Received: 16 August 2019 Revised: 11 February 2020 Accepted: 27 February 2020

DOI: 10.1002/er.5331

REVIEW PAPER

Deep learning methods and applications for electrical

power systems: A comprehensive review

Asiye K. Ozcanli | Fatma Yaprakdal | Mustafa Baysal

Department of Electrical Engineering,

Yıldız Technical University, Istanbul,
Turkey
Correspondence
Asiye K. Ozcanli, Department of Electrical
Engineering, Yıldız Technical University,
Istanbul, Turkey.
Email: f4915038@std.yildiz.edu.tr
Funding information
The Scientific and Technological Research
Council of Turkey, Grant/Award Number:
2211/C
Summary
Over the past decades, electric power systems (EPSs) have undergone an evolu-
tion from an ordinary bulk structure to intelligent flexible systems by way of
advanced electronics and control technologies. Moreover, EPS has become a
more complex, unstable and nonlinear structure with the integration of distrib-
uted energy resources in comparison with traditional power grids. Unlike clas-
sical approaches, physical methods, statistical approaches and computer
calculation techniques are commonly used to solve EPS problems. Artificial
intelligent (AI) techniques have especially been used recently in many fields.
Deep neural networks have become increasingly attractive as an AI approach
due to their robustness and flexibility in handling nonlinear complex relation-
ships on large scale data sets. Major deep learning concepts addressing some
problems in EPS have been reviewed in the present study by a comprehensive
literature survey. The practices of deep learning and its combinations are well
organized with up-to-date references in various fields such as load forecasting,
wind and solar power forecasting, power quality disturbances detection and
classifications, fault detection power system equipment, energy security,
energy management and energy optimization. Furthermore, the difficulties
encountered in implementation and the future trends of this method in EPS
are discussed subject to the findings of current studies. It concludes that deep
learning has a huge application potential on EPS, due to smart technologies
integration that will increase considerably in the future.

KEYWORDS
CNN, DBM, deep learning, forecasting, power systems, RNN, SAE, smart grid

1 | INTRODUCTION
There has been a significant alteration in the distribution
level with the installation of distributed generation units
such as wind and solar, integration of storage systems and
the deployment of charge stations for electric vehicles in
recent times.1 These new integrations are providing new
opportunities and more resilience in conventional energy
management. However, this emerging energy system is
not only complicated but also complex and needs a state-
of-the-art technology to overcome this growing complex-
ity. And in consequence, the smart grid paradigm has
been revealed for resolutions that enable powerful, secure
and reliable use of electricity as well as an optimized and
more resilient comprehension of the power grid.2,3 Essen-
tially, it is quite common to consider smart grid as a mod-
ern electric power system (EPS) of near future which
integrates the most novel power electronics, computers,

Int J Energy Res. 2020;1–22. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/er © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd 1
2 OZCANLI ET AL.

information, communication and cyber technologies. Tra-
ditional power system analysis techniques are no longer
suitable for such advanced power systems (smart grids).
Therefore, many researchers have been interested in the
use of intelligent techniques in EPS. At this point, artifi-
cial intelligence (AI) plays a major role in power system
problems such as operation, protection, control, planning,
diagnosis, etc.4-7 Unlike stringent mathematical algo-
rithms, AI can easily cope with nonlinearities and discon-
tinuities in the internal structure of power system
problems. AI can be grouped into five categories as learn-
ing methods (machine learning [ML], learning probabilis-
tic methods), statistical methods, search methods and
optimization theory (genetic algorithm, particle swarm
optimization), game theory and decision-making algo-
rithms. The chart of artificial intelligent methods is
depicted in Figure 1. In AI, ML provides systems the
ability to automatically learn from massive amounts of
historical or synthetic data without any human interven-
tion. ML algorithms based on neural networks (NNs) and
its variations (eg, artificial neural networks (ANNs),
recurrent neural networks (RNNs), deep neural networks
(DNNs), have received more attention and have been
applied to several fields of power systems.8,9 Among them,
deep learning (DNNs) has especially become a vital part
of state of the art systems in different disciplines including
speech recognition,10 image classification,11 natural lan-
guage processing and fault diagnosis.
In recent years, deep learning (DL) has achieved huge
success in many fields with advanced training algorithms
and the power of parallel and distributed computing.
DNN architectures can model the relationship between
nonlinear complex systems, enabling raw data to be
developed from the first layer to the last layer for feature

FIGURE 1 AI subfields and techniques [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]

OZCANLI ET AL.
extraction. DNNs enable the composition of features with
multiple layers and have the potential for complex data
modeling with fewer units, as opposed to shallow neural
networks (SNNs).12 Therefore, DL algorithms have been
used for many application areas and it has been put forth
in many different studies that complex problems may be
solved by way of novel methods using DL. Figure 2 repre-
sents the popularity of DL in all fields and EPS according
to ScienceDirect database. The number of articles has
been attained annually from 2012 to 2019 by searching
for the term “deep learning” for all areas as well as the
terms “deep learning AND electric OR power” for EPS in
the title, keywords or abstract in Figure 2.
DL applications and methods have been reviewed in
diverse fields in literature such as bioinformatics,13 medi-
cal image analysis,14 smart manufacturing.15 A number
of review papers on DL applications have been presented
in EPS16-21 to the best of the author's knowledge. DL
approaches for automatic autonomous vision-based
power line inspection are reviewed in Nguyen et al.16
Unsupervised and supervised DL methods are used for
fault detection in wind turbines in Helbing and Ritter.17
Various other studies have been carried out on DL appli-
cations for load and renewable energy forecasting in
Almalaq and Edwards18 and Wang et al.19 These studies
present single DL application field in power systems.
Unlike,16-19 an extensive research is presented on various
fields of EPS (ie, load, solar, wind forecasting, grid protec-
tion, fault analysis, power quality, energy management
and cyber security) in this review. On the other hand, the
rest of the review papers addresses both ML and DL
methods in different power systems fields. In Zhang
et al20 and Cheng and Yu,21 ML technologies and rein-
forcement learning applications are reviewed with DL in
smart grid applications and EPS, but DL section is men-
tioned briefly. However, this paper focuses specifically on
F I G U R E 2 Annual trend in the number of article on deep
learning [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
3
DL applications, and it includes novel hybrid variations
of DL unlike other reviews.
In this context, this review presents an up to date
library of DL algorithms developed in EPS. Three popular
search engines “ScienceDirect,” IEEE Xplore and “Goo-
gle Scholar” have been used to browse the papers which
have been written between 2014 and 2019. This literature
research has been carried out by using the keywords
“electrical power systems,” “ANN” and “DL” in general
and “SAE, DAE, CNN, DBM, DNN, AE, RNN, LSTM” as
DL algorithms in detail. As a result, 84 articles have
researched for full review. DL algorithms are classified
according to application areas as load forecasting, wind
and solar power forecasting, power quality disturbances
(PQDs) detection and classifications, fault detection
power system equipment and other application fields. All
articles are separately categorized to the type of algo-
rithms, accuracy and compared existing methods.
Consequently, the paper presents the most frequently
encountered problems in literature with references in
addition to discussions on the superiority of DL algo-
rithms from different aspects. Furthermore, DL tech-
niques are discussed for future scopes. This review study
also aims to put forth the various concepts of DL applied
in EPS and to plant a seed of interest for many
researchers on how DL may offer solutions to their elec-
trical data. This review will thus present valuable insight
while serving as a reference resource for researchers who
may implement DL approaches to electrical power sys-
tems studies.
The main focus points of DL applications research in
power systems can be summarized as indicated below:
• A brief overview is given regarding the history, algo-
rithms, tools, applications of DL.
• The most frequently used algorithms of DL in power
systems are categorized as single and hybrid models
which are combined with DL, preprocessing and ML
techniques.
• A comparative analysis is realized between various
existing ML techniques.
• The different DL application fields in power systems are
presented with an abundance of significant references.
• The whole reference papers are classified according to
the proposed algorithm, application area, compared
methods and tabulated results.
• Some useful remarks which can be used for the appli-
cation of DL techniques are given in power systems.
• The advantages and some challenges about DL encoun-
tered in the reference papers have been addressed.
The remaining article is organized as follows.
Section 2 presents the main DL methods that have been
4 OZCANLI ET AL.
used especially for electrical power systems. Section 3
presents applications of DL for EPS and is divided into
subchapters on load forecasting, wind and solar power
forecasting, PQDs detection and classifications, fault
detection power system equipment and other application
fields. Section 4 focuses on the obtained results and open
challenges in different areas of application. We end with
a conclusion and suggestions for future research with
Section 5.
2 | OVERVIEW OF DEEP
LEARNING
DL is a kind of ML which has sophisticated training algo-
rithms with a nonlinear combination of multi-layers. DL
is used to solve nonlinear problems (recognition, detec-
tion, classification, etc.) and to extract representations of
data with multiple levels of features. The idea of DL by
McCulloch and Pitts dates actually back to 1943.22 The
progress of DNNs has taken a long time due to
FIGURE 3 The key aspects of deep learning [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
technological constraints as lack of sufficient data, com-
puting resources and training methods, difficulty train-
ing, vanishing gradient, local minima, optimization
problems.23,24 Deep networks take a much longer time to
train due to complex mathematical algorithms and codes.
The use of GPU (graphical processing unit) is allowed for
the development of scalable applications with high com-
puting capacity.25 Especially, leading studies by Geoff
Hinton, Yann LeCun, Yoshua Bengio created a break-
through using new learning algorithm known as greedy
layer-wise unsupervised pre-training in 2006–2007.26,27
As a result of these advancements, DL methods have
found a significant range of application fields such as
computer vision,11 genomics,28 autonomous vehicles,29
robotics.30 Top technology companies such as Google,
Facebook, Microsoft, IBM have made major investments
in research and development projects such as Big Sur,
Tensorflow, Watson platforms, etc. The key aspects of DL
can be summarized as used methods, problem categories,
general use case, performance indices, application indus-
try and model parameters. Figure 3 presents general
OZCANLI ET AL.
information on these classifications. As seen in Figure 3,
DL has been applied to various fields such as computer
vision, social media, finance, genomics, automotive and
EPS. Also, DL can make use of any video, image, speech
signal or time series to classify, detect or predict a dataset.
Many libraries have been developed to carry out any DL
tasks such as Tensorflow, Caffe, Theano and Keras. One of
the most important challenges is to determine the model
parameters to train the data set. These parameters include
activation function, number of layer, epoch, weight, etc.
The definitions of these parameters are given in detailed
in Goodfellow et al.31 The model accuracy can be mea-
sured and compared with other ML algorithms thanks to
performances by indices like RMSE (root mean square
error) and MAPE (mean absolute percentage error).
DL architectures can be classified into different
groups based on the training algorithms used. In this
study, DL architectures which have been used especially in
electric power systems are classified into five different
groups including CNN (convolutional neural network),
AEs (autoencoders), RBM (restricted Boltzmann machine),
RNN and other combined approaches. General features of
these structures are given in the following sections.
2.1 | Convolutional neural network
CNN is intended to teach high-level features via convolu-
tion to the data set.32 CNN set a milestone in image,
video, speech and sound processing.33 These networks
have gained popularity thanks to their superior features
F I G U R E 4 Structures of DL algorithms (A) CNN, (B) AEs, (C) Boltzmann machines, (D) RNN & LSTM [Colour figure can be viewed
at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
5
in object recognition through images and competitions
on the classification of images. CNN has been success-
fully utilized by way of visual data in many areas such
as face recognition, individual recognition, traffic sign
recognition and handwriting recognition.32 There are
hundreds of millions of weight values and billions of
connections between neurons in CNN where high-
dimensional training is done. Figure 4A illustrates an
example of CNN structure through image classification
which contains several key components such as a convo-
lution layer, a pooling layer, a fully connected layer, layer
filters, activation function, and these components are
detailed in Krizhevsky et al.11
2.2 | Autoencoders and its variants
An AE is an unsupervised learning algorithm that uses
backpropagation (BP) to extract a feature from input
data. There is a three-layered network structure com-
prised of input, hidden and output sections.27 The basic
structure of the AE is formed by minimizing the recon-
struction error generated by combining an encoder func-
tion, fƟ, consisting of representations of inputs to lower-
dimensional space and a decoder function, (r), that
reconstructs this input into an old representation. While
fƟ transforms the input data x with an explicit and effec-
tive calculation into hidden representation h(t) (feature
vector); r, transforms the mapping from the hidden layer
into the output layer. These functions are given by for-
mulae (1) and (2). AE has some constraints due to the
6 OZCANLI ET AL.
quantity of hidden units so this AE can be used as a low-
dimensional representation of data:


hðtÞ = f Ɵ x ðtÞ ! h = sðW × x + bÞ, ð1Þ
r = gƟ0 ðhÞ ! r = sðW 0 × h + b0 Þ: ð2Þ
0
The parameter set for such a model is Ɵ = {W, b, W ,
b0 }. The data parameters are the variables including
encoder weight matrices, W, with bias vectors, b, and
decoder weight matrices, W0 , with bias vectors, b0 .
s expresses the activation functions (sigmoid, tanh, etc.)
used in the network. The reproduction error is tried to be
minimized with the best selection of these values through
training. Stochastic gradient descent (SGD) is usually
used to ensure that the output is equal to the input in
order to calculate the parameters in this minimization
process. The average reconstruction function is mini-
mized by optimizing the model variables as indicated by
the following expression (3). This automatic encoder pro-
vides training with an error value that minimizes the
reconstruction error, L(x; r)34:
X



J DAE ðƟÞ = L x ð t Þ , gƟ f Ɵ x ð t Þ : ð3Þ
t
Consequently, AEs usually involves an unsupervised
pre-training phase which helps to better optimize the
training criterion and to prevent overfitting. The use of
AEs can be a better choice if there is a large amount of
unlabeled and high-dimensional data.35 Different learning
algorithms based on the basic structure of the automatic
encoder can be derived such as stacked autoencoders
(SAEs),36 denoising autoencoders (DAEs),37 etc.
The structure of SAE includes a stack of the multiple
AEs which enable to learn more complex features and
illustrates in Figure 4B.26,38 On the other hand, DAE
uses corrupted data ~x different from SAE, which is
reconstructed artificially from the clean data x. In this
structure, an example x is corrupted to ~x . The AE then
maps it to h and attempts to reconstruct x. Then it is
trained to estimate the reconstruction distribution of the
AE using this data. As a result, uncorrupted data will
bring out its output and extracts features useful for
denoising.
2.3 | Restricted Boltzmann machine and
its variants
Boltzmann machine is an ANN composed of probabilistic
decision-making units and symmetrically connected
neurons. The RBM NN developed in this way is a
nonlinear graphical model that defines probabilistic dis-
tribution consisting of observational, visible or hidden
vectors.26,39 A group of binary number vectors (a sample
image) can be modeled as two layers with RBM. Here
the binary pixels detect features by way of symmetric
weighted links and they are connected stochastically.
The pixels represent the “visible” unit of the RBM
because their states can be observed while feature
detectors correspond to “hidden” units. The energy
values for the common structures of visible and hidden
(h, v) can be put forth by the following formula (4),
where W is the weight matrix between hidden (h) and
visible (v) layers, bv and bh represent the biases in the
visible and hidden variables, respectively. Figure 4C
shows the structures of developed Boltzmann machines.
The RBMs are generally trained using negative gradient
descent. The neurons in the same layers are indepen-
dent of each other but dependent on the next layer. In
terms of learning, the RBMs with hidden layers are
faster than classical Boltzmann machines due to these
properties40:
E ðv,hÞ = vT Wh − vT bv −hT bh : ð4Þ
Deep Boltzmann machine (DBM) is formed by stac-
king RBMs, and it is constructed as a multilayer deep net-
work with connections only between adjacent layers.
After each RBM is trained in this network structure, the
activities of its own hidden units serve as training data
for the next RBM layer.41,42 Due to the structure of DBM,
it possesses several interesting properties. The ability of
internal representative learning helps by capturing com-
plex statistical structures on higher layers. High-level rep-
resentations can be established with a significant number
of unsupervised and a small number of supervised data,
allowing it to be used as a fine-tuned model for a particu-
lar discrimination task. Figure 4C presents a DBM with
both visible-to-hidden and hidden-to-hidden connections
but no within-layer connections. All connections in a
DBM are undirected. In another aspect, the parameters
in all layers can be optimized together by following the
approximate variation of a variable bound lower on the
probability function.43
Deep belief network (DBN) first emerged in 2006 with
the Hinton model created by way of a greedy layer
unlabeled learning algorithm. Following greedy learning,
the whole stack has been studied as a single prediction
model known as the DBN.26 The DBN consists of a
4-layer network with the visible × layer comprising the
first layer and hidden layers of h1, h2, h3 as presented in
Figure 4C. Unlike the DBM, the top two layers come
OZCANLI ET AL.
from the non-directional RBM, but the other layers are
formed with a directional sigmoid belief network.44
2.4 | Recurrent neural network
RNN is a type of ANN which utilizes connections of units
to form a directed graph along with a sequence input.
This allows for the exhibition of dynamic temporal
behavior. All inputs in RNN are related to each other and
hence the previous hidden state value is fed as input to
the current state. Therefore, RNN is capable of handling
a variable length sequential data which makes it quite
advantageous for DL.8,45 In general, it is used in areas
such as machine translation, language processing, text to
speech and market forecasting.
RNN has an intrinsically deep structure since RNN
unfolded time can be expressed by way of combinations
with multiple nonlinear layers. Several deep RNN struc-
tures have been recommended with different approaches
which have been reported to perform better than classical
RNN.46 Among these solutions, the most widely used
structure has been the long short term memory
(LSTM).47 LSTM, which consists of memory cells and
gates, is developed to solve the gradient descent problem
and to overcome the complicated time series. LSTM can
be created by incorporating memory cells as hidden
layers inside the classical RNN structure. Simple RNN
and LSTM structures are illustrated in Figure 4D.
2.5 | Other approaches combined with
deep learning methods
The idea of combining methods can be described as the
utilization of different algorithms together for overcom-
ing the drawbacks of the individual methods. Thus, the
combined approaches including applications of DL in
EPS can be classified in three groups as presented in
Figure 5. The first group is obtained by composing two
F I G U R E 5 The schema of
combined approaches with DL in EPS
[Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
7
DL algorithms such as LSTM-AE, SAE-DBN and CNN-
LSTM. The second combined approaches are realized for
data pre-processing such as data filter and data decompo-
sition. For example, wavelet transform (WT) is combined
for data decomposition with DL methods such as WT-SAE,
EWT (empirical wavelet transform)-LSTM-Elman neural
network, WT-DNN in EPS. Finally, some approaches are
combined with ML algorithms such as SAE-support vector
machine (SVM), SAE-ELM (extreme learning method),
DBN-Q learning and deep reinforcement learning (DRL).
These combined methods are also mentioned in detail in
the following sections.
3 | D E E P LEA R N IN G
APPLIC ATIONS F OR ELECTRIC AL
POWER SYSTEMS
Smart grid concept emerged with the development of
currently used power systems that can integrate energy
demand, production and storage areas. These grids
require flexibility in generating and distributing energy at
an extraordinary level in order to minimize energy con-
sumption and to optimize its usage. Furthermore, the
necessity for power system planning, operation and con-
trol developments has become compulsory as a result of
latest improvements in smart power system fields;
namely, deregulations of power markets, insistent needs
in efficiency and quality of power grids, the expansion of
distributed generation and growing size of interconnec-
tions, and power exchange between utilities.
A great deal of AI implementations such as ANN, ML
and DL techniques can remarkably contribute to solving
the issues at hand.
Within the scope of this study, power system areas for
which DL methods are applied in four categories of load
forecasting, wind and solar power forecasting, PQDs
detection and classifications, fault detection on power
system and equipment and other application fields have
been presented as a summary in Table 1.
8 OZCANLI ET AL.

TABLE 1 Summary of deep learning approaches in electrical power systems

Application fields in electrical Literature

Problem categories Methods system Input data in training studies
*Load forecasting LSTM-RNN, DBN, RBM *Load consumption *Power consumption load 50-77
(CRBM-FCRBM), characterization, residents
Deep CNN behaviors
*Wind forecasting LSTM-RNN *Wind speed and wind power *Wind speed, power, direction, 78-92
temperature, atmosphere
pressure, humidity
*Solar forecasting CNN and K-means *Solar power and solar irradiance *Solar radiation, power, the sun 93-99
Clustering, FF-DNN, and weather data
D-RNN
Power quality SAE, SAE-SVM, WT- *Power quality disturbances, *Voltage and current signals 101-115
disturbances detection SAE, CNN, Wide- classification *Measurements of voltage,
and classifications CNN, CDBN, FF- *Island detection in DG systems current, active power, and
DNN, SSAE reactive power
Fault detection on SAE, WT-DNN, LSTM- *Fault type classification in power *Gearbox failures, rotor current 116-124
power system and SVM, DNN, DBN- systems signals, the gearbox lubricant
equipment DNN, CSAE *Fault diagnosis of transformer, pressure SCADA data,
gearbox, fuel cell… transformer oil data *Voltage
and current signals
Other application fields Deep reinforcement, *Detection of false data injection *Historical energy consumption 125-134
in power systems BM, WT-DNN, wide- in smart grid and power generation and
deep CNN *Power system security electrical devices data
*Electricity-theft detection in *Fire, natural disaster,
smart grid environmental pollution,
energy interruption data
*Optimization of the decentralized
renewable energy system

3.1 | Load forecasting in power systems
The importance of energy demand forecasting is due to
the significant role played by energy production planning
and adaptation in power systems. The power network
must be able to respond dynamically to variations in
demand and should be able to distribute the energy effi-
ciently and optimally. Furthermore, the usage of renew-
ables should be kept at the optimum level for smart grids.
The intelligent and adaptable elements that require more
advanced techniques for accurate and precise future
energy demand and generation estimates are impera-
tively used by smart power systems for maximum perfor-
mance. Demand forecasting is realized at the aggregated
level and building level, and depending on the applica-
tion is categorized as very short-term load forecasting
(VSTLF), from seconds or minutes to several hours;
short-term load forecasting (STLF), from 1 hour to a
week; medium-term load forecasting (MTLF), from
1 week to a year and, long-term load forecasting (LTLF)
corresponding to a time period that is longer than a year.
Depending on the forecasting category, load forecasting
uses different models to meet the particular objectives of
utilization. When it comes to analyze input parameters for
feature extraction; the aggregated load is highly affected
by many contextual parameters such as weather (tempera-
ture, humidity, solar radiation, etc.), special events (like
holidays) and the day of the week, while the energy con-
sumption of a residential house (individual level) has a
higher dependency on the behaviors of individuals.
Energy consumption estimation is essentially a time-
series forecasting problem. Many linear forecasting
methods such as auto-regressive and moving average
(ARMA), auto-regressive integrated moving average
(ARIMA), linear regression (LR), iteratively re-weighted
least-squares (IRWLS) and nonlinear forecasting methods
such as ANNs, multi-layer perceptron (MLP), general
regression neural network (GRNN) and SVM have
recently been presented in literature.60,61 However, it is
inevitable to start implementing statistical ML techniques
in load estimates as well as in other prediction problems
due to the rapid development that took place during the
1990s. The popularity of DNNs as the latest improved
subset of ML techniques has recently been increasing in
time-series load forecasting as in many fields of power
systems. Table 2 provides a detailed overview on the
OZCANLI ET AL. 9

TABLE 2 Summary of reports for application of deep learning (DL) approaches in load forecasting

Reference DL methods Application Comparative methods Outcome

48 Parallel CNN; LSTM-RNN STLF, AL LR, SVR, DNN and CNN-RNN MAPE 1.349
62 LSTM-RNN STLF, AL SARIMA, NARX, SVR, NNETAR MAPE 0.0535
63 LSTM-RNN S-MTLF, AL The ML benchmark RMSE 341.40
64 DBN STLF, AL Traditional NN MAPE improv.21%
65 DNN DeepEnergy STLF, AL SVM, RF, DT, MLP, LSTM MAPE 9.77
66 FCRBM STLF, AL SVM MAPE 1.43
67 LSH stack Deep autoencoder STLF, — RMSE 6.99
VSTLF, AL
68 IoT-based DL (DCEN + ILFN) STLF, AL SDNN, DCEN, ILFN, Holt-Winters MAPE ~1.00
(HW) HW
69 SDA STLF, AL Classical NNs, SVM, MARS, LAS and SO MAPE 2.47
70 CNN STLF, AL TSAM, SVM DBI 8.57
71 LSTM-RNN STLF, BL BPNN, KNN-R, ELM, IS-HF MAPE 8.18
72 LSTM based RNN STLF, BL FFNN, KNN-R MAPE average
21.99
73 Pooling based D-RNN STLF, BL ARIMA, SVR RMSE 0.4505 kWh
74 D-RNN STLF, BL Different prediction approaches and RMSE 111.9
recurrent unit types
75 CNN-LSTM STLF, BL ARIMA, persistent model, SVR, LSTM MAPE 10.1582
76 Pinball loss guided LSTM S-LTLF, BL Q-LSTM, Q-RNN, Q-GBRT Error 0.1775 kWh
77 HFM with GPU STLF, BL — No result given
78 DNN (RBM), DNN (RELU) STLF, BL 3-Layered NN, ARIMA and DSHW MAPE 8.84
79 CNN STLF, BL LSTM S2S, FCRBM, ANN and SVM RMSE 0.732%
80 CRBM, FCRBM STLF, BL SVM and RNN RMSE 0.1702 kW
81 Q-learning with DBN, SARSA with LTLF, BL Q-learning without DBN, SARSA without RMSE 0.02
DBN DBN
82 Parallel CPU-GPU (HFM) STLF, BL CPU No result gave
83 DBN Ensemble M-LTLF, AL SVR, FF-NN, DBN, Ensemble FF-NN MAPE 5.93
84 LSTM-DRNN M-LTLF, MLP (3-layered) Average RMSE
AL + BL 7.10 kWh
85 Combined SAE and ELM M-LTLF, BL BPNN, GRPFNN, MLR and SVR MRE 2.92
86 D-FC-NN, CNN and LSTM-NN M-LTLF, BL LR, RR, PLS and SGD regressors RE 17.29%
87 RNN, CNN M-LTLF, BL SARIMAX Average RMSE
17.84 kW
49 EMD-DL Ensemble M-LTLF, BL SVR, ANN, DBN, Ensemble DBN, EMD- MAPE 3.00
SVR, EMD-ANN and EMD-RF

Abbreviations: AL, aggregated level; BL, building (individual) level; DBI, Davies-Bouldin index; GBRT, gradient boosting regression tree; MAPE, mean
absolute percentage error; Q, quantile; RE, relative error; RMS, root mean square; SARSA, state action reward state action; TD, time domain.

application studies of DL methods in electrical load fore-
casting. Comparative methods are also presented in the
table since convolutional linear and nonlinear forecasting
methods have been used frequently for performance
comparison with state of the art DNN methods.
As can be seen in Table 2, it is important to notice
that the greatest number of studies have been presented
in the content of short-term and aggregated level load
forecasting. Within the framework of this topic, LSTM-
RNN algorithm48 is the first most commonly used62,63
followed by DBN64 and RBM-based65 deep architectures,
respectively. Unlike other relevant reference studies of Jian
et al62 and Bouktif et al,63 parallel CNN components are
used to derive various features of past energy consumption
10
data in He,48 with the variable and dynamic structure of
the past consumption data modeled via the LSTM-based
RNN component. It is important to notice that, Bouktif
et al63 have also a MTLF study with the same data as STLF
and that it also obtains optimal time lags and a number of
layers for predictive performance optimization making a
difference to other studies using the LSTM method.
Debinec et al64 utilize a DBN that is composed of multiple
layers of Boltzmann machines for demand forecasting in
Macedonia over a time period of 24 hours. Here, electrical
consumption estimates of the distribution (mostly repre-
sented by the residential consumption sector) and trans-
mission networks (often represented by major industrial
companies) are made separately and together. In this way,
it is noticed that electrical consumption estimates for the
distribution network are more accurate than the transmis-
sion network. In Kuo and Huang66 a robust deep CNN
model (DeepEnergy) is presented for electricity demand
forecasting. It is experienced that DeepEnergy can exactly
forecast electricity consumption for the following 3 days
and that it outperforms all tested algorithms. Furthermore,
some other deeply structured methods such as LSH stack
deep AE,67 IoT-based DL (DCEN + ILFN),68 SDA69 and
Deep-CNN70 have so far been utilized in other studies with
regard to this content.
Within the scope of short-term and individual level
load forecasting, LSTM-based deep architectures71,72 have
been used most frequently in the literature thus far. Kong
et al71 put forth a deep LSTM-RNN framework for the
related problem with a much better performance than
various ML algorithms including the most advanced tech-
nologies. Moreover, it is the first study which shows that
aggregation of all individual forecasts that provides better
performance than the aggregated load forecasting.
Another study73 proposes LSTM-based RNN and empha-
sizes the importance of usage information of the appli-
ances obtained from the advanced metering infrastructure
datasets. Shi et al74 propose a novel approach of pooling-
based deep RNNs for the forecasting problem. They utilize
a pool of inputs for a group of 920 smart metered house-
holds in Ireland to enhance the variety and dimension of
the data. Lastly, deep RNN technique encompassing the
LSTM structure has been assessed in detail in recent
times.75 Here, the capacity of deep recurrent frameworks
is confirmed in STLF of individual buildings. A hybrid
DL-NN algorithm that integrates the CNN method and
LSTM as the most commonly used algorithm in this case
as mentioned at the outset, has been utilized for a multi-
step short-term forecasting strategy to extend the time to
response electricity market bidding in Yan et al.76 This
hybrid method yields more powerful results for the multi-
time step forecasting strategy in comparison with the
other compared methods like ARIMA model, persistent
OZCANLI ET AL.
model, SVR and LSTM alone. Wang et al72 perform both
STLF and LTLF by extending conventional LSTM-based
point forecasting to probabilistic forecasting and proposed
pinball loss guided LSTM method outperforms traditional
methods. In Coelho et al,77 a hybrid fuzzy model (HFM)
is used, and it is shown that the proposed GPU learning
strategy is scalable with increasing number of training
rounds. Ryu et al78 proposed a DNN architecture for both
load forecasting and demand-side management subjects,
and the training process in the study is driven by RBM
and BP. The proposed CNN algorithm in Amarasinghe
et al79 is able to put forth results that are comparable with
the LSTM-based S2S method and the FCRBM method
employed in Mocanu et al80 for the related forecasting
problem with the same dataset and it also outperforms
the SVR algorithm. Among all investigations, the study by
Mocanu et al80 is different from the others in both short-
term and long-term forecasting categories of power con-
sumption in a residential building. The authors utilize
two newly developed stochastic models for the time-series
problem: (a) a conditional restricted Boltzmann machine
(CRBM), (b) factored conditional Boltzmann machine
(FCRBM) and they find that as the prediction horizon is
increasing (eg, 1 year ahead), FCRBMs and CRBMs seem
to be stronger and that their prediction errors reduce by
almost half compared to other classical methods. Besides,
Mocanu et al81 go further among state-of-the-art energy
estimation methods by presenting a novel approach
which does not call for labeled data. As a major academic
contribution, DBN is used to extract the high-level fea-
tures automatically; it learns a building model by involv-
ing a generalization of the state space domain. The point
of attention in Coelho et al82 by proposing a parallel GPU
(HFM) DL metaheuristic-based architecture is that it is
presented as an alternative solution with low-energy con-
sumption and high processing power for the analysis of
large data which takes a long and costly process for ordi-
nary computer conditions.
For the aggregated level M-LTLF, Qio et al83 propose
a DL belief networks (DBN) ensemble to estimate regres-
sions and time series for the first time. Another novelty
in this study is the collection of output from various
DBNs using the support vector regression (SVR) model.
A new Deep-RNN model is developed and optimized for
medium- and long-term electrical load estimations on an
hourly basis (medium- and long-term LF), and DNN was
used to work with a data set that contains missing data
blocks in Rahman et al.84 For the building level M-LTLF,
a new prediction model is developed in combination with
the DNN method, SAE and the ELM in Li et al.85 Here,
the high-quality energy consumption data are revealed by
the SAE learning algorithm while the estimation accuracy
is increased with ELM. Unlike the methods presented in
OZCANLI ET AL.
previous power consumption forecasting studies, this
study includes a dataset with monthly energy consump-
tion and several meta-data related to customer behaviors
in Berriel et al.86 Three DL models with more than 10 mil-
lion data sets are examined: Deep Fully Connected, Con-
volutional and LSTM Neural Networks, and LSTM-based
model show the best results for the proposed problem in
terms of absolute and relative errors. Unlike classical
CNN and RNN algorithms, the Gated RNN and CNN are
proposed in another related study by Cai et al,87 for day-
ahead multistep load forecasting. The weather prediction
information is also used as an input variable in this study.
The proposed models are compared to the Seasonal
ARIMAX model in terms of accuracy, computational effi-
ciency and robustness. The GCNN outperforms all other
models for 24-hour prediction. A hybrid algorithm is used
in Qiu et al49 for predicting load demand, and the signals
from load demand time series in that ensemble model are
divided into several different structures by way of an
experimental approach defined as Empirical Decomposi-
tion Mode (EMD). These new signals, also known as the
IMF, are applied to DBN with two RBMs and an ANN.
According to the estimation results, hybrid models based
on EMD outperform the other nine methods in mono-
lithic prediction algorithms.
3.2 | Wind and solar power forecasting
in power systems
Wind and solar energy systems are utilized in stand-alone
and grid-connected systems to generate power for indi-
vidual building, residential, commercial and industrial
applications. Power forecasting of wind and solar systems
are essential for operating, planning and controlling of
distributed generations. Thus, accurate and effective
power prediction approaches are crucial for operating
power networks. Solar and wind power forecasting
methods are quite similar and can be categorized into
time-series statistical methods (ie, ANN, SVM, Markov
Chain, Autoregressive, Regression Models, DL), physical
methods (numeric weather prediction) and ensemble
methods (ie, NN-fuzzy, wavelet-NN, various prediction
models ensembles).
DBM, DBN, CNN, DAE, SAE, LSTM and hybrid
models are frequently used in short-medium term wind
and solar power prediction frameworks as DL tech-
niques. The related papers are summarized in Table 3. It
provides a detailed overview of DL applications on wind
and solar forecasting studies. The studies are categorized
as applied DL methods, forecasting time periods (short,
medium, long), compared methods and accuracy of pro-
posed models. In Hu et al,50 DAE is used to extract the
11
hidden rules of wind speed patterns in the deep network
architecture. After the unsupervised learning is per-
formed during pre-training on each layer, the supervised
learning is used to fine tune the network in the hidden
and output layers. Qureshi et al88 report that the SAE as
a base regressor and the DBM as meta-regressor are com-
bined for short term wind power prediction. Training
time is reduced effectively and quickly due to transfer
learning and meta-regressor. Similarly, the SAE and DAE
algorithms are proposed separately in Khodayar et al89
for very short (10-30 minutes.) and short-term wind
speed forecasting (STWSF). Dalto et al90 present the stan-
dard feedforward multilayer perceptron NN (MLP) with
four layers for ultra-short term wind speed forecasting.
The partial mutual method (PMI) based on input variable
selection (IVS) is preferred to reduce the complexity of
inputs and make learning computationally possible in
limited time. The proposed models possess more power-
ful prediction capacity than the conventional forecasting
methods in all studies.
Since it solves the local optimum problem, a DBN
algorithm is used in Tao et al91 thus achieving better
learning algorithms with more hidden layers. Zhang
et al92 use the DBM model with real wind speed datasets
for both hour and day ahead multi steps prediction exper-
iments. Similarly, DBN based on Boltzmann machine
was used for wind power forecasting in Wang et al.93 In
order to obtain higher accuracy, k-means clustering algo-
rithm is used to analyze a large number of numerical
weather prediction (NWP) samples.
A CNN and LSTM hybrid model is used in Wu et al94
for the prediction of wind power. The original wind
power time series is also regulated with the equivalent
probabilistic power curve method before the training due
to measurement error and noise. Another hybrid CNN
algorithm is presented in Wang et al95 with WT as a
hybrid model in order to remove the uncertainties of
wind power generation. In Qin et al,96 the proposed
model uses hybrid CNN-LSTM and SWM model for wind
turbine energy and demand forecasting. This model is
contrasted with MLP and RBFNN (radial basis function
neural network), and it performs with less forecasting
error than others. In Liu et al,97 the WPD (wavelet packet
decomposition)-LSTM-CNN hybrid model shows robust
and effective performance in predicting wind speed com-
pared to ARIMA, SVM, BP model, etc. A hybrid model
named LSTM-PCA (principal component analysis) is
used to estimate the wind power in Xiaoyun et al.98 Vari-
ables such as atmospheric pressure, humidity, wind
speed and direction of wind are classified according to
their effect levels by PCA method. Another study99 pro-
poses a hybrid model based on LSTM, SVRM and
extremal optimization algorithm. A combined approach
12 OZCANLI ET AL.

TABLE 3 Summary of reports for the application of deep learning (DL) approaches in wind and solar forecasting

Reference DL methods Time span Comparative methods Outcome/accuracy

50 DAE STWSF SVR, ELM MAE 0.679-MAPE 14.27
88 SAE-DBM STWSF ARIMA, SVR RMSE 0.094-MAE 0.065
89 SAE, SDA STWSF FFNN, TDNN, NARNN RMSE 0.521-MAE 0.213
90 MLP STWSF SDA, SNN MAE 0.53
91 DBN SWPF SVR, MLP Effective accuracy
92 DBM-BP STWSF AR, ANFIS, SVR MSE 1.29-MAPE 6.17
93 DBN STWPF BP, MWNN MAPE 1.1739
94 CNN-LSTM WPF CNN-FFNN, CNN-RNN, FNN RMSE 0.079-MAE 0.056
95 CNN-WT STWPF SVC + QR and BP + QR CRPS 0.2809
96 CNN-LSTM-SVM MTWPF MLP, RBFNN MAPE 0.78
97 WPD-CNNLSTM-CNN STWSF ARIMA, SVM, BP, Elman, ELM Effective accuracy
98 LSTM-PCA STWPF BP, SVM RMSE 1.073-MAE 0.567
99 LSTM-SVRM-EO STWSF ARIMA, SVR, ANN, KNN and GBRT MAE 1.14-MAPE 1.5335 RMSE 17.10
100 EWT-LSTM-Elman STWSF ARIMA, BP, hybrid methods RMSE 0.37-MAE 0.28
51 ELM-LSTM-DE STWSF GBRT, persistence model MAE 0.47054-RMSE 0.658
52 Deep LSTM-RNN STSPF CNN-LSTM RMSE 82.15
101 LSTM and AE MTSPF SAE, SDA RMSE 0.0642
102 DBN STSPF SAE-DBM MAPE 5.11%
103 DL with DBN STSPF DBM-BP MSE 4.801
104 D-CNN STSPF MLP MAE 0.53
105 D-RNN with LSTM — SDA Average RMSE 0.086
53 LSTM supported D-RNN — RNN RMSE 0.077

Abbreviations: ANFIS, adaptive neuro fuzzy inference system; CRPS, continuous ranking probability score; FFNN, feed-forward neural network; GBRT,
gradient boosted regression trees; KNN, k-nearest neighbors; MWNN, Morelet wavelet neural network; NARNN, nonlinear autoregressive neural network;
PCA, principal component analysis; SVRM, support vector regression machine; TDNN, time delay neural network.

(EWT-LSTM-Elman) for the multi-step wind speed fore-
casting in which EWT is used to decompose the raw wind
speed data into a few sub-layers is proposed in Liu
et al.100 The low- and high-frequency parts of the
decomposed wind signal are predicted by LSTM model
and Elman NN, respectively. The compared algorithm
has satisfactory prediction performance in comparison to
11 different forecasting models. A novel hybrid method is
presented in Hu and Chen51 utilizing LSTM, extreme
learning machine (ELM) and differential evolution
(DE) algorithm. DE optimization algorithm is used to
determine the number of hidden layers and neurons for
LSTM network.
The papers related with solar forecasting can be
found at the end of Table 3. The LSTM-RNN model is
proposed in Abdel-Nasser and Mahmoud52 for estimating
the output power of PV, since the LSTM networks can
model short time changes in the PV output power due to
their repeating structure and memory units. The LSTM
network is trained via BP, which removes the gradient
problem. Among the different models on LSTM applied
in several case studies, LSTM for regression with time
steps yields more accurate results. In Gensler et al,101
combinations of DL algorithms such as LSTM, AE and
DBN similar to those in Li et al102 and Neo et al103 which
yield successful results in the state-of-art estimation
methods have been used for power generation estimation
of 21 solar power plants. According to the RMSE method,
the best estimation algorithm is realized with the Auto-
LSTM method with a mean of 0.0713. An AE is utilized
to execute the feature learning followed by combining an
LSTM network to the encoding part of the AE to use tem-
poral information in form of sequences of the extracted
features. In Wang et al,104 a deep CNN is used to estimate
PV energy generation. In this method, past photovoltaic
production data are in the form of one-dimensional
nonlinear signals. The time-series signals are separated
into a main signal and other detail signals by way of WT
method for increasing their estimation accuracy after
which they are used in a NN. A theory called QR also
OZCANLI ET AL. 13

statistically analyzed the prediction error of the results
after reconstruction of the signals by re-wavelet transfor-
mations as a result of training. Consequently, the com-
bined use of the proposed WT-DCNN-QR techniques has
produced a high-specification, stable and robust predic-
tion structure in comparison with other methods.
Unlike other studies, deep recurrent neural network
(DRNN) model is used to estimate the solar radiation
value in Alzahrani et al53,105 and it is aimed to solve com-
plex models and to reveal high-level features in this man-
ner. The application built with LSTM supported DRNN
network structure is implemented in Keras API and
Matlab platforms.
3.3 | Detection and classification of
power quality disturbances in power
systems
The determination and classification of PQDs are impor-
tant in improving the protection, security and reliability
of power systems. In recent years, the system data of
smart grids (such as voltage-current signals and magni-
tudes, status information of grids, electric usage) have
become available due to developments of inter-
communicating devices, such as phasor measurement
units and smart meters. Artificial intelligent methods can
be implemented easily thanks to the availability of this
high-dimensional data. In a recent study,106 soft comput-
ing techniques on classifying PQD have been reviewed
and DL applications are briefly summarized by a few
articles. However, the applications of DNNs are com-
prehensively presented by comparing them with the
existing methods in this section. These studies are sum-
marized in Table 4. It provides a detailed overview on
the application studies of DL methods in EPS. The stud-
ies are categorized as applied DL methods, application
area, comparing methods and performance accuracy of
proposed models.
SAE is used to classify PQD which including sag,
swell, interruption, harmonic, oscillatory in Ma et al.54
The method uses unsupervised learning without any
labeled data for extracting high-level features from input
data. Mahdi and Genc107 proposed a novel method based
on stacked sparse AE for detection of transient stability
status after the occurrence of a fault in power systems.
The results show that the proposed method is quite effec-
tive for real-time detection of stability. Similarly, The
SAE algorithm is combined with independent component
analysis (ICA) in Shi et al.108 The PQD signals are classi-
fied as voltage sag, voltage swell, voltage interruption,
impulsive transient, oscillation transient, harmonic and
flicker. In Deng et al,109 a novel DL architecture is used
differently via directional Gated Recurrent Unit (Bi-

TABLE 4 Summary of reports for the application of deep learning (DL) approaches in detection and classification of power quality
disturbances

Reference DL methods Application Comparative methods Outcome/accuracy

54 SAE Classification of PQD SK-ANN, DWT-FFT Accuracy 99.75%
107 SSAE Detection of transient instabilities MLP Accuracy 99.4%
108 ICA-SAE Classification of complex PQD — Accuracy 98.6%
109 RNN (Bi-GRU) Detection of type and time location PQD — Accuracy 98%
110 MFCNN Identification of complex PQD SVM, DT, DWT, PNN, … Accuracy 99.26%
111 LSTM Voltage dip classification — Accuracy 93.4%
112 DBN Classification of PQD WT and SVM Accuracy 99.15%
113 DBN Diagnosis of voltage sag events SVM Accuracy 96.92%
114 CNN Detecting and classifying PQD Conventional methods Accuracy 99.96%
115 CNN Detecting and classifying PQD SVM Accuracy 99.04%
116 PCA-CNN Monitoring and classification of PQD DWT, ELM, HST, PNN, … Accuracy 99.92%
117 CNN-LSTM Classification of PQD CNN, RNN, LSTM, GRU Accuracy 98.4%
118 CS-CNN Classification of complex PQD ELM, PCA-SVM, PNN, PSO-H-ELM Accuracy 98.6%
119 CS-SAE Classification of complex PQD WT-PNN, DT-NN Accuracy 99.52%
55 WT-SAE Island detection and classifying PQD DT, SVM Accuracy 98.3%

Abbreviations: AUC, area under curve; CDBN, conditional deep belief network; DT, decision tree; DWT-FFT, discrete wavelet transform-fast Fourier
transform; ELM, extreme learning method; GRU, gated recurrent unit; HST, hyperbolic S-transform; PCA, principal component analysis; PNN, probabilistic
NN; PQD, power quality disturbance; PSO, particle swarm optimization; RF, random forest; SK, spectral kurtosis; SSAE, sparse stack autoencoder; WT, wavelet
transform.
14 OZCANLI ET AL.

GRU). In Deng et al109 and Qiu et al,110 the proposed
models are evaluated under different noises and real
operation environments. Three-phase voltage dip pat-
terns are trained with LSTM to classify PQD in Balouji.111
The accuracy of the proposed model is too low according
to other DL applications.
It is indicated in other studies such as Li et al112 and
Mei et al113 that the DBN algorithm has achieved better
performance in comparison with conventional methods
and that they are robust against noise. The various volt-
age sags have been classified in Mei et al113 such as three-
phase short circuit, induction motor starting, and trans-
former energizing.
In recent studies, various CNN architectures have
been used to classify PQDs, especially hybrid CNN
models provide better performance than conventional
methods. For example, Wang and Chen114 and Liu
et al115 have addressed both the detection and classifica-
tion of PQD. While Liu et al115 combine a novel full
closed-loop approach based on a deep CNN, Wang and
Chen114 use the singular spectrum analysis (SSA),
curvelet transform (CT) and deep CNN. The other com-
bined methods utilizing CNN-PCA and CNN-LSTM,
respectively, are presented in Shen et al116 and Mohan
et al.117 The suggested model is tested on modified IEEE
13 bus system by synthetic PQDs in Reference 116. It is
noticed that the method is prone to noise. Various DL
algorithms such as CNN, RNN, LSTM, GRU and hybrid
CNN-LSTM are compared for effective and accurate clas-
sification in Mohan et al.117 The best result is obtained
with CNN-LSTM architecture. The compression sensing
(CS) technology as a data acquisition method is com-
bined with both CNN and SAE algorithms in Wang
et al118 and Liu et al,119 respectively. The proposed
models verify rapid classification and high accuracy
thanks to the CS. A novel DL framework is presented in
Kong et al55 with WT and multi-resolution singular spec-
trum entropy for the detection and classification of grid
disturbance and islanding based on the voltage at the
point of common coupling of the distributed grid. While
the island mode is classified as voltage rise and drop, grid
disturbance is labeled as sag and swell.
3.4 | Fault detection on power system
and equipment
Fault detection and prediction is the process of analyzing
historical data to detect if there is a fault in the electrical
system for ensuring the reliability and stability of the
power system. The applications of DNNs in this field are
presented for both power system protection and electrical
equipment protection such as wind turbine, wind turbine
gearbox, transformer and fuel cell. These studies are pres-
ented shortly in Table 5. It provides a detailed overview
of the DL applications in EPS studies. The studies are cat-
egorized as applied DL methods, application area, com-
pared methods and accuracy of proposed models.
An alternative solution to fault diagnosis in power
system is presented by employing the SAE algorithm
which has better local optimum and diffusion of gradi-
ents in Yixing et al.56 The SAE is constructed with differ-
ent dimension hidden layers and thus the influence of
hidden layers on accuracy rate of diagnosis is demon-
strated. A combined approach is presented in Yu et al120
with WT-based DNNs for microgrid fault detection
including fault type classification, fault phase identifica-
tion and fault location detection. The line trip fault is
predicted using LSTM and SVM algorithms for opera-
tional reliability and the stability of a power system in
Zhang et al.121 According to comprehensive results in

T A B L E 5 Summary of reports for the application of deep learning (DL) approaches in fault detection on power system and power
system equipment

Reference DL methods Application Comparative methods Outcome/accuracy

56 SAE Power system fault diagnosis BP Accuracy 71.3%
120 WT-DNN Fault detection for microgrids DT, kNN, SVM, … Effective accuracy
121 LSTM-SVM Line trip fault prediction BPNN, SAE, RNN, … Accuracy 97.7%
122 DNN WT gearbox failure identification kNN, SVM, NN Accuracy 89.3%
123 DBN-DNN, SAE Fault diagnosis for WT gearbox SVM MAPE 6.01
124 SAE Fault diagnosis for SOFC system SVM Accuracy 79.94%
125 CSAE Transformer fault diagnosis BP Accuracy 93.6%
126 DBN Transformer fault diagnosis SVM, BPNN Accuracy 89.2%
57 DBN Cable fault recognition BP, SVM, ACCLN Accuracy 97.8%

Abbreviations: ACCLN, annealed chaotic competitive learning network; BPNN, back propagation NN; CSAE, continues sparse autoencoder.
OZCANLI ET AL.
References 56, 120, 121, DL algorithms perform much
better than conventional methods.
FF-DNN-based framework is developed by the
authors in Wang et al122 to detect and monitor the WT
gearbox failures by using the lubricant pressure from
SCADA data. The DNN method demonstrates more accu-
rate prediction results compared with five benchmarking
data-driven methods. Similarly, the SAE and SVM algo-
rithms are proposed using a rotor current signal for the
drivetrain gearboxes of the wind turbines by Cheng
et al.123 Another fault diagnosis method based SAE algo-
rithm is applied to solid oxide fuel cell systems (SOFCs)
which are extensively used in auxiliary power units and
stationary power generators in Zhang et al.124 In the pro-
posed model, the raw data of the SOFC system without
any preprocessing are used for training so it could be
directly applied with real system measurements.
The transformer fault was diagnosed with the concen-
trations of gases dissolved in transformer oil in Wang
et al125 and Dai et al.126 The proposed models are con-
ducted with sparse AE and DBN, respectively. According
to the results in Dai et al,126 multiple fault type and num-
ber of sample sets have a direct impact on the accuracy of
the model. Similarly, the DBN architecture is proposed to
identify underground cable fault in Yizhe et al.57 The
results demonstrate that DBN-based methods have dis-
tinct advantages compared with shallow NNs.
3.5 | Other application fields in power
systems
The DL methods used in different areas other than those
mentioned in the preceding sections are summarized in
this part. There are significant studies in literature on the
fields of energy management, energy optimization and
power system security. The security, reliability and eco-
nomic issues of power systems are being coordinated
tighter than ever by way of the deregulation of electric
power industry in recent times. Therefore, there is a
much greater need for fast and robust optimization tools
than before. For example, false data injection (FDI) attacks
composed of cyberattacks are launched by the attackers
who can manipulate the measurement data without caus-
ing any severe change in the physical structure of the sys-
tem. The conditional deep belief network (CDBN)
structure is proposed to detect the unobservable FDI
attacks in the smart grid by He et al.58 SAE is suggested to
predict and detect power system security weak spots in
potential operation scenarios in another study.127 The sim-
ulation results put forth that model simplification and data
parallelism can reduce training time in a real system. Simi-
larly, a novel electricity theft detection model including the
15
wide and deep CNN is presented to secure the smart grid
in Zheng et al.128 Here, the wide component which forms
a fully-connected layer of NNs has memorization of the
global knowledge from the one-dimensional electricity
consumption data while the deep CNN component is
trained on two-dimensional electricity consumption data
since it can accurately classify the non-periodicity of
electricity-theft and the periodicity of normal electricity
usage. Another CNN is applied for detection of the solar
photovoltaic panel in satellite imagery in Malof et al.129
The sample work includes the determination of about 2700
individual distributed PV panels on the area of 135 km2.
The proposed CNN model is not overfitting to the training
data and could generalize well to previously unseen aerial
imagery. A significant study is carried out to estimate the
capacity of lithium-ion batteries via deep CNN algorithm
in Shen et al.130 The proposed method achieves promising
accuracy despite its limitations such as the applicability of
under variable ambient temperature conditions.
For the first time, the benefits of using the DRL
model, a hybrid method consisting of a combination of
DL and RL, have been investigated with regard to the
optimization of building energy systems (smart grid) by
Mocanu et al.131 The learning procedure has been applied
using deep policy gradient (DPG) and deep Q-learning
methods, which are extended to perform many actions at
the same time. These methods are proposed for solving
the same consecutive decision problem both at the indi-
vidual and the aggregated building levels. For both levels,
the DPG method has been shown to be more suitable for
on-line planning of energy resources. François et al132
suggest designing energy storage management strategy
via “Deep Reinforcement Learning” hybrid method as a
solution to the sequential decision-making problem (the
making of storage devices at the optimum level at all
times). The proposed DRL architecture is based on a
large continuous non-handcrafted feature space that uti-
lizes convolutional layers to extract significant features.
The proposed approach is empirically tested in the case
of a residential customer located in Belgium, and it is
original in the overall validation process. A real-time
optimal control strategy based on DL adaptive dynamic
programming for managing of distributed energy in a
microgrid is presented in Wu and Wang.133 The results
show that this dynamic and DL approach is quite effec-
tive on online real-time decision making, reducing opera-
tional costs and so on. Another study has been carried
out on utilizing the DL techniques to estimate the energy
consumption and the power generation together with
numerical weather prediction in Sogabe et al.134 An opti-
mization tool platform using Boltzmann machine algo-
rithm for NMIP problem has also been proposed in this
study for better computing scalable decentralized
16 OZCANLI ET AL.

renewable energy systems. In fact, the DL method has
been used to estimate energy consumption and produc-
tion, but forecast values have been integrated into the
optimization problem. For this reason, this study is cov-
ered here as a part of optimization studies. In Wang
et al,59 a hybrid DL method is used for data analysis and
emergency system management in large power systems.
This study is discussed in this section because the data
analyzed by way of DL method is integrated into the opti-
mization problem as in Sogabe et al.134 Moreover, the
papers are summarized in Table 6. The papers are catego-
rized as applied DL methods, application area, compared
methods and accuracy of proposed models.
4 | ADVANTAG E S AN D
CHALLENGES
It is clear that DL methods have several advantages over
traditional methods. It is noticed from the studies
reviewed that higher-performance accuracy may be
obtained in comparison with traditional methods:
• DL can extract high-level features automatically even
from insufficient labeled data and it has high computa-
tional efficiency in terms of the capability of para-
lleling the computation. As a result, DL has better
generalization ability than traditional methods.
• DL has higher robustness in case of missing data, noise
data, uncertainty data, etc.
• DL is quite suitable for detection of power system dis-
turbances considering the rapid growth of monitor
devices in the multi-energy system.
• Another advantage in the implementation stage is that
it can be easily applied in programming languages
such as Python which are widely used in data sciences.
There are also unique platforms, such as Tensorflow
and Keras, which have DL libraries.
Despite all benefits, DL methods on power systems
have also some challenges which can be indicated as
follows:
• One of the most important points that affect the accu-
racy of the DNNs is training data size, which is partic-
ularly problematic on electrical power systems due to
the fact that generating the training data on physical
systems can be expensive and time-consuming. There
is a risk of overfitting in case sufficient amount of data
are not used, and in this case, the test error seems high
even for low training errors.
• Another important feature that should be included in
the data sets to improve the result is the criterion of
clean and noiseless data. Disturbed input sources, poor
quality data, trustworthiness of data analysis, limited
labeled data have adverse impacts on the performance
of the model.
• Model parameter selection is another important stage
for an optimal deep architecture. There are no specific
defined rules for the selection of model parameters and
hence it is difficult to find the most appropriate model.

TABLE 6 Summary of reports for the application of deep learning (DL) approaches in various application areas

Outcome/
Reference DL methods Application Comparative methods accuracy
58 CDBN Detection of false data injection in smart grid ANN, SVM Accuracy 93%
127 SAE Prediction of power system security weak Shallow model Accuracy 95.78%
spots
128 Wide-Deep CNN Electricity-theft detection in smart grid SVM, RF, Wide, CNN AUC 0.78
129 CNN Solar photovoltaic array detection RF Precision rate 72%
130 Deep CNN Estimating capacity of lithium-ion batteries RVM RMSE 0.622%
131 DRL On-line building energy optimization Heuristic Methods (E.G. PSO) —
132 DRL Microgrids energy management No comparison —
133 DNN Microgrid economic dispatch (ED) The robust and deterministic —
optimization methods
134 DML (BMA) Optimization of decentralized renewable No comparison —
energy system
59 Multilevel DL Big data analysis and emergency SVM —
management of power system

Abbreviations: BMA, Boltzmann machine algorithm; DML, deep machine learning; DRL, deep reinforcement learning; RF, random forest; RVM, relevance
vector machine; SVM, support vector machine.
OZCANLI ET AL.
Trial and error method is used for determining the
parameters such as the number of layers, the number
of neurons in each layer, learning rate, momentum, the
number of epochs and hence the process may be time-
consuming.
• The time elapsed in the detection of problems in elec-
trical power systems is another parameter that must be
considered for the protection and operational sustain-
ability of other systems. DL algorithms include mathe-
matical operations with millions of connections,
indirect and interconnected weights. In electrical sys-
tems, especially in real-time applications, this process
needs to be performed quickly and so, DL algorithms
need additional powerful hardware like GPU which
can perform parallel and distributed computing.
5 | C ONCLUSIONS A ND F UTURE
PERSPECTIV ES
Electric power systems have faced serious challenges
such as power outages, losses, faults in operation, control
and monitoring with the integration of distributed gener-
ation and its increased capacities. Researchers have
recently tried to use intelligent methods instead of tradi-
tional methods in order to cope with these difficulties.
DL has emerged as a state-of-the-art solution tool with
robust training algorithms and parallel computing capa-
bility where high dimensional data is available. In this
study, the methods related to DL in electrical power sys-
tems have been reviewed comprehensively. Thus, the
developed algorithms are summarized in terms of the
input data, the fields of application, the proposed
methods and the level of accuracy, in detail.
In this context, this review has been studied with the
examination of 84 articles which are related with DL
algorithms' usage on EPS. According to searching results,
it is observed that AEs, deep CNN and LSTM-RNN
methods have been mostly used in the literature so far.
SAEs have been applied by 20% of all articles, and the
authors' of these papers have taken advantage of its capa-
bility of feature extraction, dimensionality reduction and
data denoising. LSTM-RNNs have been proposed by 24%
of all studies and applied frequently in time series fore-
casting such as load, wind and solar forecasting. CNNs
have been used by 20% of all papers for detection, fore-
casting and classification problems. According to DL
applications in EPS, the most widely studied fields are
electric power consumption, wind and solar power out-
put forecasting problems. After that, DL algorithms are
applied extensively for the classification of PQDs and
fault detection of a transformer, turbine gearbox, cable,
etc. The remaining DL application studies on power
17
systems are related to energy management, energy opti-
mization and power system security. On the other hand,
there are very few studies on power system protection
and islanding detection. In this context, there is a wide
research and application area of electrical power systems
studies in terms of DL techniques is waiting to be
explored. This study will serve as a launching point for
many electrical power system researchers who aim to
apply DL approaches in their profession.
Partial solutions have been suggested until now for
via DL techniques for EPS issues; however, the current
literature is still at a starting stage. There are still some
questions on DL structure such as the best algorithm,
number of layers, type of hidden unit activation function,
learning ratio, momentum, number of training cases,
weight of neurons, etc.? Even so, DL algorithms have
great application potential for EPS in the future since the
increasing integration of renewable energy sources in
power systems will facilitate the use of DL techniques
thanks to intelligent monitoring systems and smart
metering. Moreover, DL can be appropriate for use in tra-
ditional methods as an auxiliary system in terms of the
reliability of the system due to the fact that 100% accu-
racy cannot be achieved in the solutions realized with
AI. However, DL algorithms remain on the agenda as
promising approaches in spite of various limitations and
challenges in electrical power systems.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We hereby wish to acknowledge the support provided by
the Scientific and Technological Research Council of Tur-
key under grant (2211-C).
ORCID
Asiye K. Ozcanli https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5536-5371
Mustafa Baysal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6298-918X
RE FER EN CES
1. Bharati GR, Paudyal S. Coordinated control of distribution
grid and electric vehicle loads. Electr Pow Syst Res. 2016;140:
761-768. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.05.031.
2. Golshannavaz S, Afsharnia S, Siano P. A comprehensive sto-
chastic energy management system in reconfigurable
microgrids. Int J Energy Res. 2016;40:1518-1531. https://doi.
org/10.1002/er.
3. Yigit K, Acarkan B. A new ship energy management algo-
rithm to the smart electricity grid system. Int J Energy Res.
2018;42:1-16. https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4062.
4. Raza MQ, Khosravi A. A review on artificial intelligence
based load demand forecasting techniques for smart grid and
buildings. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2015;50:1352-1372.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2015.04.065.
5. Bicer Y, Dincer I, Aydin M. Maximizing performance of fuel
cell using artificial neural network approach for smart grid
18
applications. Energy. 2016;116:1205-1217. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.energy.2016.10.050.
6. Evangelopoulos VA, Georgilakis PS. Optimal operation of
smart distribution networks: a review of models, methods and
future research. Electr Pow Syst Res. 2016;140:95-106. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2016.06.035.
7. Yaprakdal F, Baysal M. Optimal operational scheduling of
reconfigurable microgrids in presence of renewable energy
sources. Energies. 2019;12(10):1858. https://doi.org/10.3390/
en12101858.
8. Ku C, Lee KY. Diagonal recurrent neural networks for dynamic
systems control. IEEE Trans Neural Netw. 1995;6(1):144-156.
9. Kermany SD, Joorabian M, Deilami S, Masoum MAS. Hybrid
islanding detection in microgrid with multiple connection
points to smart grids using fuzzy-neural network. IEEE Trans
Power Syst. 2017;32(4):2640-2651. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TPWRS.2016.2617344.
10. Hinton G, Deng L, Yu D, et al. Deep neural networks for
acoustic modeling in speech recognition. IEEE Signal Process
Mag. 2012;29(6):82-97. https://doi.org/10.1109/MSP.2012.
2205597.
11. Krizhevsky A, Sutskever I, Hinton GE. ImageNet classification
with deep convolutional neural networks. Adv Neural Inf Pro-
cess Syst. 2012;1:1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2014.
09.007.
12. Bengio Y. Learning deep architectures for AI. Found Trends®
Mach Learn. 2009;2(1):1-127. https://doi.org/10.1561/2200000006.
13. Min S, Lee B, Yoon S. Deep learning in bioinformatics. Brief
Bioinform. 2017;18(5):851-869. https://doi.org/10.1093/bib/
bbw068.
14. Litjens G, Kooi T, Bejnordi BE, et al. A survey on deep learn-
ing in medical image analysis. Med Image Anal J. 2017;42:60-
88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.media.2017.07.005.
15. Wang J, Ma Y, Zhang L, Gao RX, Wu D. Deep learning for
smart manufacturing: methods and applications. J Manuf
Syst. 2018;48:1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmsy.2018.01.003.
16. Nguyen VN, Jenssen R, Roverso D. Electrical power and
energy systems automatic autonomous vision-based power
line inspection: a review of current status and the potential
role of deep learning. Electr Power Energy Syst. 2018;99:107-
120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2017.12.016.
17. Helbing G, Ritter M. Deep learning for fault detection in wind
turbines. Renew Sustain Energy Rev. 2018;98:189-198. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2018.09.012.
18. Almalaq A, Edwards G. A review of deep learning methods
applied on load forecasting. Paper presented at: 2017 16th
IEEE International Conference on Machine Learning and
Applications (ICMLA), Cancun, 2017. https://doi.org/10.
1109/ICMLA.2017.0-110.
19. Wang H, Lei Z, Zhang X, Zhou B, Peng J. A review of deep
learning for renewable energy forecasting. Energ Conver Man-
age. 2019;198:111799. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.
2019.111799.
20. Zhang D, Han X, Deng C. Review on the research and prac-
tice of deep learning and reinforcement learning in smart
grids. CSEE J Power Energy Syst. 2018;4(3):362-370. https://
doi.org/10.17775/CSEEJPES.2018.00520.
21. Cheng L, Yu T. A new generation of AI: a review and perspec-
tive on machine learning technologies applied to smart energy
OZCANLI ET AL.
and electric power systems. Int J Energy Res. 2019;43:1-46.
https://doi.org/10.1002/er.4333.
22. McCulloch WS, Pitts W. A logical calculus of the ideas imma-
nent in nervous activity. Bull Math Biophys. 1943;5(4):115-133.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02478259.
23. Tesauro G. Practical issues in temporal difference learning.
Mach Learn. 1992;277:257-277.
24. Bengio Y, Lecun Y. Scaling learning algorithms towards AI.
Large-Scale Kernel Machines. Vol 1. Cambridge, MA: MIT
Press; 2007:1-41.
25. Schmidhuber J. Deep learning in neural networks: an over-
view. Neural Netw. 2015;61:85-117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
neunet.2014.09.003.
26. Hinton G, Asindero S, Whye TY. A fast learning algorithm for
deep belief nets. Neural Comput. 2006;18(7):1527-1554.
https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.2006.18.7.1527.
27. Lecunn Y, Bottou L, Bengiu Y, Haffner P. Reducing the
dimensionality of data with neural networks. Science. 2006;
313(5786):504-507. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1127647.
28. Yue T, Wang H. Deep learning for genomics: a concise over-
view. Handbook of Deep Learning Applications; 2018. https://
doi.org/10.1021/acs.molpharmaceut.5b00982.
29. NVIDIA. Deep learnıng for self-drıvıng cars. https://www.
nvidia.com/en-us/deep-learning-ai/industries/automotive/.
Accessed May 10, 2018.
30. Gashler MS. Deep learning in robotics: a review of recent
research. arXiv:1707.07217. 1–41.
31. Goodfellow I, Bengio Y, Courville A. Deep Learning. Cam-
bridge, MA: MIT Press. http://www.deeplearningbook.org/.
Accessed 9 October 2019; 2016.
32. Bengio Y, Haffner P. Gradient-based learning applied to docu-
ment recognition. Proc IEEE. 1998;86(11):2278-2324.
33. Rawat W. Deep convolutional neural networks for image clas-
sification: a comprehensive review. Neural Comput. 2017;
2449:2352-2449. https://doi.org/10.1162/NECO.
34. Bengio Y, Courville A, Vincent P. Representation learning: a
review and new perspectives. IEEE Trans Softw Eng. 2013;35
(8):1798-1828. https://doi.org/10.1145/1756006.1756025.
35. Erhan D, Courville A, Vincent P. Why does unsupervised pre-
training help deep learning? J Mach Learn Res. 2010;11(2007):
625-660. https://doi.org/10.1145/1756006.1756025.
36. Bengio Y, Lamblin P, Popovici D, Larochelle H. Greedy layer-
wise training of deep networks. Adv Neural Inf Process Syst.
2007;19(1):153.
37. Vincent P, Larochelle H. Extracting and composing
robust features with denoising autoencoders. Paper pres-
ented at: International Conference on Machine Learning,
2008.
38. Hinton GE. Learning multiple layers of representation. Trends
Cogn Sci. 2007;11(10):428-434. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.
2007.09.004.
39. Rumelhart DE. Parallel Distributed Processing: Explorations in the
Microstructure of Cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 1986.
40. Pearl J. Probabilistic Reasoning in Intelligent Systems: Networks
of Plausible Inference. San Mateo, CA: Morgan Kaufmann
Publishers; 1988.
41. Salakhutdinov R, Hinton G. Deep Boltzmann machines.
In van Dyk D, and Welling M. (Eds). Int Conf Artif Intell Stat.
2009;5:448-455.
OZCANLI ET AL.
42. Salakhutdinov R, Larochelle H. Efficient learning of deep
Boltzmann machines. Int Conf Artif Intell Stat. 2010;9:
693-700.
43. Salakhutdinov R, Hinton G, Hinton G. An Efficient Learning
Procedure for Deep Boltzmann Machines. Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press; 2010.
44. Xu J, Li H, Zhou S. An overview of deep generative models.
IETE Tech Rev. 2015;32(2):131-139. https://doi.org/10.1080/
02564602.2014.987328.
45. Williams RJ, Zipser D. A learning algorithm for continually
running fully recurrent neural networks. Neural Comput.
1989;1:270-280. https://doi.org/10.1162/neco.1989.1.2.270.
46. Chung J, Gulcehre C, Cho K, Bengio Y. Empirical evaluation
of gated recurrent neural networks on sequence modeling,
2014. arXiv: 1412.3555. http://arxiv.org/abs/1412.3555
47. Hochrejter S, Schmidhuber J. Long short term memory. Neu-
ral Comput. 1997;9(8):1735-1780.
48. He W. Load forecasting via deep neural networks. Procedia
Comput Sci. 2017;122:308-314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.
2017.11.374.
49. Qiu X, Ren Y, Suganthan PN, Amaratunga GAJ. Empirical
mode decomposition based ensemble deep learning for load
demand time series forecasting. Appl Soft Comput. 2017;54:
246-255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2017.01.015.
50. Hu Q, Zhang R, Zhou Y. Transfer learning for short-term
wind speed prediction with deep neural networks. Renew
Energy. 2016;85:83-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2015.
06.034.
51. Hu YL, Chen L. A nonlinear hybrid wind speed forecasting
model using LSTM network, hysteretic ELM and differential
evolution algorithm. Energ Conver Manage. 2018;173:123-142.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.07.070.
52. Abdel-Nasser M, Mahmoud K. Accurate photovoltaic power
forecasting models using deep LSTM-RNN. Neural Comput
Applic. 2017;31:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-017-
3225-z.
53. Alzahrani A, Shamsi P, Dagli C, Ferdowsi M. Solar irradiance
forecasting using deep recurrent neural networks. ICRERA
USA. 2017;114:304-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.
09.045.
54. Ma J, Zhang J, Xiao L, Chen K, Wu J. Classification of power
quality disturbances via deep learning. IETE Tech Rev. 2017;
34(4):408-415. https://doi.org/10.1080/02564602.2016.1196620.
55. Kong X, Xu X, Yan Z, Chen S, Yang H, Han D. Deep learning
hybrid method for islanding detection in distributed genera-
tion. Appl Energy. 2018;210:776-785. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2017.08.014.
56. Yixing W, Meiqin LIU, Zhejing BAO. Deep learning neural
network for power system fault diagnosis. Paper presented at:
35th Chinese Control Conference, 2016:6678–6683.
57. Yizhe Z, Wang M, Gang D, Jun G, Pai W. A cable fault recog-
nition method based on a deep belief network. Comput Electr
Eng. 2018;71:452-464. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compeleceng.
2018.07.043.
58. He Y, Mendis GJ, Wei J. Real-time detection of false data injec-
tion attacks in smart grid: a deep learning-based intelligent
mechanism. IEEE Trans Smart Grid. 2017;8(5):2505-2516.
59. Wang XZ, Zhou J, Huang ZL, Bi XL, Ge ZQ, Li L. A multilevel
deep learning method for big data analysis and emergency
19
management of power system. IEEE Int Conf Big Data Anal.
2016;1-5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICBDA.2016.7509811.
60. Saviozzi M, Massucco S, Silvestro F. Implementation of
advanced functionalities for distribution management sys-
tems: load forecasting and modeling through Artificial neural
networks ensembles. Electr Pow Syst Res. 2019;167:230-239.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2018.10.036.
61. Pappas SS, Ekonomou L, Karampelas P, et al. Electricity
demand load forecasting of the Hellenic power system using
an ARMA model. Electr Pow Syst Res. 2010;80:256-264.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2009.09.006.
62. Zheng J, Xu C, Zhang Z, Li X. Electric load forecasting in
smart grids using long-short-term-memory based recurrent
neural network. Annu Conf Inf Sci Syst. 2017;1-6. https://doi.
org/10.1109/CISS.2017.7926112.
63. Bouktif S, Fiaz A, Ouni A, Serhani MA. Optimal deep learn-
ing LSTM model for electric load forecasting using feature
selection and genetic algorithm: comparison with machine
learning approaches. Energies. 2018;11(7):1636. https://doi.
org/10.3390/en11071636.
64. Dedinec A, Filiposka S, Dedinec A, Kocarev L. Deep belief
network based electricity load forecasting: an analysis of Mac-
edonian case. Energy. 2016;115:1688-1700. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.energy.2016.07.090.
65. Mocanu E, Nguyen PH, Gibescu M, Larsen EM, Pinson P.
Demand forecasting at low aggregation levels using factored
conditional RBM. Paper presented at: 19th Power Systems
Computation Conference, 2016. https://doi.org/10.1109/PSCC.
2016.7540994.
66. Kuo PH, Huang CJ. A high precision artificial neural net-
works model for short-term energy load forecasting. Energies.
2018;11(1):1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/en11010213.
67. Varga ED, Beretka SF, Noce C, Sapienza G. Robust real-time
load profile encoding and classification framework for efficient
power systems operation. IEEE Trans Power Syst. 2014;30(4):
1897-1904. https://doi.org/10.1109/TPWRS.2014.2354552.
68. Li L, Ota K, Dong M. When weather matters: IoT-based elec-
trical load forecasting for smart grid. IEEE Commun Mag.
2017;55(10):46-51. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.2017.
1700168.
69. Wang L, Zhang Z, Chen J. Short-term electricity price fore-
casting with stacked denoising autoencoders. IEEE Trans
Power Syst. 2017;32(4):2673-2681. https://doi.org/10.1109/
TPWRS.2016.2628873.
70. Li L, Ota K, Dong M. Everything is image: CNN-based short-
term electrical load forecasting for smart grid. Paper presented
at: 11th International Conference on Frontier of Computer
Science and Technology, Exeter, UK. 2017:344–351. https://
doi.org/10.1109/ISPAN-FCST-ISCC.2017.78.
71. Kong W, Dong ZY, Jia Y, Hill DJ, Xu Y, Zhang Y. Short-term
residential load forecasting based on LSTM recurrent neural
network. IEEE Trans Smart Grid. 2017;3053(c):1-11. https://
doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2017.2753802.
72. Wang Y, Gan D, Sun M, Zhang N, Lu Z, Kang C. Probabilistic
individual load forecasting using pinball loss guided LSTM.
Appl Energy. 2019;235:10-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
apenergy.2018.10.078.
73. Kong W, Dong ZY, Hill DJ, Luo F, Xu Y. Short-term residen-
tial load forecasting based on resident behaviour learning.
20
IEEE Trans Power Syst. 2018;33(1):1-1088. https://doi.org/10.
1109/TPWRS.2017.2688178.
74. Shi H, Xu M, Li R. Deep learning for household load
forecasting—a novel pooling deep RNN. IEEE Trans Smart Grid.
2018;9:5271-5280. https://doi.org/10.1109/TSG.2017.2686012.
75. Fan C, Wang J, Gang W, Li S. Assessment of deep recurrent
neural network-based strategies for short-term building
energy predictions. Appl Energy. 2019;236:700-710. https://
doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.12.004.
76. Yan K, Wang X, Du Y, Jin N, Huang H, Zhou H. Multi-step
short-term power consumption forecasting with a hybrid deep
learning strategy. Energies. 2018;11(11):1-15. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en11113089.
77. Coelho VN, Coelho IM, Rios E, et al. A hybrid deep learning
forecasting model using GPU disaggregated function evalua-
tions applied for household electricity demand forecasting.
Energy Procedia. 2016;103:280-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
egypro.2016.11.286.
78. Ryu S, Noh J, Kim H. Deep neural network based demand side
short term load forecasting. Paper presented at: 2016 IEEE
International Conference on Smart Grid Communications,
Sydney, NSW, Australia. 2016:308–313. https://doi.org/10.
1109/SmartGridComm.2016.7778779.
79. Amarasinghe K, Marino DL, Manic M. Deep neural net-
works for energy load forecasting. Paper presented at:
IEEE 26th International Symposium on Industrial Elec-
tronics, 2017:1483–1488. https://doi.org/10.1109/ISIE.2017.
8001465
80. Mocanu E, Nguyen PH, Gibescu M, Kling WL. Deep learning
for estimating building energy consumption. Sustain Energy
Grids Netw. 2016;6:91-99. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.segan.2016.
02.005.
81. Mocanu E, Nguyen PH, Kling WL, Gibescu M. Unsupervised
energy prediction in a smart grid context using reinforcement
cross-building transfer learning. Energ Buildings. 2016;116:
646-655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enbuild.2016.01.030.
82. Coelho IM, Coelho VN, Eduardo J, Luz S, Ochi LS,
Guimar~aes FG. A GPU deep learning metaheuristic based
model for time series forecasting. Appl Energy. 2017;201:412-
418. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.01.003.
83. Qiu X, Zhang L, Ren Y, Suganthan PN. Ensemble deep learn-
ing for regression and time series forecasting. Paper presented
at: IEEE Symposium on Computational Intelligence in Ensem-
ble Learn, 2014. https://doi.org/10.1109/CIEL.2014.7015739
84. Rahman A, Srikumar V, Smith AD. Predicting electricity con-
sumption for commercial and residential buildings using deep
recurrent neural networks. Appl Energy. 2018;212:372-385.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2017.12.051.
85. Li C, Ding Z, Zhao D, Yi J, Zhang G. Building energy
consumption prediction: an extreme deep learning
approach. Energies. 2017;10(10):1525. https://doi.org/10.
3390/en10101525.
86. Berriel RF, Lopes AT, Rodrigues A, Varejao FM, Oliveira-
Santos T. Monthly energy consumption forecast: a deep learn-
ing approach. Paper presented at: International Joint Confer-
ence on Neural Networks, Anchorage, AK, USA. 2017:
4283–4290. https://doi.org/10.1109/IJCNN.2017.7966398.
87. Cai M, Pipattanasomporn M, Rahman S. Day-ahead building-
level load forecasts using deep learning vs. traditional time-
OZCANLI ET AL.
series techniques. Appl Energy. 2019;236:1078-1088. https://
doi.org/10.1016/J.APENERGY.2018.12.042.
88. Qureshi AS, Khan A, Zameer A, Usman A. Wind power pre-
diction using deep neural network based meta regression and
transfer learning. Appl Soft Comput J. 2017;58:742-755.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asoc.2017.05.031.
89. Khodayar M, Kaynak O, Khodayar ME. Rough deep neural
architecture for short-term wind speed forecasting. IEEE
Trans Ind Inform. 2017;13(6):2770-2779.
90. Dalto M, Matuško J, Vašak M. Deep neural networks for
ultra-short-term wind forecasting. Paper presented at: IEEE
International Conference on Industrial Technology
(ICIT), Seville. 2015:1657-1663.
91. Tao Y, Chen H. Wind power prediction and pattern feature
based on deep learning method. Paper presented at: IEEE PES
Asia-Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference
(APPEEC), Hong Kong, China. 2014:1–4.
92. Zhang C, Chen CLP, Gan M, Chen L. Predictive deep
Boltzmann machine for multiperiod wind speed forecast-
ing. IEEE Trans Sustain Energy. 2015;6(4):1416-1425.
93. Wang K, Qi X, Liu H, Song J. Deep belief network based k-
means cluster approach for short-term wind power forecast-
ing. Energy. 2018;165:840-852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
energy.2018.09.118.
94. Wu W, Chen K, Qiao Y, Lu Z. “Probabilistic short-term wind
power forecasting based on deep neural networks,” 2016
International Conference on Probabilistic Methods Applied to
Power Systems (PMAPS), Beijing, 2016;1-8. https://doi.org/10.
1109/PMAPS.2016.7764155.
95. Wang H, Li G, Wang G, Peng J, Jiang H, Liu Y. Deep learning
based ensemble approach for probabilistic wind power fore-
casting. Appl Energy. 2017;188:56-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.apenergy.2016.11.111.
96. Qin Y, Li K, Liang Z, et al. Hybrid forecasting model based on
long short term memory network and deep learning neural
network for wind signal. Appl Energy. 2019;236:262-272.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.11.063.
97. Liu H, Mi X, Li Y. Smart deep learning based wind
speed prediction model using wavelet packet decomposi-
tion, convolutional neural network and convolutional
long short term memory network. Energ Conver Manage.
2018;166:120-131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2018.
04.021.
98. Xiaoyun Q, Xiaoning K, Chao Z, Shuai J, Ma X. Short-
term prediction of wind power based on deep long
short-term memory. Paper presented at: IEEE PES Asia-
Pacific Power and Energy Engineering Conference,
Xi'an, China. 2016. https://doi.org/10.1109/APPEEC.2016.
7779672.
99. Du W, Chen J, Zeng G-Q, Lu K-D, Zhou W. Wind speed fore-
casting using nonlinear-learning ensemble of deep learning
time series prediction and extremal optimization. Energ Con-
ver Manage. 2018;165:681-695. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
enconman.2018.03.098.
100. Liu H, Mi X-W, Li Y-F. Wind speed forecasting method based
on deep learning strategy using empirical wavelet transform,
long short term memory neural network and Elman neural
network. Energ Conver Manage. 2019;156:498-514. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.11.053.
OZCANLI ET AL.
101. Gensler A, Henze J, Sick B, Raabe N. Deep learning for
solar power forecasting—an approach using AutoEncoder
and LSTM neural networks. Paper presented at: IEEE Inter-
national Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics
(SMC), Budapest, Hungary. 2016:2858–2865. https://doi.org/
10.1109/SMC.2016.7844673.
102. Li L-L, Cheng P, Lin H-C, Dong H. Short-term output power
forecasting of photovoltaic systems based on the deep belief
net. Adv Mech Eng. 2017;9(9). https://doi.org/10.1177/
1687814017715983.
103. Neo YQ, Teo TT, Woo WL, Logenthiran T, Sharma A. Fore-
casting of photovoltaic power using deep belief network.
Paper presented at: TENCON 2017—2017 IEEE Region
10 Conference, Penang, Malaysia. 2017:1189–1194. https://
doi.org/10.1109/TENCON.2017.8228038.
104. Wang H, Yi H, Peng J, et al. Deterministic and probabilistic
forecasting of photovoltaic power based on deep con-
volutional neural network. Energ Conver Manage. 2017;153:
409-422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enconman.2017.10.008.
105. Alzahrani A, Shamsi P, Dagli C, Ferdowsi M. Solar irradiance
forecasting using deep neural networks. Procedia Comput Sci.
2017;114:304-313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.09.045.
106. Mishra M. Power quality disturbance detection and classifica-
tion using signal processing and soft computing techniques: a
comprehensive review. Int Trans Electr Energy Syst. 2019;29:
e12008. https://doi.org/10.1002/2050-7038.12008.
107. Mahdi M, Genc VMI. Post-fault prediction of transient insta-
bilities using stacked sparse autoencoder. Electr Pow Syst Res.
2018;164:243-252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2018.08.009.
108. Shi X, Yang HUI, Xu Z, Zhang X, Farahani MR. An indepen-
dent component analysis classification for complex power
quality disturbances with sparse autoencoder features. IEEE
Access. 2019;7:20961-20966. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.
2019.2898211.
109. Deng Y, Wang L, Jia H, Tong X, Li F. A sequence-to-sequence
deep learning architecture based on bidirectional GRU for
type recognition and time location of combined power quality
disturbance. IEEE Trans Ind Inform. 2019;15:4481-4493.
https://doi.org/10.1109/TII.2019.2895054.
110. Qiu W, Tang Q, Liu J, Yao W. An automatic identification
framework for complex power quality disturbances based on
multifusion convolutional neural network. IEEE Trans Ind
Inform. 2020;16:3233-3241. https://doi.org/10.1109/TII.2019.
2920689.
111. Balouji E. A LSTM-based deep learning method with applica-
tion to voltage dip classification. Paper presented at: 18th Inter-
national Conference on Harmonics and Quality of Power,
2018:1–5. https://doi.org/10.1109/ICHQP.2018.8378893.
112. Li C, Li Z, Jia N, Qi Z, Wu J. Classification of power-quality
disturbances using deep belief network. Paper presented at:
International Conference on Wavelet Analysis and Pattern
Recognition (ICWAPR), Chengdu, China. 2018:231–237.
113. Mei F, Ren Y, Wu Q, Zhang C, Pan Y, Sha H. Online recogni-
tion method for voltage sags based. Energies. 2018;12(1):43.
https://doi.org/10.3390/en12010043.
114. Wang S, Chen H. A novel deep learning method for the classi-
fication of power quality disturbances using deep con-
volutional neural network. Appl Energy. 2019;235:1126-1140.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2018.09.160.
21
115. Liu H, Hussain F, Shen Y, Arif S, Nazir A, Abubakar M. Com-
plex power quality disturbances classification via curvelet
transform and deep learning. Electr Pow Syst Res. 2018;163:1-
9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsr.2018.05.018.
116. Shen Y, Abubakar M, Liu H, Hussain F. Power quality distur-
bance monitoring and classification based on improved PCA
and convolution neural network for wind-grid. Energies. 2019;
12:1280. https://doi.org/10.3390/en12071280.
117. Mohan N, Soman KP, Vinayakumar R. Deep power: deep
learning architectures for power quality disturbances classifica-
tion. 2017 International Conference on Technological
Advancements in Power and Energy (TAP Energy 2017). 2018:
1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/TAPENERGY.2017.8397249.
118. Wang J, Xu Z, Che Y. Power quality disturbance classification
based on compressed sensing and deep convolution neural
networks. IEEE Access. 2019;7:78336-78346. https://doi.org/
10.1109/ACCESS.2019.2922367.
119. Liu H, Hussain F, Yue S, Yildirim O. Classification of multiple
power quality events via compressed deep learning. Int Trans
Electr Energy Syst. 2019;29:1-14. https://doi.org/10.1002/2050-
7038.12010.
120. Yu JJQ, Hou Y, Lam AYS, Li VOK. Intelligent fault detection
scheme for microgrids with wavelet-based deep neural net-
works. IEEE Trans Smart Grid. 2017;3053(c):1-10. https://doi.
org/10.1109/TSG.2017.2776310.
121. Zhang S, Wang Y, Liu M, Bao Z. Data-based line trip fault pre-
diction in power systems using LSTM networks and SVM.
IEEE Access. 2017;6:7675-7686. https://doi.org/10.1109/
ACCESS.2017.2785763.
122. Wang L, Zhang Z, Long H, Xu J, Liu R. Wind turbine gearbox
failure identification with deep neural networks. IEEE Trans
Ind Inform. 2017;13(3):1360-1368.
123. Cheng F, Wang J, Qu L. Rotor current-based fault diagnosis
for DFIG wind turbine drivetrain gearboxes using frequency
analysis and a deep classifier. IEEE Trans Ind Appl. 2018;54
(2):1062-1071. https://doi.org/10.1109/TIA.2017.2773426.
124. Zhang Z, Li S, Xiao Y, Yang Y. Intelligent simultaneous fault
diagnosis for solid oxide fuel cell system based on deep learn-
ing. Appl Energy. 2019;233-234:930-942. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.apenergy.2018.10.113.
125. Wang L, Zhao X, Pei J, Tang G. Transformer fault diagnosis
using continuous sparse autoencoder. SpringerPlus. 2016;5:
448. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40064-016-2107-7.
126. Dai J, Song H, Sheng G, Jiang X. Dissolved gas analysis of
insulating oil for power transformer fault diagnosis with deep
belief network. IEEE Trans Dielectr Electr Insul. 2017;24:2828-
2835. https://doi.org/10.1109/TDEI.2017.006727.
127. Huang T, Guo Q, Sun H, Tan C, Hu T. A deep spatial-
temporal data-driven approach considering microclimates for
power system security assessment. Appl Energy. 2019;237:36-
48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.013.
128. Zheng Z, Yatao Y, Niu X, Dai H-N, Zhou Y. Wide and deep
convolutional neural networks for electricity-theft detection
to secure smart grids. IEEE Trans Ind Inform. 2017;3203(c):1-
1615. https://doi.org/10.1109/TII.2017.2785963.
129. Malof JM, Collins LM, Bruadbury K, Newell RG. A deep con-
volutional neural network and a random forest classifier for
solar photovoltaic array detection in aerial imagery. Int Conf
Renew Energy Res Appl. 2016;5:5-9.
22 OZCANLI ET AL.

130. Shen S, Sadoughi M, Chen X, Hong M, Hu C. A deep learning 134. Sogabe T, Haruhisa I, Sakamoto K, Yamaguchi K,
method for online capacity estimation of lithium-ion batteries. Sogabe M, Sato T. Optimization of decentralized renewable
J Energy Storage. 2019;25:100817. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est. energy system by weather forecasting and deep machine
2019.100817. learning techniques. IEEE Innovative Smart Grid Technol.
131. Mocanu E, Mocanu DC, Nguyen PH, et al. On-line building 2016;1-5.
energy optimization using deep reinforcement learning. arXiv:
1707.05878, 2017:1–9.
132. François-lavet V, Fonteneau R, Ernst D. Deep reinforcement
learning solutions for energy microgrids management. Paper How to cite this article: Ozcanli AK,
presented at: European Workshop on Reinforcement Learn- Yaprakdal F, Baysal M. Deep learning methods
ing, 2016:1–7.
and applications for electrical power systems: A
133. Wu N, Wang H. Deep learning adaptive dynamic program-
ming for real time energy management and control strategy of
comprehensive review. Int J Energy Res. 2020;1–22.
micro-grid. J Clean Prod. 2018;204:1169-1177. https://doi.org/ https://doi.org/10.1002/er.5331
10.1016/j.jclepro.2018.09.052.