Definition

of Cell: A cell is the smallest unit that is capable of performing life

functions.
Ex:Amoeba Proteus,Bacteria,Plant Stem, Red Blood Cell, Nerve Cell

The cell varies in size:
• The smallest cell like cerebellum cells and protozoa
. • The largest cell like ovum and muscles

Types of Cells:

The Cell structure : A) Cytoplasm - B) Nucleus

A - Cell organelles : Cell organelles small organs each of them performed certain
function which is essential for life and metabolism of cells classified into :
1- Non- membranous 2- Membranous

Cell Membrane:
•Also called Plasma Membrane
• Surrounds the cell and decides what comes in and out
• Semi-permeable: allows nutrients in and waste products out
• Made of a phospholipid bilayer

Plasma Membrane:
• It is the boundary, which separates the living cell from the surroundings.
• It is lipid bilayer, which contains -two layers of phospholipids, phosphate head is
(water loving), fatty acid tails (water fearing) and the proteins embedded in
membrane.
• It is a fluid mosaic of lipids, proteins and carbohydrate.Structure
- The function:
• It separates the contents of the cell from its outside environment and it
regulates what enters and exits the cell.
• Plasma membrane plays a vital role in protecting the interior of the cell by
allowing only selected substances into the cell and keeping other substances out.
• It also serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in some organisms.
Thus the cell membrane supports the cell and helps in maintaining the shape of
the cell.

Movement through the Plasma Membrane (has 4) : In order for the cell
cytoplasm to communicate with the external environment, materials must be
able to move through the plasma membrane. This movement occurs through
several mechanisms.
1- Passive diffusion: is the movement of small molecules from a region of
higher concentration to one of lower concentration, like ions and gasses O2
2- Active transport of materials: When active transport is taking place, a
protein moves a certain material across the membrane from a region of
lower concentration to a region of higher concentration. Because this
movement is happening against the concentration gradient, the cell must
expend energy that is usually derived from a substance called adenosine
triphosphate, or ATP (energy).
 3- Selective transport of materials: A presences of receptors on the outer
surface of the cell membranes allows it to select and to determined which
materials to enter the cell and which one out like( drugs & hormones)
4- bulk transport:A) Endocytosis: a process in which a small patch of plasma
membrane encloses particles or tiny volumes of fluid that are at or near the
cell surface. The membrane enclosure then sinks into the cytoplasm and
pinches off from the membrane, forming a vesicle that moves into the
cytoplasm
*When the vesicle contains solid particulate matter, the process is called
phagocytosis. When the vesicle contains droplets of fluid, the process is
called pinocytosis

b) Exocytosis: is the reverse of endocytosis, where internally produced
substances are enclosed in vesicles and fuse with the cell membrane,
releasing the contents to the exterior of the cell
_______________________
1-The Nucleus
-Directs cell activities.
- Separated from cytoplasm by nuclear membrane.
-Contains genetic material – DNA.
-Brain of Cell.
-Bordered by a porous membrane - nuclear envelope.
-Contains thin fibers of DNA and protein called Chromatin.
-Rod Shaped Chromosomes.
-Contains a small round nucleolus.
-produces ribosomal RNA which makes ribosomes.
-Control center of cell.
-Double membrane
-Contains Chromosomes & Nucleolus

a- Nuclear Membrane:
• Surrounds nucleus
• Made of two layers
• Openings allow material to enter and leave nucleus.
b- Chromosomes:
• In nucleus
• Made of DNA
• Contain instructions for traits & characteristics
c- The nucleolus:
•Large in size.
•ribosomal RNA Synthesis.
•Formed of DNA &RNA.
•Non- membranous organ.
•Disappear during cell division.

D- the nuclear matrix

•Colloidal, clear solution.
•Formed of nuclear proteins and enzymes And some other materials.
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
2- The Cytoplasm:
-It is complex structure, colloidal(Gel-like) mixture rich in proteins,
carbohydrate, lipids,enzymes, minerals, ions and vitamins.
-Surrounded by cell membrane.
-Contains hereditary material (RNA).
- contains many membranous and non membranous organelles.

a- Endoplasmic Reticulum:
• Complex network of transport channel. Two types:
1. Rough - contains ribosomes and releases newly made protein from the cell.
2. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum -ribosome free and functions in poison
detoxification and lipid synthesis

The major functions of Endoplasmic reticulum are:
• It is mainly responsible for the transportation of proteins and carbohydrates to
another organelle.
• They provide the increased surface area for cellular reactions.
• They help in the formation of nuclear membrane during cell division.
• They play a vital role in the synthesis of proteins, lipids, glycogen and other
steroids like cholesterol, progesterone, testosterone, etc.

b- Mitochondria:
• It’s the size of a bacterium
• Contains its own DNA;mDNA
• Produces high energy compound ATP.
• Mitochondriaaredoublemembranebound.The inner membrane is folded into
numerous cristae
• Mitochondria are the power generators of the cell.
• They are capable of self-replication as they possess their own DNA
• The main function of mitochondria is to produce energy through metabolism.
• In the mitochondria sugar is finally burnt during cellular respiration.
• The energy released in this process is stored as high-energy chemicals called
adenosine triphosphate (ATP).


c- Golgi Apparatus:
•A series of flattened sacs that modifies, packages, stores, and transports
materials out of the cell.
•Works with the ribosomes and Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Function of Golgi Apparatus :
• modify, sort and package the macromolecules that are synthesized by the cells
for secretion purposes or for use within the cell.
• They are also involved in the transport of lipid molecules around the cell.
• They also create lysosomes.
• The Golgi complex is thus referred as post office where the molecules are
packaged, labelled and sent to different parts of the cell.

d- Lysosome:
• Digestive 'plant' for proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
• Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal
• Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes
• Lysosomes are single membrane bound structures.
• They are tiny sac like structures and are present all over the cytoplasm. The main
function is digestion They contain digestive enzymes. Lysosomes contain digestive
enzymes that are acid hydrolases.
• They are responsible for the degrading of proteins and worn out membranes in
the cell and also help degradation of materials that are ingested by the cell.

*Lysosomes that are present in the white blood cells are capable of digesting
invading microorganisms like the bacteria and viruses.
They are capable of digesting the entire damaged cell containing them, hence, the
lysosomes are known as "suicide bags" of the cell.

e-Vacuoles
• Membrane-bound sacs for storage, digestion, and waste removal
• Contains water solution
• Help plants maintain shape
•Sacs that help in food digestion or helping the cell maintain its water balance.
•Found mostly in plants and protozoa.
Non membranous organelles:
a- Ribosomes
• Small non-membrane bound organelles.
• Contain two sub units nSite of protein synthesis. nProtein factory of the cell
•Either free floating or attached to the Endoplasmic Reticulum.

b- Centrosome
•Centrosomes are the cytoskeleton organizers.
•The centrosomes produces the microtubules of a cell, they are the key
components of the cytoskeleton.
• Centrosomes are composed of two centrioles, they separate during cell division
and they help in the formation of mitotic spindle.
•The centrioles called basal bodies form cilia and flagella

Centrioles Function:
In higher animal cells the centrioles form the mitotic poles.
•The centrioles function as the microtubule organizing center, it is an important
event in major cellular process, that is cell division and flagella formation.
•The centrioles pair duplicates within a cell and the two pairs migrate to the
opposite ends of the cell to organize the mitotic spindle.
•The centrioles may produce flagella or cilia.
•The fiber of the tail of sperms also arises from the
centriole.
•The dysfunctioning of the centrosome is also
Tissues: Cells work together in functionally related groups called tissues
o Types of tissues:
1. Epithelial - lining and covering
2. Connective - support
3. Muscle - movement
4. Nervous – control

Epithelial Tissue - General Characteristics & Functions :
- Covers a body surface or lines a body cavity
- Forms most glands
- Functions of epithelium
• Protection
• Absorption, secretion, and ion transport
• Filtration
• Forms slippery surfaces

Special Characteristics:
1 Cellularity
- cells are in close contact with each other with little or no intercellular space
between them

2 Specialized contacts
- may have junctions for both attachment and
communication

3 Support by connective tissue
- at the basal surface, both the epithelial tissue and the connective tissue contribute
to the basement membrane

4 Avascular
- nutrients must diffuse

5 Innervated
6 Regeneration
- epithelial tissues have a high capacity for regenerationof Epithelic


Lateral Surface Features:
-Factors holding epithelial cells together
•Adhesion proteins link plasma membranes of adjacent cells
-Special cell junctions
•Tight Junctions

Basal Feature: The Basal Lamina
§ Noncellular supporting sheet between the epithelium and the connective
tissue deep to it
§ Consists of proteins secreted by the epithelial cells

o Functions:
• Acts as a selective filter, determining which molecules from capillaries enter the
epithelium
• Acts as scaffolding along which regenerating epithelial cells can migrate
• Basal lamina and reticular layers of the underlying connective tissue deep to it form
the basement membrane

- Classifications & Naming of Epithelia
• First name of tissue indicates number of layers
1 Simple - one layer of cells
2 Stratified - more than one layer of cells
• Last name of tissue describes shape of cells
1 Squamous -cells wider than tall (plate or “scale” like)
2 Cuboidal - cells are as wide as tall, as in cubes
3 Columnar - cells are taller than they are wide, like columns
⭐ The name may also include any accessory structures

• Goblet cells
• Cilia
• Keratin
⭐ Special epithelial tissues (don t follow naming convention)

• Psuedostratified
• Transitional
Simple

1.Simple Squamous Epithelium

o Description : single layer of flat cells with disc-shaped nuclei
• Lines peritoneal, pleural, and pericardial cavities
• Covers visceral organs of those cavities
o Function
• Passage of materials by passive diffusion and filtration
• Secretes lubricating substances in serosae
o Location
• Renal corpuscles
• Alveoli of lungs
• Lining of heart, blood and lymphatic vessels Lining of ventral body cavity
(serosae)

2.Simple Cuboidal Epithelium

o Description : single layer of cube-like cells with large, spherical central nuclei
o Function : secretion and absorption
o Location
• kidney tubules, secretory portions of small glands, ovary & thyroid follicles

3. Simple Columnar Epithelium
o Description : single layer of column-shaped (rectangular) cells with oval nuclei
•Some bear cilia at their apical surface
•May contain goblet cells
o Function
• Absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances
• Ciliated type propels mucus or reproductive cells by ciliary action
o Location
a)Non-ciliated form : Lines digestive tract, gallbladder, ducts of some glands
b)Ciliated form : Lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, uterus







3. Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
o Description
• All cells originate at basement membrane
• Only tall cells reach the apical surface
• May contain goblet cells and bear cilia
• Nuclei lie at varying heights within cells - Gives false impression of stratification
o Function
• secretion of mucus; propulsion of mucus by cilia
o Locations
a)Non-ciliated type
•Ducts of male reproductive tubes
•Ducts of large glands
b)Ciliated variety
•Lines trachea and most of upper respiratory tract

Stratified Epithelia
- Contain two or more layers of cells
- Regenerate from below
- Major role is protection
- are named according to the shape of cells at apical layer

1.Stratified Squamous Epithelium
o Description
•Many layers of cells - squamous in shape
•Deeper layers of cells appear cuboidal or columnar
•Thickest epithelial tissue • adapted for protection
o Specific types
a) Keratinized - contain the protective protein keratin Surface cells are dead and full
of keratin
b) Non-keratinized - forms moist lining of body openings
o Function
•Protects underlying tissues in areas subject to abrasion
o Location
a) Keratinized - forms epidermis
b) Non-keratinized - forms lining of esophagus, mouth, and vagina


2.Stratified cuboidal epithelium
-2 or 3 layers of cuboidal cells
-protection
-linings of larger ducts of mammary glands, sweat glands, salivary glands, and
pancreas

3.Stratified columnar epithelium
-protection and secretion
-vas deferens, part of the male urethra, parts of the pharynx (throat)

4.Transitional Epithelium
o Description : Basal cells usually cuboidal or columnar
Superficial cells dome- shaped or squamous
o Function : stretches and permits distension of urinary bladder
o Location : Lines ureters, urinary bladder and part of urethra

Glandular Epithelium
- Ducts carry products of exocrine glands to epithelial surface
- Include the following diverse glands
• Mucus-secreting glands
• Sweat and oil glands • Salivary glands
• Liver and pancreas • Mammary glands
- May be: unicellular or multicellular

Unicellular Exocrine Glands (The Goblet Cell)
- Goblet cells produce mucin
- Mucin + water “ mucus “
- Protects and lubricates many internal body surfaces


Connective Tissues (C.T) :
Its called connective tissue because its supports, binds and connects various tissues and organs.

- C.T cells :
1.fixed cells

2.free cells

- Cartilage
• The cell (chondrocytes) lies in small
chambers called lacunae
• Matrix is solid yet flexible
• Lacks direct blood supply, as a result, it heals slowly
o Types of cartilages
-Hyaline cartilage
- Elastic cartilage
- Fibrocartilage

A. Hyaline Cartilag
• Most common
• Matrix contains fine collagenous fibers Glassy, white, opaque
• Found in the nose, ends of the long bones and ribs, rings in the trachea
 B. Elastic Cartilage
• Contains elastic and collagenous fibers
• Found in the outer ear

C. Fibrocartilage
• Matrix contains strong collagenous fibers
• Function: absorbs shocks and reduces friction between joints.
• Found in the pads between the vertebrae and knee joints

- Bones
• Most rigid of the connective tissues
• Minerals and protein fibers gives bone rigidity, elasticity and strength
o Two types:
• Compact bone • Spongy bone

A. Compact Bone
• Found in the outer portion of long bones
• Consists of many cylindrical-shaped units called

B. Spongy Bone
• Found on ends of long bone
• Contains bony bars and plates called trabeculae separated by irregular spaces
• Blood cells are made within the red marrow found in the spongy bone
- Blood : Blood is classically considered to be one of the connective tissues
• Blood, when allowed to stand, will separate into two components:
1) Liquid : Plasma, which is a straw- colored fluid comprised mostly of water
2) Solid : Cellular components, including:
platelets - red blood cells - white blood cells
• Blood is a connective tissue that has a fluid matrix called plasma and no
fibers
• Erythrocytes (red blood cells ) the predominant cell type,are involved in the
transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide
• Also present are various leukocytes (white blood cells) involved in immune
response

- Erythrocytes :
o Originate in the bone marrow
o Resemble the shape of a doughnut without a hole (biconcave)
o Average lifespan is 120 days
o Normal value = approximately 4.5 to 5 million per cubic millimeter of blood
o Contains an iron-rich protein molecule called hemoglobin
o Responsible for carrying oxygen and removing carbon dioxide from every
body cell
• Mammalian erythrocytes lose their nuclei and mitochondria when they
are released from the bone marrow where they are made
• Fish, amphibian, and avian red blood cells maintain their nuclei and
mitochondria throughout the cell's life
• The principal job of an erythrocyte is to carry and deliver oxygen to the
tissues
- Thrombocytes :
o Also known as platelets
o Smallest of all the cellular components
o Normal adult has 150,000 to 450,000 per cubic millimeter of blood
o Average lifespan is 9 to 12 days
o Prevent blood loss following an injury





 - Platelets :
• The slightly granular material among the cells is a cytoplasmic fragment of a cell
in the bone marrow. This is called a platelet or thrombocyte
• Platelets participate in the stages leading up to coagulation of the blood to stop
bleeding through damaged blood vessels

- Leukocytes :
• Also known as white blood cells
• Primarily responsible for destroying foreign substances such as pathogens
• Appear round and white because they lack hemoglobin
• Normal adult has 5,000 to 10,000 white blood cells per cubic millimeter of
blood

Ø Granular :
1) Neutrophils : phagocytic cells and they participate in one of the early lines of
defense against microbial invaders, aiding in the removal of bacteria that has
entered the body
o The most common form of leukocyte
o Segmented or lobulated nucleus 3 to 5 lobes
2) Eosinophils : bi-lobed nucleus
o cytoplasmic granules are strongly eosinophilic, staining a bright orange-
pink color
o involved in allergic responses
3) Basophils : deep purple S-shaped nucleus
o facilitate the inflammatory response





 Ø Agranular :
1) Lymphocyte: is typically the most numerous and most important of
the agranulocytes
o nucleus is usually round
o Lymphocytes function primarily in the immune response to foreign
antigens or material.
o Different types of of lymphocytes make antibodies tailored to the foreign
antigens and control the
o production of those antibodies.

2) Monocytes: kidney shaped, bean shaped, or horseshoe shaped
nucleus
o Monocytes give rise to phagocytic macrophages that clean up dead
and damaged cells in the body, whether they are foreign or from the
host animal.
 - MuscleTissue: Associated with the bones of the skeleton, the heart and in the
walls of the hollow organs of the body
• MuscleTissueFunctions:
Movement – Maintainsposition –
Producesheat – Pumpsblood – Peristalsis
• 3 MAJOR TYPES : Skeletal – striated Smooth –striated Cardiac

1. Skeletal :
- Skeletal muscle is attached to bone and can be controlled by conscious effort
(voluntary).
- The cells (muscle fibers) are long and cylindrical, striated, have many nuclei and
contract from nervous impulse
2. Smooth :
- Lacks striations, is uninucleate, and consists of spindle-shaped cells.
- Involuntary muscle
- found in the walls of internal organs, and in the digestive tract, blood vessels,
and urinary bladder.
3. Cardiac :
- Found only in the heart and consists of branching fibers that are connected to
each other with intercalated disks.
- This involuntary muscle has a single nucleus in each cell but appears striated.

Comparison of the Different Types of Muscle :

- Nervous Tissue: Main component of the nervous system, ie., brain, spinal cord
& nerves.
- Nervous Tissue Functions:
o Regulates & controls body functions
o Generates & transmits nerve impulses
o Supports, insulates and protects impulse generating neurons

- NERVOUS SYSTEM DIVISIONS:
1.Central nervous system (CNS)
o consists of the brain and spinal cord
2.Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
o consists of cranial and spinal nerves that contain both sensory and motor
fibers
o connects CNS to muscles, glands & all sensory receptors

Types of Nervous tissue cells:
1) Neurons- largest cells, transmit impulses
2) Neuroglial cells- smaller, more abundant and act as support for neurons

- NEURONS :
Ø Functional unit of nervous system
Ø Have capacity to produce action potentials
o electrical excitability
Ø Cell body
o single nucleus with prominent nucleolus
o Nissl bodies (chromatophilic substance)
- rough ER & free ribosomes for protein synthesis
o neurofilaments give cell shape and support
o microtubules move material inside cell
 o lipofuscin pigment clumps (harmless aging)
Ø Cell processes = dendrites & axons

- DENDRITES
o Conducts impulses towards the cell body
o Typically short, highly branched & unmyelinated
o Surfaces specialized for contact with other neurons
o Contains neurofibrils & Nissl bodies

- FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF NEURONS
Ø Sensory (afferent) neurons
o transport sensory information from skin, muscles, joints, sense organs
& viscera to CNS
Ø Motor (efferent) neurons
o send motor nerve impulses to muscles & glands
Ø Interneurons (association) neurons
o connect sensory to motor neurons
o 90% of neurons in the body

- NEUROGLIAL CELLS :
Ø Half of the volume of the CNS
Ø Smaller cells than neurons
Ø 50x more numerous
Ø Cells can divide
o rapid mitosis in tumor formation (gliomas)
Ø 4 cell types in CNS
o astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia & ependymal
Ø 2 cell types in PNS
o schwann and satellite cells