economy of the crude? (Nov 2013)
Technically economy of the crude depends on the cost of production of crude and the quality of crude.
As the cost of recovery is highly controlled, then economy favours the manufacturer. But various others
geopolitical and economic events affects the economy of the crude.
8. How will you treat the effluents of oil-emulsions? (Nov 2013)
Effluents of oil emulsions are great threat to aquatic life in the water bodies. Oil emulsions are to
treated with surfactants to break the emulsion and then oil has to be recovered from the effluent.
9. How cost analysis is done?
The cost analysis will include the estimation of costs associated with the procurement of raw materials,
production equipment, operation, maintenance, labour and product marketing.
10. List the factors to be considered for the evaluation of a refinery? (May 2013)
Following factors plays a vital role in evaluating a refinery:
i. Location
ii. Crude sourcing
iii. Product market outlets
iv. Logistic flexibility
v. Environmental safety and Health factors
vi. Proximity to industrial hubs.
11. What are direct and indirect costs? (May 2013)
Direct cost include purchase of equipments, Installation, instrumentation, Piping, electrical equipments
etc. Indirect costs includes Engineering and supervision, construction expenses, contractors fee,
contingency..etc.
12. Explain cost recovery with suitable example. (May 2012)
Cost recovery, defined as the method to recovering an expenditure which a business takes on, is both a
specific and general term. Generally, cost recovery is simply recovering the the costs of any given expense. In
the case of petroleum crude refining both direct and indirect costs involved in the production of various
petroleum products are to be recovered by selling the products in the market.
13. Give suitable example and explain value creation. (May 2012)
Value creation is the performance of actions that increase the worth of goods, services or even a
business. In petroleum industry crude worth only few dollars is converted to different products worth several
folds though different process. This is value creation.
14. What do you mean by ad valorem tax? (Nov 2012)
The broad based energy tax would be an ad valorem tax on oil, natural gas, coal and electricity, equal to
5 percent of the final sale price of each. An equivalent tax would be placed on all imports of these energy
sources.
15. What are the steps involved in the economic evaluation of reused petroleum products?
i. Examination of existing economic and optimization structure of industries.
ii. Examination of production and potential use.
iii. Collection of information of other possible recycling and reuse strategies.
16. What is the cost comparison of singe stage regenerator system with that of the two stage system?
Single stage regenerator system would be significantly lower in capital cost than a two stage system. As
a result of partial combustion in the first stage, less air is required. This leads to a considerable savings in air
 blower/driver investment and power requirements. The flue gas cooler will be essentially the same or smaller
than that required for a single stage system.
17. What is meant by cost analysis? (May 2019)
In general terms, cost evaluation is the process of determining how resources are used. It can be on any
scale, from as focused as one single project or unit of an organization, to broad, comparative studies of
resource allocation in a whole network of organizations. Generally, a cost evaluation is only one part of a
broader cost-benefit analysis, with the goal of determining whether resources are being used efficiently.
18. What are the developments involved in the separation technologies?
i. Distillations
ii. Progressive distillations
iii. Extraction
iv. Gamma scanning
19. What are the future developments for the economy?
i. Flow sheeting, simulation and process modelling
ii. Catalysts
iii. Property and equilibrium data generation
iv. Reactor and special equipment development and design
20. What are the various technologies are available for the recovery of oil?
i. Hot gas oil circulation for the sludge in the crude tanks
ii. Sludge melting pits
iii. Use of chemical / biosurfactants
21. What are the various options to upgrade product quality?
i. Lead phase down
ii. Benzene content
iii. Sulphur content
iv. Cetane number
v. Distillation range
22. How will you meet the demand of petroleum products? (April 2016)
By 2040, it is expected that a diverse range of energy sources will be in use, and petroleum and other
fossil fuels will account for just a quarter of total global energy production. ... The electrification of modern
transportation and other technology is also making it more convenient to adopt renewable energy.
Demand. Other important factors that affect demand for oil include transportation (both commercial
and personal), population growth, and seasonal changes. For instance, oil use increases during busy summer
travel seasons and in the winters, when more heating fuel is consumed.
With Over 6000 products and counting, petroleum continues to be a crucial requirement for all
consumers.
Part-B
1. Discuss in detail about the economic evaluation of petroleum products (petroleum refineries). (May 2012,
April 2015)
2. Explain the reusability of petroleum products and how the effluents can be treated in refineries. (April
2015)
3. Discuss the cost evaluation of petroleum products from refinery. (Nov 2014)
4. What are the critical data required to arrive at a need for additional refining capacity? Write down the
Economy. (Nov 2014, May 2019)
5. Explain the cost-curve methods in detail. (April 2014)
6. Briefly explain about discounted cash flow rate of return. (April 2014)
7. Explain the Cost-Curve methods in detail. (April 2016)
8. Briefly explain the discounted cash flow rate of return. (April 2016)
9. Discuss the crude economy and cost evaluation in detail. (Nov 2013)
10. Give an account of the various uses of petroleum products and their derivatives. (Nov 2013)
11. Explain the various stages in the capital cost estimation of a petroleum refinery. (May 2013)
12. How the equipment costs are estimated by capacity ratio exponents? (May 2013)
13. Explain the economic study of an oil field development project. Give a suitable case study. (May 2012)
14. Discuss the capital cost estimate procedures for a refining industry. (Nov 2012)

15. Discuss the following in detail: (Nov 2012)

i) Economic analysis over an extended period of time.
ii) Economic analysis at one point in time.
16. What is the petroleum reused products and their usage? (May 2019)
17. How the efficiency of the petroleum plant increases with respect to the waste product utilization?
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