Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11

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Applied Soil Ecology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apsoil

Review

Returning biochar to fields: A review MARK

a,⁎ b c d
Zhongxin Tan , Carol S.K. Lin , Xiaoyan Ji , Thomas J. Rainey
a
College of Resources and Environment, Huazhong Agricultural University, 430070, Wuhan, PR China
b
School of Energy and Environment, City University of Hong Kong,Tat Chee Avenue, Kowloon, Hong Kong
c
Division of Energy Science, Lulea University of Technology, 97187, Lulea, Sweden
d
School of Chemistry, Physics and Mechanical Engineering, Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology,2 George Street, Brisbane, Queensland
4000, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Biochar generated from thermochemical conversion of biomass reduces greenhouse gas emissions and is useful
Biochar for improving ecological systems in agriculture. However, certain biochars function well in improving soil, and
Returning biochar to soil other biochars do not. Why? Because it is not clear how to prepare the best biochar for soil. There is a disconnect
Systematic analysis of biochar return between biochar preparation and returning the biochar to the soil. To elucidate this relationship, this paper
Physicochemical properties of biochar
reviews (i) technologies for preparing biochar, (ii) how preparation conditions affect biochar properties, and (iii)
Nutrient cycling
the effects on soil physical and chemical properties. In addition to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, biochar
improves the physicochemical and microbial properties of soil and absorbs poisonous and pernicious substances.
Therefore, as biochar is produced by pyrolysis, optimizing processing conditions to improve its properties for
agricultural use is a key issue explored in this article.

1. Introduction et al., 2011). This approach improves the biochemical conversion

Returning biochar to fields is a potentially valuable agricultural
practice that affects the physical and chemical properties of the soil,
reduces greenhouse gas (CO2, CH4 and N2O) emissions (Rondon et al.,
2005; Lehmann and Joseph, 2009; Spokas et al., 2009), and improves
the microbial health of soil. It benefits agriculture, the economy and the
environment (Meng et al., 2010), a trilogy of benefits.
Biochar is generated by low-temperature pyrolysis of biomass under
anoxic or hypoxic conditions (i.e., low oxygen environments) and it
contains more than 50% carbon (C) (Lehmann, 2007a,b). Its carbon
content is typically 70%–80% (except for biochar derived from manure,
sewage sludge and paper sludge). In addition to carbon, biochar is
composed of oxygen, nitrogen and other elements. Chemically, biochar
is mainly comprised of alkyl and aromatic compounds and is relatively
stable; biochar can be preserved for hundreds of years (Zhang et al.,
2009a,b; Lehmann et al., 2006; Lehmann, 2007a,b). Generally, biochar
consists of particles with low density (Masulili et al., 2010; Yamato
et al., 2006; Yoshizawa et al., 2007) and thus returning it to soils can
reduce soil bulk density, increase soil softness and improve the soil
terrene. By adding biochar, the soil is better able to retain moisture and
the soil quality improves in terms of various carbon and energy sources
as well as mineral nutrition for the development and reproduction of
microbes (Warnock et al., 2007; Saito and Marumoto, 2002; Meng
processes in the soil, increasing soil fertility by improving nutrient
absorption by plants, which can promote the growth and ripening of
crops (Wardle et al., 1998; Schmidt and Noack, 2000; Glaser et al.,
2001). The main effect of returning biochar to fields in the long term is
a boost in soil fertility (Glaser et al., 2002; Steiner et al., 2008) and
improvement of cation exchange capacity (CEC), porosity, moisture and
pH (Lehmann et al., 2006; Glaser et al., 2002).
There is a large body of research relating to biochar. Most
researchers focus on the function of returning biochar to soil but this
is insufficient. The biochar research must systemically consider biochar
preparation through its return to the soil. This paper reviews the entire
process from biochar preparation to returning the biochar, which is
very important for analysis of how to prepare the best biochar to
effectively improve the chemical and physical properties of soil. The
objective is to solve the disconnect between biochar preparation and
returning the biochar to soil.
2. Biochar preparation technologies
Biochar is generated by thermochemical conversion of biomass in
oxygen-limited or anoxic conditions (Zhang et al., 2010a,b). Converting
biomass into biochar involves biomass drying, grinding, pyrolysis and
separation (Pan et al., 2010). The technologies used for biomass

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tanzx1977@163.com (Z. Tan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2017.03.017
Received 21 September 2016; Accepted 22 March 2017
0929-1393/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Z. Tan et al.
Table 1
Summary of pyrolysis technologies (Wang et al., 2012; Duku et al., 2011; Jones et al., 2011).
Pyrolysis technology Advantages
Batch preparation Economical
Low requirement for equipment
Continuous preparation High biomass production rates
Some of the by-products can be recycled
Easy to operate
Fast pyrolysis Short retention time
Medium-speed pyrolysis Moderate required temperature, retention time and energy consumption
Slow pyrolysis Low energy consumption, low temperature, high carbon yield
pyrolysis include fast pyrolysis, medium-speed pyrolysis and slow
pyrolysis (see Table 1).
2.1. Main factors influencing biochar properties
The properties of biochar depend on the raw materials (Qin, 2012)
and the thermochemical conversion conditions (Zhang et al., 2013)
including temperature, oxygen level and reaction time (Gundale and
Deluca, 2006). Biochar ash contains metal alkalinity and thus the pH of
biochar reflects the ash content (Jiang et al., 2013a,b) whereas the
cation exchange capacity (CEC) of biochar is related to its surface area,
the presence of carboxyl functional groups, the raw biomass material
used and the preparation temperature.
2.1.1. Raw material
At a given pyrolysis temperature, the stability of biochar varies with
the type of biomass (Bridgwater, 2003; Masek et al., 2013; Scheer et al.,
2011; Jones et al., 2011) such as soybean straw and peanut straw (Yuan
et al., 2011).
Fig. 1-1 illustrates the ash content of various types of raw biomass
and their biochars. The ash content of biochar is generally related to
that of the raw material. Among the materials studied, the ash content
of biochar prepared from straw is the highest, increasing from 10.4 wt%
in straw to 34.2 wt% in the corresponding biochar. The ash content of
biochar prepared from walnut shells is 10% higher and the ash content
is approximately 3.5% higher for bamboo sawdust. There are many
alkaline ions in the ash and their presence increases the soil pH.
The yields of biochar for different raw materials are shown in Fig.1-
2. At 600 °C, the biochar yield of grass stalk is the highest, 16.1 wt%,
which is almost the same as that of wood. The biochar yield of rapeseed
is the lowest, approximately 8.5 wt% less than that of grass stalk. The
biochar yield is related to the content of cellulose and lignin in the
biomass (Lv et al., 2008). The more lignin and less cellulose in the raw
biomass material, the higher the biochar yield (Jiang, 2001; Lehmann
et al., 2008; Mok et al., 1992).
2.1.2. Reaction time
The residence time affects biochar properties. The average pore size
Fig. 1. 1-1 Ash content before and after biomass material carbonization. 1–2 Biochar yield of different biomass raw materials.
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Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11
Disadvantages
Low biomass production rates, causes environmental pollution
High cost, complex equipment
High required temperature, facility requirements, low carbon yield
Limited carbon yield
Low rates
of biochar is shown in Fig. 2-1 . The average pore size of biochar
increases as the residence time increases from 10 to 20 min. When the
residence time is 20 min, the average pore size of biochar is 0.1232 μm,
corresponding to an 8.45% higher pore size than for 10 min. Increasing
the residence time from 20 to 30 min is associated with a decrease in
the average pore size. The pore size decreases 3.57% between 20 and
30 min. The pore structure of biochar is closely connected to its average
pore size and the pore structure is a primary factor affecting its
adsorption ability. Therefore, pore characteristics are a major contri-
butor to the properties of biochar (Ma et al., 1998). The pore structure
of biochar can be adjusted by controlling the residence time because
there is a critical time for biomass material carbonization.
The ash content increases with increasing residence time (Figs. 2-2)
because longer residence times drive off more volatile components,
leaving behind ash material. After 60 min, the ash content is 15.7 wt%,
which corresponds to an increase in ash content of 128% compared
with 20 min. Therefore, a long residence time is preferred to achieve
better carbonization. However, as mentioned above, increasing the
residence time beyond 20 min decreases the biochar pore size and
consequently its adsorption ability. In addition, it may be uneconomical
to run the conversion process for such a long residence time. As biomass
carbonization is an endothermic reaction, longer residence times mean
more energy consumption and higher operating costs. Therefore,
selection of an appropriate residence time is important.
2.1.3. Reaction temperature
The reaction temperature greatly affects biochar properties (Putun
et al., 2005). In general, higher temperatures reduce yield with more
liquid and gaseous substances produced but they can improve biochar
quality as good biochar has many nutrients (such as N, P, and K),
abundant pore structure and large surface area (Lehmann et al., 2006).
As shown in Fig. 3-1 , the specific surface area of biochar increases
with increasing temperature. The specific surface area of biochar is
0.16 m2/g at 300° C and 110 m2/g at 400 °C, i.e., the specific surface
area increases by 109.84 m2/g from 300 °C to 400 °C. With increasing
temperature, the specific surface area increases rapidly from 300 °C to
500 °C and increases relatively slowly above 500 °C. The specific
surface area is probably related to the structure of the untreated
Z. Tan et al.
Fig. 2. 2-1 Effect of residence time on average biochar pore size. 2-2 Effect of residence time on the ash content of biochar.
biomass, the distribution and size of the pores, and the density of the
biochar. In general, biochar with a large specific surface area has a
narrow micro-pore distribution with good pore structure and adsorp-
tion ability. The larger the specific surface area, the better the proper-
ties of the biochar. It can be seen in Fig. 3-2 that the organic carbon
content of biochar decreases gradually with increasing reaction tem-
perature. The organic carbon content is 564.02 g/kg at 300 °C, and it
decreases by 28.03% at 450 °C and by 54.02% at 600 °C. If biochar is
returned to the soil, the organic carbon in the biochar increases the
organic carbon content of the soil, contributing to the mitigation of
greenhouse gas emissions (Cang et al., 2012). Increasing the tempera-
ture has a positive effect on the surface area whereas it has a negative
effect on the organic carbon content and thus it is crucial to choose an
appropriate reaction temperature for biochar preparation (Chun et al.,
2004).
Through a review of biochar preparation technologies, we found
that the biochar preparation technologies corresponding to soil im-
provement are extremely insufficient and that most biochar preparation
technologies are for biomass energy, not for improving soil. Therefore,
we need to find good working conditions for biochar preparation for
soil improvement, not for producing energy products.
3. Biochar properties
The elemental composition and spatial structure of biochar are
related to the raw materials and reaction conditions (section 2; Lu et al.,
2013). The higher the biochar porosity, the larger the specific surface
area (Zhang et al., 2009a,b). Both macro-elements (e.g., N, P and K) and
microelements are found in biochar (Cornelissen 2005; Liang et al.
2006; Zwieten et al., 2009).
Fig. 3. 3-1 Influence of temperature on the specific surface area of biochar. 3-2 Influence of temperature on the organic carbon content of biochar.
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Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11
3.1. Biochar microstructure
The carbonaceous framework of biochar is illustrated in Fig. 4-1 The
surface of biochar is typically a rectangular pore structure, unlike the
original feedstock (see Fig. 4-2 for a comparison with straw). The
micro-porous structure of biochar plays an important role in improve-
ment of the specific surface area and absorption ability (Lin et al.,
2009). Large pores can promote soil breathability, increase the water
content of soil and provide space for microbial growth and reproduc-
tion. Small pores can improve the adsorption capacity of biochar (Yuan
and Xu, 2011a, 2011b). Biochar can also absorb poisonous and
pernicious substances in soils through its pores. In addition, the
abundant pore structures of biochar can affect the infiltration route
and water velocity in the soil and the high moisture content can
enhance fixation of soil nutrients (Wang et al., 2012; Gao et al., 2013).
3.2. Elemental content
Biochar mainly contains C, H, O, N, S and other trace elements
(Alexis et al., 2007; Yuan et al., 2011). The elemental composition of
biochar is listed in Table 2. The C content of wood biochar and bamboo
biochar is high, up to 56% higher than in biochars prepared from other
materials. For all types of biochar, the N content is less than 3 wt%, the
H content is slightly above that of N, the O content reaches a maximum
content of 52.37 wt%, and the S content is lower than 1 wt%. The
remaining fraction is ash that contains Na, Mg, K, Ca and other mineral
elements (Liu et al., 2009). Biochar can be aromatic, oxidation state
carbon or aliphatic (Abdul et al., 2010; Yuan et al., 2004; Schmidt and
Noack, 2000), with more O than N or H. It is important to estimate the
values of H/C and O/C (Sassner et al., 2006). The H/C value reflects the
Z. Tan et al. Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11

Fig. 4. 4-1 Microscopic surface scan of biochar. 4-2 Microscopic surface scan of straw.

aromatization of organic matter whereas the O/C value reflects the
content of superficial polar functional groups, the hydrophilicity and
the stability of biochar in soils (Spokas, 2010; Accardi-Dey and
Gschwend, 2002).
The mineral nutrients in biochar increase the nutritional value of
the soil it is applied to, such as the Ca and Mg, which is particularly
good for sterile and sandy soils (He et al., 2011). The microelement
content of different types of biochar is listed in Table 3. The Ca content
is slightly higher than those of other elements. The Na content is
relatively low (0.008%). Basic ions in biochar directly affect soil pH. It
is likely that biochar improves the salt-alkali saturation of soil. The
primary questions are (i) if ions such as Ca2+, K+, or Mg2+ are released
after returning biochar to soil; (ii) if the content of exchangeable metal
elements such as Al, Cu, or Fe decreases; and (iii) if the availability of
plant essential elements such as Ca and Mg is enhanced. Returning
biochar to soils increases the absorption of nutritive elements by the
plants and reduces the effects of harmful elements such as Cd, Pb, As
heavy metals (Li et al., 2011). These base-ions can exchange with H+
and Al3+ in soils, lowering their concentrations and further increasing
soil pH (Van et al., 2010).

Table 2
Elemental composition of biochar.

Sample name C/wt% N/wt% H/wt% O/wt% S/wt% H/C O/C Reference

Rice straw charcoal−300° 44.99 1.02 3.04 50.263 0.687 0.811 – Lu et al. (2013)
Rice straw charcoal−500° 44.9 0.84 1.982 51.411 0.867 0.530 – Lu et al. (2013)
Rice straw charcoal 61.02 2.29 1.84 34.85 – 0.36 0.43 Ma (2013)
Rice straw charcoal 56.61 1.37 – – 0.57 – – Zhang (2012a,b,c)
Rice straw charcoal 51.3 2.62 2.62 45.0 0.36 0.61 0.66 Liu (2011)
Rice straw charcoal 46.9 2.08 1.34 12.3 0.075 0.34 0.20 Lü et al. (2012)
Rice straw charcoal 63.27 0.62 – 14.89 – – – Jiang et al. (2013a,b)
Rice straw charcoal 72.1 1.55 5.03 21.3 – 0.84 0.22 Wu et al. (2012)
Rice straw charcoal 66.84 1.88 4.22 27.05 – – – Chen et al. (2013)
Rice straw charcoal 51.3 0.01 0.03 – 0.004 0.61 – Dong et al. (2013)
Rice straw charcoal 61.60 0.16 3.42 34.82 – – –
Rice straw charcoal 69.6 1.5 2.1 7.1 – 0.02 0.08 Bruun et al. (2012)
Corn straw charcoal 70.38 1.53 – – 0.65 – – Zhang (2012a,b,c)
Corn straw charcoal 63.5 0.71 3.77 21.62 0.44 0.64 0.26 Herath and Hedley (2013)
Corn straw charcoal 29.5 0.6 1.6 7.9 0.02 – – Catherine et al. (2011)
Corn straw charcoal 41.6 0.4 1.5 8.1 – – 1.43 Hale et al. (2011)
Corn Straw charcoal 55.6 1.2 5.1 38.0 – 1.1 0.51 Zhou et al. (2011)
Bamboo charcoal 83.2 2.28 2.28 13.9 0.05 0.33 0.13
Bamboo charcoal 62.61 0.75 0.02 16.91 0.75 – – Gao et al. (2013)
Bamboo charcoal 63.19 0.56 4.86 30.04 – – – Wang et al. (2010)
Bamboo charcoal 83.2 0.006 0.023 – 0.0005 – – Dong et al. (2013)
Wheat straw charcoal 69.1 – 3.1 26.5 – 0.54 0.29 Wu et al. (2007)
Wheat straw charcoal 57.52 0.47 – 14.26 – – – Jiang et al. (2013a,b)
Wheat straw charcoal 45.2 – 0.047 33.2 0.01 – – Bruun et al. (2011)
Cotton stalk charcoal 47.46 0.86 3.18 39.97 0.40 – – Xiong et al. (2013)
Cotton straw charcoal 54.86 1.39 4.47 39.28 – – – Li et al. (2013)
Wood charcoal 70.65 0.2 3.37 21.3 – – – Herath and Hedley (2013)
Wood charcoal 85.6 – 1.3 7.8 – – – Jablonowski et al. (2013)
Wood charcoal 81.13 0.69 2.36 13.15 0.69 – – Gao et al. (2013)
Wood charcoal 70.65 0.20 3.37 21.3 – 0.57 0.23 Zhang et al. (2009a,b)
Bagasse charcoal 76.45 0.79 2.93 19.83 – – – Liu et al. (2009)
Willow branch charcoal 37.5 0.5 2.2 8.9 0.16 – – Catherine et al. (2011)
Rapeseed plant straw charcoal 71.34 1.43 3.93 10.84 0.24 0.66 0.11 Karaosmanoglu et al. (2000)
Organic waste charcoal 41.38 2.92 1.72 52.37 0.41 0.499 0.949 Zhang (2012a,b,c)

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Table 3
Metal content in biochar.

Sample name Na(wt%) Mg(wt%) Al(wt%) Ca(wt%) Fe(wt%) Reference

Rice straw biochar 0.29 1.04 0.23 0.5 0.18

Wheat straw biochar 0.1 0.9 5.5 0.5 3.6 Xu et al. (2013a)
Wheat straw biochar 0.096 0.22 0.031 1.03 0.18 Xu et al. (2013b)
Corn straw biochar 0.02 1.25 0.2 0.58 0.11
Corn straw biochar 0.066 0.49 0.086 0.84 0.73 Xu et al. (2013a,b)
Soybean straw biochar 0.03 0.9 0.15 4.63 0.20 Moon et al. (2013)
Wood biochar 1 2.7 0.98 17 2.9 Lehmann and Joseph (2009)
Oak biochar 0.64 1.6 0.1 35 0.34 Lehmann and Joseph (2009)
Cellulosic biomass biochar 0.008 0.015 0.0163 0.46 0.11 Dumroese et al. (2011)
Sugarcane biochar 0.03 0.13 0.81 0.26 – Quirk et al. (2012)
Livestock waste biochar – – – 72.6 6.2 Wang (2013)

Fig. 6. CEC content of various types of biochar.

Fig. 5. The pH of various types of biochar. 3.3.3. Physical properties

3.3. Physical and chemical properties of biochar
3.3.1. pH
The pH of biochar depends on the biomass materials and the
preparation conditions. The pH of biochar prepared from different
types of biomass is shown in Fig. 5. It is always greater than 7, so
biochar is alkaline. The pH of biochar from rice straw reaches a
maximum of 10.6, which is 11.2% higher than that of bamboo biochar.
The pH of biochar prepared from wheat straw is almost the same as that
of bamboo biochar. The pH of biochar is related to the ash content and
a higher ash content results in a higher pH (Lehmann, 2007a,b). As
shown in Fig. 1-1, the ash content of straw biochar is the highest and
the pH of straw biochar is also the highest, as shown in Fig. 5. This
observation is consistent with observations reported in the literature
(Yuan et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2010).
The high porosity of biochar is explained by the large specific
surface area (Lehmann et al., 2003). The specific surface area of
biochar, which depends on the total surface area and the volume of
the micro-pores, is the key to enhancing the adsorption ability. In Fig. 7,
the specific surface area and the corresponding micro-pore volume of
three types of biochar are compared. The specific surface area and the
micro-pore volume of biochar from switch-grass are lower than those of
other types of biochar. The specific surface area and micro-pore volume
of oak biochar are almost the same as those of larch biochar. Their
specific surface areas are 145.5% higher and their micro-pore volumes
are approximately 762.5% higher than those of switch-grass biochar.
The pore structure, including the specific surface area and micro-pore
volume of biochar, can be quite different based on the type of biomass
used for biochar preparation.
Although this research of biochar properties concerns soil improve-
ment, the researchers only detected the biochar properties and used the
biochar to improve the soil. We found that there is a disconnect

3.3.2. Cation exchange capacity (CEC)

The cation exchange capacity (CEC) of biochar influences soil
fertility. The CEC of biochar also affects the CEC of the soil it is applied
to, which improves the physical and chemical properties of the soil.
Biochar CEC is mainly a consequence of the biochar preparation
temperature. After biochar is returned to the soil, the functional groups
on the surface are oxidized and superficial CEC increases (Lehmann
et al., 2008; Liang et al., 2006). The CEC for biochar prepared from
different types of biomass is depicted in Fig. 6. The CEC of biochar
prepared from wood is very high, 77.5 cmol/kg, whereas the CECs of
other biochars are generally between 5 and 10 cmol/kg. The different
CEC contents of different types of biochar is probably due to the various
materials used in its preparation, the different reaction temperature or
the different functional groups on the surface of the biochar. The CEC
reaches a maximum when the surface area of the biochar is the largest
(Gaskin et al., 2007). Fig. 7. Micro-pore surface area and volume of biochar.

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Z. Tan et al. Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11

between the biochar preparation and returning the biochar to soil.

Therefore, researchers of biochar properties must systematically con-
sider the effect of biochar preparation work conditions on the biochar
properties for soil improvement. In doing so, biochar research can solve
the problem of soil improvement.

4. Effect of biochar on soil quality

4.1. Influences on soil physical properties

Biochar affects soil physical properties such as soil compaction,

porosity, permeability, density, and water content (Chan, 2007;
Kishimoto and Flanagan, 1985).
Fig. 9. Influence of returning biochar and straw to the field on soil water content.

4.1.1. Soil compaction

The germination rate of seeds is related to the compaction of soils. A
decrease in compaction promotes the elongation growth of plant roots
and the activity of soil organisms (Bengough and Mullins, 1990).
4.1.2. Soil porosity
The soil porosity can be improved by returning regular straw
directly to fields (Yao et al., 2001). Han et al. found that the soil
porosity increased by 2% when straw was returned. Soil porosity is
more effectively increased if biochar is used. Oguntunde et al. found
that soil porosity increased from 47.5% to 50.6% after biochar
application (Oguntunde et al., 2008). Increasing soil porosity can
improve the environmental conditions of the soil and promote plant
growth (Jiang, 2001).
4.1.3. Soil density and bulk density
Biochar reduces soil density (Major et al., 2010), as shown in Fig. 8-
1 . When the volume ratio of biochar to soil is 1:15, the soil density is
slightly reduced compared to CK. When the ratio is greater than 1:15,
the soil density declines more quickly. When the ratio is 2:3, the soil
density decreases to 2.55 g/cm3.
Soil bulk density is an indicator of soil fertility and hardness. Low
soil bulk density is characterized by a higher number of pores whereas
high soil bulk density indicates hard soil, fewer pores and poor soil
structure. High bulk density results in a low ventilatory capacity that
can further restrain the growth of roots, influencing nutrient and water
absorption. Soil bulk density decreases with increasing biochar use, as
shown Fig. 8-2. This is similar to its effect on regular soil density. When
biochar is added at 200 g/kg, the soil bulk density is 1.05 g/cm3, which
is 20.45% lower than CK. Therefore, biochar reduces soil bulk density
and increases porosity to improve air permeability, optimize soil
structure and promote crop growth.
4.1.4. Soil water content
Biochar increases the water, air and nutrient levels in soil (Downie
et al., 2009). Biochar is hydrophobic when the surface is oxidized (Bond
and Sun, 2005; Bornemann et al., 2007), so both the water absorbance
and water-holding capacity increase (Cheng et al., 2006). The water
content of soils is also influenced by the soil texture, structure and the
amount of organic matter. Biochar changes the water-holding capacity
of soil by changing the soil porosity and agglomerate level (Glaser et al.,
2002; Liu, 1988; Yang, 1996). Fig. 9 shows a comparison between the
water content of soils after use of biochar and regular straw. For both
cases, the water content in soil increases with the amount of material
added. When the application ratio changes from CK to 1/15, the water
content is very similar for both biochar and straw. However, when the
ratio of added material changes to the highest ratio studied (2:3), the
water content increases to 56% for the biochar sample, which is 18.7%
higher than for straw. In summary, returning biochar to soils is more
conducive to increasing the water content of soils than straw. Biochar
has a better water-holding capacity because of its internal structure.
4.2. Influences on soil chemical properties
The chemical properties of soil can be improved by using biochar
(Yao et al., 2001). A complicated biochemical process occurs due to
microbe and enzyme function. This process promotes the material cycle
and energy flow of organic and inorganic matter and the soil organic
matter can be used to fertilize the soil.
4.2.1. C, N, AP, and P contents of soil
Fig. 10 shows the influence of biochar prepared at different
pyrolysis temperatures on the organic carbon (OC), N, available
phosphorous (AP), and P in soils. The total N content of soils does
not vary within the temperature range studied (below 500 °C). How-
ever, biochar can (1) promote the mineralization, fixation and trans-
formation of organic nitrogen in soils, (2) change the distribution of
organic nitrogen, and (3) enhance the nitrogen cycle from soils to plants
(Gundale and Deluca, 2007; Jin et al., 1991; Rovira et al., 2009).

Fig. 8. 8-1 Influence of biochar ratio on soil particle density. 8-2 Influence of biochar on soil bulk density.

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Z. Tan et al. Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11

Fig. 10. Influence of pyrolysis temperature on the C, N, AP, and P content of soil.

Biochar increases the nitrogen content by promoting nitrogen-fixing

Fig. 12. Influence of returning biochar to the field on the pH of different soils.
microorganisms; leguminous plants also provide nitrogen for soil
microbes. These factors promote growth and propagation by increasing
biochar application. The pH of soil increases for these three meta-acid
the soil nitrogen content.
soils after returning biochar: the pH of Hainan red soil increased by
As shown in Fig. 10, biochar increases the OC content of soil (O-
approximately 0.85; Hainan Kunlun red soil increased by 0.75; and
Neill et al., 2009) and promotes the utilization of organic carbons in
Guangxi red soil increased by 0.61. This soil pH effect is probably due
soils. The total P content of soil is nearly unchanged but the AP content
to the basic cations (e.g., potassium, calcium and magnesium) in
increases significantly if biochar is prepared at temperatures greater
biochar decreasing the exchangeable ions of aluminium and hydrogen
than 300 °C. The increasing amount of available phosphorus potentially
by adsorption (Zwieten et al., 2010; Novak et al., 2009).
results from the oxidation and combination of Al and Fe in soils with
biochar, which releases the constrained P to increase the available
4.2.4. Active soil organic matter (ASOM)
phosphorus in soils (Deluca et al., 2009; Hou et al., 2004).
Soil organic matter (SOM) is the primary source of soil nutrients.
SOM promotes the activity of soil microbes and the absorption of
4.2.2. Soil CEC
nitrogen and reduces nitrogen losses via volatilization (Mary et al.,
A charge occurs on the surface of biochar, which results in
1996). In addition, SOM can improve soil structure and physical
electrostatic adsorption when biochar is in contact with the soil. The
properties, stimulating the growth and development of crops. Active
oxygen active groups on the biochar surface, such as —COOH or —OH,
soil organic matter (ASOM) is an important soil component that
react with metal cations in the soil and form metal ion complexes.
influences dissolved organic carbon (DOC), microbial biomass and
These functional groups also absorb H+ and thus affect soil pH (Gan
light-fraction organic matter. ASOM can affect the soil material cycle
et al., 2012). The oxygen active groups on the biochar surface are
and improve soil quality. It is an early indicator of changes in organic
negatively charged and thus biochar has a high CEC. Using biochar
matter caused by soil management measures. ASOM provides nitrogen,
increases soil CEC (Fig. 11). CEC is an important indicator of soil
phosphorus, sulphur and other nutrients required by plants, stabilizes
quality. A high CEC indicates a high capacity for nutrient fixation,
the soil and maintains the stability of the granular structure (Wang
which is beneficial for plant growth. When the ratio of biochar addition
et al., 2005). ASOM is affected by soil texture, water content,
is 1:100, the CEC of soil increases by 0.92 cmol/kg compared to CK and
temperature and other factors and is also related to the soil pH and CEC.
CEC continues to increase with the addition of biochar. Returning
The SOM content increases with biochar addition, as shown in
biochar to soils improves soil CEC.
Fig. 13-1 . When the addition of biochar is 5%, the organic matter
reaches a maximum, 0.77% higher than that for 1% biochar addition
4.2.3. Soil pH
and 0.98% higher than that of CK. Fig. 13-2 shows the effect of different
Using a large amount of fertilizer in agricultural production makes
soil treatments on ASOM. With increasing biochar addition, ASOM
soil acidic, which has led to approximately 30% of the world’s soil
decreases but is still higher than that of CK. When the biochar addition
being acidic. Basic cations have been neutralized and soil fertility has
is 1%, the ASOM reaches a maximum value that is double that of CK.
become low, restricting crop growth. Biochar can be used to improve
Biochar results in a higher ASOM content than fertilizer or manure
soil pH. Fig. 12 shows the pH change for different types of soils after
application, provided it is applied at less than 10%. Any type of
application results in higher ASOM content than that of CK. The
amount of added biochar is an important factor in controlling the
ASOM level of soil.

4.3. Influence on soil microbes

Biochar directly changes the physical and chemical properties of soil

Fig. 11. Influence of biochar on soil CEC.
and consequently the microorganism activity. In turn, the change in
microorganism activity can influence the physical and chemical proper-
ties of the soil. The abundant and complicated pores of biochar are
retained after it is applied. A mass of micro-pores is formed, providing
spaces for microbe growth and propagation and protecting microbes
from an unfavourable external environment, thus reducing the survival
competition amongst microbes. There are nutrients required by various
microbes for their growth and development in the micro-pores of

7
Z. Tan et al. Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11

Fig. 13. 13-1 Effect of biochar quantities on soil organic matter content. 13-2 Influence of different treatments on the active soil organic matter content.

Fig. 15. Removal rate of PAHS from soil using different treatments.

Fig. 14. Effect of biochar level on soil microbes.

4.5. Influence on the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions
biochar. As shown in Fig. 14, the soil microbes increase with biochar
addition. When the addition of biochar is 5%, the microbes reach Carbon sequestration is the process of transforming carbon into a
6.45 g, which is 24.5% more than that of CK. When the addition is fixed form to avoid carbon emissions. In the natural carbon cycle, plants
0.1%, the microbes are not significantly different than CK; when the absorb CO2 by photosynthesis and store it in plant tissue. When plants
addition is 1%, the microbes only increases by 2.5% compared with CK. die, decompose or burn, some carbon is ultimately returned to the
In conclusion, biochar has a positive influence on the soil microbes in atmosphere in the form of CO2. If biomass is converted to biochar, the
the soil. biochar carbon is in a stable form. Biochar can fix the carbon for a very
long time. Returning biochar to fields enhances carbon fixation and
reduces the emission of greenhouse gases such as CH4, N2O and CO2.
4.4. Influence on the absorption of poisonous and pernicious substances Fig. 16 shows the greenhouse gas emissions for different treatments.
The N2O released with fertilizer is significantly higher than that of other
The plentiful and complicated micro-pore structure of biochar treatments. Straw and biochar yield similar results for N2O emissions,
provides a large specific surface area with many active groups on its slightly higher than those of CK but 37.6% lower than those of fertilizer.
surface and with relatively stable properties. Biochar can be added to For CH4, biochar has lower emissions than those of fertilizer and straw.
polluted soil to absorb the poisonous and pernicious substances in soil
and thus its use is an excellent choice for the environment. Biochar
decreases the toxic effects of organic pollutants on plants and lowers the
accumulation of organic pollutants in plants. Biochar absorbs and fixes
pollutants due to its abundant pore structure and large specific surface
area. Biochar can also improve the activity of soil microbes, which
makes microbes able to degrade substances better. Fig. 15 shows that
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) removal varies with the type of
treatment. Fertilizer alone does not significantly remove PAHs. By
adding biochar to soils, the removal of PAHs increases significantly, to
approximately double that of CK and fertilizer treatments. The effect is
improved and is synergistic if both biochar and fertilizer are added to
the soil; the removal rate increases by 12.13% compared to that of
adding biochar only. This is probably because biochar promotes the
absorption of PAHs and reduces PAH levels. Therefore, using biochar is
a promising method for the remediation of polluted soils.

Fig. 16. The effect of greenhouse gas emissions using different treatments.

8
Z. Tan et al.
Unfortunately, CO2 emission data are not available for each treatment.
If the CO2 emissions are considered, returning biochar to fields will
more obviously show the benefit of biochar use for the reduction of
greenhouse gas emissions.
4.6. Future research on retuning biochar to soil
Regarding the return of biochar to soil, some biochars function to
improve the soil (e.g., adjusting the pH, reducing greenhouse gas
emissions) but other biochars do not have good function for soil.
Why? Because there is a disconnect between the function of returning
biochar and biochar preparation. The reason for this is the knowledge
structure problem of biochar researchers. Agronomists who study
returning biochar use the biochar products and know little about the
thermochemical process of biochar preparation. Other researchers of
biochar preparation from the biomass energy field only focus on
producing energy products and few pay attention to the function of
returning biochar to soil. Thus, researchers of biochar return to soil
must systematically consider the directional function of returning
biochar, from the biochar preparation to returning biochar. Only doing
from the directional function (such as biochar nutrients, biochar pore
structures etc.) to biochar directional preparation, the research of
returning biochar can really get to the aim of improving soil.
5. Conclusions
With increasing CO2 levels, increasing attention is being devoted to
climate change at the global level. Greenhouse gas emissions from
farmland ecosystems play an important role and need to be understood
to elucidate their contribution to global climate change. To reduce CO2
emissions, the utilization of biochar from farmland ecosystems is
becoming more important. In view of the above discussion on returning
biochar to fields, the salient points can be summarized as follows:
(1) With respect to biochar preparation: (i) The technologies for
biochar preparation are fast pyrolysis, medium-speed pyrolysis
and slow pyrolysis, according to the heating rate; and (ii) The main
factors that control the quality of biochar during preparation
include biomass materials, reaction retention time and reaction
temperature. The reaction temperature is the most important factor.
(2) With respect to the properties of biochar: (i) The surface of biochar
is rather rough and in a typical rectangular structure; (ii) The main
elements of biochar, such as carbon, oxygen and hydrogen,
compose more than 60% of the biochar, followed by ash, which
contains sodium, magnesium, potassium, calcium and other miner-
al elements. The typical elemental compositions of biochar are 67.8
wt%–86.8 wt% C, 10.6 wt%–26.6 wt% O and 1.2 wt%–2.9 wt% H;
(iii) The pH of biochar is generally neutral or slightly alkaline. The
CEC of biochar is mainly influenced by the biochar preparation
temperature. When biochar is returned to soils, some of the
functional groups on the biochar surface are oxidized and the
superficial CEC increases; and (iv) Biochar is a porous particulate
with a large specific surface area.
(3) Regarding the effect of biochar on soil quality: (i) Biochar improves
soil compaction, porosity, permeability, soil density, water content,
and bulk density; (ii) Biochar promotes mineralization, fixation and
transformation of organic nitrogen in soils to provide a nitrogen
source for soil microbes and increase the soil nitrogen content.
Biochar can also improve the pH and CEC of soil. The content of soil
organic matter increases with biochar addition; (iii) Abundant and
complicated pores in biochar are retained in soils and provide space
for microbe growth and propagation, protecting microbes from an
unfavourable external environment and reducing survival competi-
tion amongst microbes; (iv) Biochar can be added to polluted soil to
absorb poisonous and pernicious substances in the soil. Biochar can
decrease the toxic effect of organic pollutants on plants and reduce
9
Applied Soil Ecology 116 (2017) 1–11
the accumulation of organic pollutants in plants. Biochar can also
improve the activity of soil microbes, inducing increased degrada-
tion of pollutants; and (v) Carbon in biochar is in a complicated and
stable form. Biochar can reduce carbon emissions for a long time. It
fixes carbon and reduces the emission of the greenhouse gases CH4,
N2O and CO2.
Although many biochar studies have been conducted, we found that
there is a disconnect between biochar preparation and returning
biochar to soil. In the future, biochar researchers must systematically
consider the research of returning biochar from biochar preparation to
the function on the soil. Only in doing so can biochar research really
solve some soil problems.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science
Foundation of China (No. 41571283).
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