Expt No.

: 1

Date: ______

INDIVIDUAL EXPERIMENT

COLOR BLINDNESS

Age :18 Experimenter’s initial: VJ

Gender: Female Subject’s initial: KS

General Discussion / Introduction

Color Blindness

Sensation

Sensation occurs when special receptors in the sense organs are activated by physical energy
sources, like light or sound, allowing various forms of outside stimuli become neural signals in the brain
(Cicarelli & White, 2015).Though the process of sensing is thought by some to be purely mental, while
some psychologists and philosophers believe that sensation of something is actually a physical quality,
existing independently of the mind. Bertrand Russell, an English philosopher, introduced the term sense-
datum to signify what is sensed and sensation for the mental process. In the most basic terms, sensation is
the output to the input of stimuli, via our gateways of knowledge, mainly our eyes, ears, nose, tongue and
skin(Brittanica, 2017). Without sensations we will not learn or develop, we will not adapt or achieve.
Each of these gateways maintain an individual neural pathway, connecting them to the brain, to process
this information. These pathways are complete with special sensory receptors (to detect specific stimuli
from the environment) and relay neurons to conduct this information, through various relay stations to
various processing areas in our brain or the spinal cord (Morgan, 1986).

Vision and the Human Eye

Vision is one of the important sensations, in which the visual system transfers light energy, into
neural messages via the eyes, in a process known as visuoreception. This involves the eyes, optic nerves
and the visual cortex (located in the occipital lobe). The human eye is where the sensory receptors for the
detection of subtle qualities of wavelengths, such as their height, width, and frequency are located,
resulting in sensations of different colours, shapes and textures. The light from an object enters the eye
through the cornea and the pupil (the size of which is adjusted by the iris according to the brightness of
light) and the lens of the eyes (which is controlled by the ciliary body according to the distance of an
object) and reaches the screen-like structure at the back of the eye, called the retina. This is where
transduction, definedas the process of converting physical energy into receptor potentials occurs in the
rod and cone cells (Cicarelli & White, 2015). Retina contains two types of photoreceptors, called the rods
(for low light levels or scotopic vision) and cones (for higher light levels or photopic vision). The
existence of both the rods and the cones means we have two visual systems, which is also known as the
duplicity theory of vision. Cones are the structures that help us see colour because of the blue, green and
red (or more appropriately, short, medium and long wavelength) photoreceptors, due to certain pigments
in them (Cicarelli & White, 2015).
Color Blindness

Dyschromatopsia or color vision deficiency is the inability to distinguish between one or more of
the primary colors – red, green and blue. Most people with colorblindness have weak color perception,
rather than a complete absence of color vision. This is because of decreased sensitivity in perception of
color, which depends on the intersection between the absorption spectra of the three types of
photoreceptors: one, that absorbs light best in wavelengths of blue-violet, two, in medium wavelengths,
pertaining to the greens, and three, that is sensitive to the reds. When all the three types work correctly, it
is said to be trichromacy, or trichromatism(Brittanica, 2017).

History of Color Blindness

Academic interest in color blindness was first taken in 1803 by the renowned physicist and
chemist John Dalton. This interest was on account of him and his brother being colorblind. Dalton, one of
the early proponents of Atomic Theory, postulated that color vision deficiency was caused by
discoloration of the aqueous humor, the fluid between the eye lens and the retina. According to his
research, he believed that the vitreous humor was bluish, therefore filtering out all of the colors. One of
his last wills was to have an autopsy performed on his eyes, which unfortunately did not reveal any bluish
liquid. However, DNA extracted from his preserved eye tissue showed that Dalton was a deuteranope,
lacking the middle-wave photopigment (corresponding to green) of the retina (D M Hunt, 1995). This
diagnosis contradicts Thomas Young’s belief that Dalton was a protanope, lacking the long-wave
photopigment (corresponding to red) (Young, 1807). Dalton’s suspicions turned out to be false, but it led
to further research in the field, bringing us the knowledge of the causes of colorblindness, as we know
today.

Causes of Color Blindness

Color blindness is usually broadly classified into inherited and acquired colorblindness.

Inherited Colorblindness

Hereditary red-green color vision deficiency is seen in 8% men and 0.5% women, who inherit the
genes for colorblindness from their parents. Colorblind males are found in greater number, because of the
sex-linked recessive characteristic, carried on the X chromosome. This means that the red-green color
vision deficiency trait is passed from carrier mother to son, or a colorblind father and carrier mother to
daughter. A son who inherits the trait from carrier mother and has a colorblind father will be red-green
colorblind, while a daughter in the same situation will only be a carrier. Blue-yellow color vision
deficiency, is an autosomal dominant disorder, thus has only one copy of the defective gene as a requisite
from either parent, for trait expression. Achromatopsia, on the other hand, is an autosomal recessive
disorder, which means, a person should inherit two defective copies of the gene to be affected – they
mostly suffer from this condition congenitally or become symptomatic later on. (Brittanica, 2017)

Acquired Colorblindness

Usually of the blue-yellow type, acquired colorblindness ranges from mild to severe. It can be
due to conditions like
 o degeneration of the macula (part of the eye that processes sharp, clear and straight-ahead vision),
o diabetes mellitus (increased blood glucose level due to an impairment in the body’s ability to
produce the hormone insulin, leading to elevated levels of glucose in the blood, usually leading to
vision problems),
o glaucoma,
o retinitis pigmentosa (genetic disorders involving breakdown and loss of cells in the retina),
o injury, and
o Alzheimer’s disease. (Brittanica, 2017)

Exposure to certain drugs and chemicals can also put people at risk of color blindness (Brittanica,
2017). Aging and a condition called cataract which involves clouding of the lens of the eye also puts
one at risk of colorblindness. Cerebral achromatopsia is a condition, where the person experiences a
sudden onset of color vision loss, post severe injury to the occipital lobe of the brain.

Table-3

Types of Color Blindness – An Overview

Disorders Characteristics Causes Types and Symptoms

Monochromacy Lack of ability Occurs when two Red Monochromacy(achromatopsia)-

distinguish or all three of the absent or non-functioning retinal cones)
colours; caused cone pigments
by cone defect or are missing and Cone Monochromacy- rare, total
absence. colour and colour blindness
lightness vision is
reduced to one
dimension

Dichromacy Moderately Occurs when one Protanopia- due to absence of red

severe colour of the cone retinal photoreceptors (red appears dark)
vision defect in pigments is – congenital, sex linked and present in
which one of the missing and 1% of all males
three basic colour colour is reduced
mechanism is to two Deuteranopia- absence of green retinal
absent or not dimensions photoreceptors, moderately affecting
functioning red-green hue discrimination in 1% of
all males – hereditary and sex-linked

Tritanopia- exceedingly rare colour

vision disturbance – only 2 cone
pigments present and a total absence of
blue retinal receptors

Anomalous Impairment of Occurring when Protanomaly- mild defect with altered

Trichromacy normal 3 D one of the three spectral sensitivity of red retinal
colour vision cone pigments is receptors – poor red-green hue
 Disorders Characteristics Causes Types and Symptoms

altered in its discrimination, which is congenital, sex-

spectral linked, and present in 1% of all males
sensitivity
Deuteranomaly- shift in green
receptors, causing most common red-
green hue discrimination in 5% of all
males; is sex-linked and hereditary

Tritanomaly- rare hereditary colour

vision deficiency affecting blue-yellow
hue discrimination

Achromatopsia Partial or Caused by cone Partial achromatopsia-possess small

complete absence photoreceptor degree of colour discrimination.
of colour vision, cells which do
along with not function Complete achromatopsia-are only able
additional visual properly; also to distinguish between black, white,
problems. Being causes reduced shades of grey and often variations in
an autosomal clarity of vision. contrast. Children with achromatopsia
recessive may have photophobia, i.e., may dislike
disorder, requires bright lights and often avoid the
both the parents daylight. Nystagmus or rhythmic
to be carriers for involuntary eye movements is another
a child to have it. symptom of the condition.

Assessment

The most important part of knowledge about colorblindness is the application of it in the
assessment of color vision. The following are some of the tests that are used to assess color vision.

Ishihara Colour Test

In this test invented by Dr.Shinobu Ishihara, a person is administered a set of plates having
images with coloured dots and is asked to identify the slightly different coloured shape (number/line). If
the shape blends into the background and the person is not able to see it, they are diagnosed of colour
blindness.

Cambridge Colour Test

Developed by J.D. Mollon, J.P. Reffin and B.C. Regan, it is similar to Ishihara test, except the
person looks at a computer screen and is asked to try and find a “C” shape that’s a different colour than
the background, to which the person responds by pressing one of four keys, failing to do which they are
diagnosed of colour blindness.

Anomaloscope Test

Initially named anomaloskop in 1907 by its developer, German ophthalmologist and physiologist
Willibald A. Nagel, this test checks if the person can match the brightness of two lights. The person is
asked to look into an eyepiece at 2 lights that have different levels of brightness and use knobs in the
equipment to match the brightness of the lights, failing which, they are diagnosed of colour blindness.

Imaging Tests

The following are some of the imaging tests that can be done on a person’s eyes to assess their colour
vision.

 Wide-field fundus photography (photos of the back of the eye are taken),
 Fundus autofluorescence (may be used to identify stress or damage to the retinal pigment
epithelium),
 Optical coherence tomography (used to assess the various layers at the back of the eye),
 Electroretinogram (used to evaluate the functioning of the different types of photoreceptor cells).
(Dan Brennan, 2020)

Treatment

While there is no permanent cure for color blindness, some treatments and lifestyle changes could
help people lead better lives. There are special contact lenses / glasses available to combat this issue to an
extent, which has helped more than 75% of the people with color vision deficiency see with significantly
improved color perception, some of them being EnChroma and O2Amp Oxy-Iso color correction glasses
(Innovations in color blindness, 2016). These glasses are separately available for seeing in different
intensities of light. People can get personalized glasses depending in the type of color blindness they
have, people who had acquired it due to underlying diseases, or imbalanced/ excessive medication could
check with a physician to treat their illness or modify the dosage of medication to get better results (Color
Blindness- Diagnosis and treatment, 2019). For people who can only see in black and white
(Achromatopsia), there exist special eyeborgs that converts sound waves to colors.

Color Blindness in Everyday Life

A look around one’s room is enough to realise the part played by colours in our everyday life.
From the appeal of how one’s food is presented to the aesthetically decorated home and work spaces; we
humans give a lot of importance to colours in our life. What most of us do not realise is how unfriendly
such an environment is to people who cannot perceive all the colours. People with deficient colour vision
experience problems in carrying out everyday tasks and work, starting from differentiating between ripe
and unripe vegetables in a super market to driving with road-signals that use coloured lights. In a study
conducted in 2004(Tagarelli, 2004), it was found that subjects with deficient colour vision preferred to do
daytime driving. At night, identification of reflectors and rear signal lights of vehicles proved difficult for
subjects with deficient colour blindness. Some kids with mildly severe conditions might not be able to
read what's written on the board properly, or may misinterpret the color-coded stuff in their textbook,
shade patterns in coloring books with wrong colors leading to ridicule by peers. It is of vital importance
that we consider the lack of intelligence not inherently due to color blindness, rather a shortcoming due to
a defect in one of their gateways of knowledge(Ansell, 2021).
Advantages of Color Blindness

All is not grey and gloomy in the lives of the colour blind. As it turns out from various research
studies, the condition even may have some advantages. A study by Goulart in 2016 revealed that amongst
monkeys in the South and Central America, majority of females and all males are colour-blind.
Observation of the preferred inheritance of genes for colour blindness suggests this being an adaptation to
their surroundings, rather than a defect (Goulart, 2016) . One easy advantage is the ability of predators to
exploit this by seeing through camouflage. This particular advantage was used by those in charge of
recruiting soldiers in the Axis powers in the second World War, selectively recruited colourblind soldiers
for their ability to see through camouflage and accurately target enemy bunkers (willingCorporal, 2003).

Another familiar example is the famous artist Vincent Van Gogh, who is renowned for the
amazingly complex colourful patterns, yet a keen eye would notice how his choice of palette might
indicate a defective colour vision and his focus on the usage of patterns and textures (Associates, 2016).

Deficient colour vision comes with an advantage of better vision in dim light, which can prove
beneficial for security and enforcement personnel with job descriptions that mandate duty timings at
night.

Problem / Objective

To determine whether the subject has a normal vision or color vision deficiency

Plan / Description of the Test

The test contains 38 plates and each plate will have irregular mosaic of dots differing in brightness and
colors. The first 25 plates present numbers in different colors; the plates from 26 to 38 present a winding
line between two cross (‘x’) marks which has to be traced with the fingers.

Materials Required

Ishihara Color blindness Test plates developed by Dr.Shinobu Ishihara, manual

Procedure

The subject is seated comfortably and the Ishihara’s color blindness test is administered with the
following instructions:“I will show 38 plates one by one. For the first 25 plates you will have to tell me
the number written on each of the plates, if you don’t see any number then say “no number”. When the
plates 26-38 are presented to you, you will have to trace the route from one ‘X’ mark to another ‘X’ using
your index finger. The responses are checked for correctness with the manual so that the colorblindness of
the subject can be tested. Results are then tabulated, discussed and conclusions are drawn.

Results

Table-1 shows the subject’s score in the color vision deficiency (or color blindness) test

Table-2 shows the group’s score in the color vision deficiency (or color blindness) test
Table-1 showing the subject’s score in the color vision deficiency (or color blindness) test (in all 38
plates)

Right / Right /
Plate Wrong Plate Wrong
Stimulus Response Stimulus Response
No. No.
( or ×) ( or ×)

1 12 12  20 41 - ×

2 8 8  21 37 - ×

3 6 6  22 26 26 

4 29 29  23 42 42 

5 57 57  24 35 35 

25 96 96 
6 5 5 
26 2 2 
7 3 3 
27 1 2 ×
8 15 15 
28 2 0 ×
9 74 74 
29 2 0 ×
10 2 2 
30 1 1 
11 6 6 
31 1 1 
12 97 97 
32 1 1 
13 45 45 
33 1 1 
14 5 5 
34 1 1 
15 7 7 
35 1 1 
16 16 16 
36 1 1 
17 73 73 
37 1 1 
18 49 - ×
38 1 1 
19 6 - ×
Table-1a showing the subject’s overall score in the color vision deficiency (or color blindness) test

Initial Color vision*

DN No Color Vision Deficiency

Table-2 showing the group’s score in the color vision deficiency (or color blindness) test

Color 15. RC F Normal

S.
Initials Gender Vision
No. 16. DN F Normal
Deficiency

1. IMFJ F Normal 17. RBT F Normal

2. LS F Normal 18. SS F Normal

3. VJ F Normal 19. PNG F Normal

4. AM F Normal 20. SG F Normal

5. IS F Normal 21. GL F Normal

6. RI F Normal 22. TG F Normal

7. AKB F Normal 23. KS M Normal

8. VKD F Deficient 24. AR F Normal

9. AS M Normal 25. SNS F Normal

10. HSK F Normal 26. RB F Normal

11. NE F Normal 27. SS F Normal

12. TS M Normal 28. MSIM M Normal

13. LR F Normal 29. PB F Normal

14. DM F Normal 30. KJ F Normal

 45. HB F Normal

46. MV F Normal
Color
S. No. Initials Gender
Vision 47. VM F Normal

31. AU F Normal 48. SK F Normal

32. KCS F Normal 49. SD F Normal

33. MBS M Normal 50. TA F Normal

34. OB F Normal 51. JP F Normal

35. DVP F Normal 52. KS F Normal

36. RL F Normal 53. SSN F Normal

37. PB F Normal 54. MB M Normal

38. SDSV F Normal 55. AZF F Normal

39. PAP F Normal 56. V M Normal

40. JC F Normal 57. SJ F Normal

41. BPS F Normal 58. MHK M Normal

42. SBS F Normal 59. TB F Normal

43. SVS F Normal

44. LPC F Normal

Individual Discussion

The subject DN was administered with the 38 Ishihara plates (Online). During the experiment,
the subject was initially found to be relaxed and went through the first few plates very quickly. The
subject DN slowed down during the next few plates with the double digits and appeared slightly doubtful.
There was confusion visible on the face, indicated by a slight frown, when they faced slides with patterns.
This confusion was resolved when they were reminded that such a situation was possible. The subject was
found to have no color vision deficiency when administered with the Ishihara Color Plates.

Group Discussion

The group comprises 59 members, in which 8 were males, and 51 were females. The age group is
between 17 and 19. Females outnumber males in this group, which bring in gender difference; hence the
results cannot be generalized. The average score of the group is 33.87. The average score of males is
33.71. The average score of females is 33.03. Most members did not have any difficulty with undergoing
the test. A few members, who used spectacles to correct myopic vision raised a doubt regarding their
wearing of the spectacles during the test. 2 members of the group had a difficulty in identifying the
numbers or patterns in more than 4 plates.

Conclusion

- Subject DN was found to have no color vision deficiency when tested with Ishihara’s color
blindness test (Online)

- The group in general was found to have no color vision deficiency when tested with Ishihara’s
color blindness test (Online)

- There were 7 members in the group who had difficulty in identifying the number and patterns in
more than 4 plates (mention the range)

- There still exist individual differences in the color vision in the group

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