Why can glycerophospholipids form membranes, while triacylglycerols cannot?

Glycerophospholipids are glycerol-based phospholipids. They are the main component of biological
membranes. Glycerophospholipids, rather than triacylglycerols are found in cell membrane. The cell
membrane consists of two distinguisahable layers, made of glycerolphohspholip molecules. The
composition of each layer varies widely depending on the type of cell

Lipid is a biomolecule, the glycerophospholipids and triglycerides all belong to lipid only.
Glycerophospholipids are a component of cell structure and triglycerides are a component of fat.

As you know the cell membrane structure is, it is made up of an amphipathic molecule whose head is
polar and hydrophilic and the tail is non-polar hydrophobic and forms the lipid bilayer. So,
glycerophospholipids are amphiphilic lipid although triglycerides are completely insoluble in water
because their structure is different, it doesn't form any polar head so it is unable to form a lipid bilayer.

Glycerophospholipids : It are fatty acid diglycerides with a phosphatidyl ester attached to the terminal
carbon. The terminal ester groups are mainly ethanolamine, choline, serine, or inositol.

Phospholipids forms bilayers because one end is soluble in water and other end is insoluble in water.
Triglycerides form droplets because of uneven distribution of change within molecules. Triglycerides
have polar heads and non polar fatty acid tails so the change on the molecule is unevenly distributed.

Give a reason for the toxicity than can be caused by overdoses of lipid-soluble vitamins?

Vitamins are essential micronutrients for our body. They are need to maintain good mental health. They
are categorized into two groups: water-soluble (B-complex and C vitamins) and fat-soluble (vitamin
A,D,E and K).

Fat-soluble vitamins are lipophilic in nature, that's why they are absorbed through the lymphatic system
and bile is required to digest them.

Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver, adipose tissue and skeletal muscle. However, fat-soluble
vitamins are more likely to cause toxicity due to overdose.

Lets take an example, Overdose of vitamin A can increase the risk of birth defects. Concerns have been
raised over excessive consumption of liver by pregnant women. Vitamin A poisoning is characterized by
vomiting, brittle bones, fatigue, joint pain, increased calcium levels, dry skin and swelling. These diseases
can be caused by taking too many supplements or consistently eating concentrated sources of vitamin
A.

Fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the body. Their toxicity may pose a risk to normal body functioning.
Beta carotene is an antioxidant and is present in fruits and vegetables. Our gut bacteria produce vitamin
K that is also found in leafy vegetables. Vitamin A is found in the liver, fish, and butter.

Lipid-soluble vitamins are vitamin A, D, K, and E. They are required in small amounts for healthy body
functions. These vitamins are not lost during the cooking of food substances. The body stores these
vitamins in adipose tissue. A healthy person acquires all the fat-soluble vitamins from a balanced diet.
Overdose of these vitamins can be toxic.

Toxicity of vitamin A

Vitamin A is a major component of multivitamin supplements. Its toxicity due to mega-dose can cause
dry skin, itching, nausea, headache, loss of appetite, retarded growth, and bone loss. Excess of dietary
retinol is responsible for birth defects and fractures due to weak bones. Skin treatment contains
compounds that mimic the vitamin A in the body.

Deficiency of vitamin A causes xerophthalmia.

The recommended amount of vitamin A is 900 microgram (mcg) per day for adult males and 700
micrograms per day for an adult female.

Toxicity of vitamin D

High consumption of vitamin D causes accumulation of the vitamin in the liver and causes poisoning.
Vitamin D toxicity generates an excess of calcium in the blood, retarded mental growth, nausea,
vomiting and decreased appetite. Fortified foods have a quantity of the vitamin.

The intake level for vitamin D is 100 mcg per day for an adult.

Deficiency of vitamin D causes rickets.

Toxicity of vitamin E

Overdose of vitamin E causes unhealthy skin, loss of appetite and slow growth. Excess of vitamin A is
hazardous for patients prescribed blood-thinning medicines and statin drugs.

Vitamin E deficiency is found in premature babies

Toxicity of vitamin K

Excessive intake of vitamin K causes the breakdown of the red blood corpuscles and liver dysfunction.
Vitamin D also interrupts the working of anticoagulants and blood-thinners.

Vitamin K deficiency causes excessive blood discharge from a small wound.

Suggest a reason why inorganic ions, such K+, Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+, do not cross biological
membranes by simple diffusion..

Biological membranes are extremely nonpolar environments. The charged ions exclude from these
environments rather than dissolving in these membranes, allowing these ions to pass through the
membrane by simple diffusion.

Charged atoms of various sizes cannot cross through the cell membrane by the process of simple
diffusion.
This is because the charges are repelled by hydrophobic tails present in the interior of the phospholipid
bilayer.

Biological membranes separate the inside and outside of an organism and controls the entry and exit by
selective permeability.

The biological membrane is essentially formed of a lipid bilayer.

Lipid bilayer- It has two layer of lipid molecule. Each lipid molecule has has a hydrophobic (nonpolar) tail
and a hydrophilic (polar) head.

The hydrophilic region of the lipids faces outwards while the hydrophobic region is present at the core.
In addition to lipid, membrane proteins and sugars are also important part of the biological membrane.

Charged molecules such as K+, Na+, Ca2+ and Mg2+ cannot cross the biological membranes by simple
diffusion as they tend to be excluded from such environments rather than dissolving in them. The
charges are repelled by the hydrophobic tails in the interior of the phospholipid bilayer.

So, these charged molecules move through channels passively, down the electrochemical gradients. The
movement of molecules is from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration. No
energy input is required but channel proteins are needed.

Suggest a reason why animals that live in cold climates tend to have higher proportion of unsaturated
fatty acid residues in their lipids than animals that live in warm climates.

The body temperature of cold-blooded animals is directly proportional to outside surrounding

temperature. In a hot environment, the cold-blooded animals are warmer than the warm-blooded
animals.

Cold blooded animals are observed to be more active in warm environment and are a lot slower in cold
environments. This is because the muscle activity depends on endothermic reactions which occur fast
when it is hot and slowly when it is cold

The higher proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids prevents fats from solidifying in the layer of fat that
animals in cold climates use to insulate themselves.

Fatty acids are carboxylic acid with hydrocarbon side chain.

They can be saturated and unsaturated.

Saturated fatty acids- They do not contain double bond in them. E.g., acetic acid

Unsaturated fatty acids- They contain one or more double bond,e.g., oleic acid. If one double bond is
present it is known as monounsaturated fatty acid and if more than one double bond is present it is
known as polyunsaturated fatty acid
Animals in cold climate use lipid to insulate themselves. Polyunsaturated fatty acids have low transition
temperature that prevents fat from solidifying thereby aiding in membrane fluidity therefore, animals
that live in cold climates tend to have higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acid residues in their lipids
than animals that live in warm climates.

A fatty acid is designated as having the structure 18:2 ( 9,12). Draw the structure of the fatty acid.

Why are eicosanoids of such great medical interest? Give two examples and describe their structures
and functions.

Eicosanoids are considered local hormones because they work like hormones and act on the cell close to
their production site. They are not capable of traveling because they are rapidly broken down and have
a variety of effects on the body. Arachidonic acid produces eicosanoids. They play a role in fever
promotion, inflammation, blood clotting, and blood pressure regulation.

They also affect the immune response as well as certain reproductive and respiratory processes.
Eicosanoid brings unpleasant things such as fever and inflammation. That is why eicosanoids are of such
great interest in medical research. Three important eicosanoids are prostaglandins, thromboxanes, and
leukotrienes.

Prostaglandins - Receptors are not the same for all prostaglandins. Due to this, prostaglandin is able to
perform differently and sometimes cause an opposite effect on their target cells. For instance,
prostaglandin can constrict or dilate the blood vessels which brings a change in the blood pressure. They
can constrict or dilate the bronchi of the lungs. They are also involved in causing inflammation and
inducing fever and pain. During labor, it is a prostaglandin that contracts smooth muscles including
those of the uterus.

Thromboxanes: Another type of eicosanoid that can be considered as modified prostaglandin because of
its structure. When produced they cause constriction of blood vessels and aggregation of platelets.
These functions are involved in the process of blood clotting. In short, thromboxanes help the process of
thrombosis.

Eicosanoids are molecules derived from C20 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The word eicosanoid is derived
from the Greek word “eikosa” meaning “twenty”. And the suffix “-noids” is related to the name of fatty
acids. Prostaglandins, thromboxanes, lipoxins, leukotrienes are all eicosanoids.

These compounds are produced by fatty acid oxidation. They are physiologically and pharmacologically
active compounds involved in several biochemical reactions. 

Step 2 Explanation for importance of eicosanoids in medicine

The main reason why eicosanoids are considered a medical interest is because of their role in
biochemical reactions. This includes regulation of blood pressure, inflammatory reaction, reproduction,
pain and fever, renal and respiratory function, metabolism, platelet aggregation, and gastric secretion.
For example, 

 Prostaglandins act as vasodilators and increase the blood flow to lower blood pressure.
Therefore, they are considered as suitable agents for the treatment of hypertension.

 Some prostaglandins are involved in the regulation of ovulation, induction of labor, and the
menstrual cycle. Therefore, they are considered as suitable agents for the regulation of normal
childbirth and termination of pregnancy.

 Prostaglandins are also involved in inflammatory reactions and induce arteriolar vasodilation at
injured sites. Therefore, they are considered a suitable target for anti-inflammatory treatment.

 Prostaglandins are considered a suitable age to control fever. This is because of their role in
regulating body temperature. 

 Different classes of eicosanoids are fallen into two main groups:

prostanoids and leukotrienes groups. Therefore, let's consider the basic
structure of these two groups.
 For example,

Structure Description on structure Function 

Prostaglandin (PGE2) It is an example of prostanoids. They
consist of a cyclopentane ring and two They act as vasodilators and
side chains. increase blood flow. 

It has a carboxyl group on one side. They also inhibit platelet

aggregation. 
They differ in their structure because
of the presence of a double bond on They are involved in inflammatory
the cyclopentane ring and substituent reactions.
group.

It is the best example of Leukotrienes.

They act as a substrate and helps
Leukotriene A4 (LTA4) in the biosynthesis of other
They don’t have complete leukotrienes.
cyclopentane rings like prostaglandin.
Their derivatives play a major role
But they do have two side-chains with in bronchoconstriction,
a carboxyl group on one side. vasoconstriction, and smooth
muscle contraction.
They differ from PGE2 because of the
presence of more double bonds and  
epoxide in their structure.
Give possible explanation why the American Heart Association recommend the use of canola oil or
olive oil rather than coconut oil in cooking?

As cardiovascular diseases are correlated with diets high in saturated fats, American Heart
Association recommends a diet consisting of more unsaturated fats, which reduced the risk of heart
attacks and strokes.

Canola oil and olive oil are attractive dietary choices because they have high ratio of unsaturated fatty
acids to saturated fatty acids. Whereas coconut oil used for cooking has high saturated fats which
increases the amount of cholesterol deposits in the blood vessels.

Due to adapted sedentary lifestyle and modification in dietary habits, many of the non-reversible
diseases are growing day by day. It has been studied; In 2016 the estimated prevalence of cardiovascular
disease in India was 54.5 million with a current estimation of 4.77 billion and even 58 million deaths that
occurred worldwide. Individuals who would be suspected of cardiovascular disease may show raised
blood pressure, glucose, and lipids as well as overweight and obesity.

Canola or olive oil as healthy oil

There are four types of dietary fats thatare vital to give your body energy and support cell growth. These
fats are as follows-:

Saturated fats

Transfats

Monosaturated fats

Polyunsaturated fats

Saturated and transfats considered to be bad fats as they raise the bad cholesterol that is LDL levels in
your blood which adversely affect your health. Replacing the bad fats with good fats as Monosaturated
and polyunsaturated fats is good for your heart.

Benefits of canola and olive oil

Both oils having antioxidant properties which neutralize harmful molecules.

Olive oil provides more saturated and Monosaturated fat and canola oil contains more polyunsaturated
fat whereas coconut oil contains saturated fats which are very high in HDL cholesterol.

Both oils are suitable for frying pan and other moderately hot frying methods.

Dietary values are very high compared to other cooking oils such as soyabean oil,castor oil etc.
Oliver oil and canola oil seems more beneficial for health than coconut oil. These both have an
antioxidant property which helps in fat degradation, digestion process and they comprise of good fats
that keep the body away from cardiovascular problems.

In terms of health impacts, it is better to cook with olive oil. Compared to a tablespoon of olive oil, a
tablespoon of coconut oil contains about six times the amount of saturated fat, nearly meeting the daily
limit of about 13 grams that the American Heart Association recommends