Asis Patnaik (Editor) - Sweta Patnaik (Editor) - Fibres To Smart Textiles-Advances in Manufacturing, Technologies, and Applications-CRC Press (2019)

Fibres to Smart Textiles
Advances in Manufacturing,
Technologies, and Applications
Textile Institute Professional Publications
Series Editor:
The Textile Institute
Care and Maintenance of Textile Products Including

Apparel and Protective Clothing
Rajkishore Nayak, and Saminathan Ratnapandian
The Grammar of Pattern
Michael Hann
Standard Methods for Thermal Comfort Assessment of Clothing
Ivana Špelić, Alka Mihelić Bogdanić, and Anica Hursa Sajatovic
Advances in Manufacturing Technologies, and Applications
Asis Patnaik and Sweta Patnaik
For more information about this series, please visit: www.crcpress.com/

Textile-Institute-Professional-Publications/book-series/TIPP
Advances in Manufacturing,
Technologies, and Applications
Edited by
Asis Patnaik and Sweta Patnaik
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Patnaik, Asis, author. | Patnaik, Sweta, author.

Title: Fibres to smart textiles : advances in manufacturing, technologies,
and applications / Asis Patnaik and Sweta Patnaik.
Description: Boca Raton : Taylor & Francis, a CRC title, part of the
Taylor & Francis imprint, a member of the Taylor & Francis Group, the academic
division of T&F Informa, plc, [2020] | Series: Textile Institute professional
publications | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019015379 | ISBN 9781138332515 (pbk. : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781138368033 (hardback : alk. paper) | ISBN 9780429446511 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Textile fabrics. | Manufacturing processes.
Classification: LCC TS1765 .P38 2020 | DDC 677--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019015379
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at

http://www.crcpress.com
To our parents.
Contents
Series Preface.............................................................................................................ix
Preface.......................................................................................................................xi
Editors..................................................................................................................... xiii
Contributors.............................................................................................................. xv
Chapter 1 Textile Fibres and Recent Developments..............................................1

Doice Moyo and Asis Patnaik
Chapter 2 Filament Formation and Recent Developments.................................. 17

Arobindo Chatterjee
Chapter 3 Yarn Formation and Recent Developments......................................... 31

Ashvani Goyal
Chapter 4 Fabric Formation and Recent Developments...................................... 63

Rajesh Mishra, Mohanapriya Venkataraman, and Veerakumar
Arumugam
Chapter 5 Knitting and Recent Developments..................................................... 89

Bibhu Prasad Dash, Rajesh Mishra, and Veerakumar Arumugam
Chapter 6 Non-Woven Fabrics: Technology, Applications and Recent

Developments.................................................................................... 109
Vinay Kumar Midha and Monica Sikka
Chapter 7 Braiding and Recent Developments.................................................. 131

Kadir Bilisik
Chapter 8 Preparatory Chemical Processes and Recent Developments............ 153

Naveen V. Padaki, Brojeswari Das, Subhas V. Naik, and
Sanganna A. Hipparagi
Chapter 9 Dyeing and Recent Developments.................................................... 169

Prithwiraj Mal and Debojyoti Ganguly
vii
viii Contents
Chapter 10 Printing and Recent Developments................................................... 187

Rasiah Ladchumananandasivam, Iris Oliveira da Silva,
Luciani Paola Rocha Cruz Barros, and Elisângela Bezerra das
Neves Holanda
Chapter 11 Finishing Processes and Recent Developments................................ 201

Andrew D. Hewitt and Andrew J. Hebden
Chapter 12 Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics and Their Recent

Developments.................................................................................... 221
Anindya Ghosh and Prithwiraj Mal
Chapter 13 Recent Developments to Reduce Environmental Impacts of

Textile and Apparel........................................................................... 257
Huantian Cao
Chapter 14 Use of CAD and CAM and Its Recent Developments in Textiles..... 269
Ashvani Goyal and Anil Kumar Yadav
Chapter 15 Recent Developments in Textile-Reinforced Composites and

Biocomposites................................................................................... 291
Asanda Mtibe, Teboho C. Mokhena, Sudhakar Muniyasamy,
Osei Ofosu, and Mokgaotsa J. Mochane
Chapter 16 Technical Textiles and Recent Developments................................... 315

Asis Patnaik
Chapter 17 Smart Textiles and Recent Developments......................................... 331

Sweta Patnaik
Chapter 18 Nanotextiles and Recent Developments............................................ 345

Rajkishore Nayak and Asimananda Khandual
Index....................................................................................................................... 381
Series Preface
The aim of the Textile Institute Professional Publications is to provide support
to textile professionals in their work and to help emerging professionals, such as
final year or master’s students, by providing the information needed to gain a sound
understanding of key and emerging topics relating to textile, clothing and footwear
technology, textile chemistry, materials science and engineering. The books are
written by experienced authors with expertise in the topic, and all texts are indepen-
dently reviewed by textile professionals or textile academics.
The textile industry has a history of being both an innovator and an early adopter
of a wide variety of technologies. There are textile businesses of some kind operating
in all counties across the world. At any time, there is an enormous breadth of sophis-
tication in how such companies might function. In some places where the industry
serves only its own local market, design, development and production may continue
to be based on traditional techniques, but companies that aspire to operate globally
find themselves in an intensely competitive environment, some driven by the need to
appeal to followers of fast-moving fashion, others by demands for high performance
and unprecedented levels of reliability. Textile professionals working within such
organizations are subjected to a continued pressing need to introduce new materials
and technologies, not only to improve production efficiency and reduce costs but also
to enhance the attractiveness and performance of their existing products and to bring
new products into being. As a consequence, textile academics and professionals find
themselves having to continuously improve their understanding of a wide range of
new materials and emerging technologies to keep pace with competitors.
The Textile Institute was formed in 1910 to provide professional support to textile
practitioners and academics, undertaking research and teaching in the field of textiles.
The institute quickly established itself as a professional body of textiles worldwide
and now has individual and corporate members in over 80 countries. The institute
works to provide sources of reliable and up-to-date information to support textile
professionals through its research journals, the Journal of the Textile Institute1 and
Textile Progress2 , definitive descriptions of textiles and their components through
its online publication Textile Terms and Definitions3, and contextual treatments of
important topics within the field of textiles in the form of self-contained books such
as Textile Institute Professional Publications.
REFERENCES
1.
www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=t
jti20
2.
www.tandfonline.com/action/journalInformation?show=aimsScope&journalCode=t
tpr20
3.
www.ttandd.org
ix
Preface
Fibres to Smart Textiles mostly covers all aspects and areas within the textile and
clothing manufacturing sectors. The contents in this book have been solely focused
from the grassroots level, i.e., from fibres, yarns, and filament levels to its end usage
as an environmentally sustainable and acceptable outcome in the form of smart or
nanotextiles covering the latest developments and advancements. The book brings
together various areas such as fibre, yarn, filament and fabric formations, knitting,
non-woven, braiding, dyeing, printing, finishing, textile-reinforced composites and
biocomposites, technical textiles, smart textiles, nanotextiles, nanocomposites, etc.
Furthermore, testing of fibres, yarns and fabrics, use of computer-aided design (CAD)
and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) in textile products and environment
impact of textile processes are also covered in this book. Various authors are chosen,
each from their area of expertise, to contribute towards the most recent and updated
information related to the chapter. Adopting this approach allows focus on the end
user (be it an individual, a team, a service group, etc.) whilst avoiding the probable
pitfalls that leads to the creation of the final garment as well as its conception.
The chronological list of chapters that has been followed in the book is superflu-
ous, which enhances the breadth of knowledge and the ease of accessibility by the
end user. Starting from the textile fibres gives a brief idea on the types of fibres, their
market trends and developments, followed by yarn and filament formations that focus
on similar trends and developments. Fabric formation and knowledge on it forms the
next chapter that covers various fabrics and various technologies used in making the
same. Knitting, non-woven fabrics and braiding and their trends and developments
follow up as the next two chapters that are sequentially arranged. Chemical process-
ing of textiles including its preparatory process comes as the next chapters, where
the various kinds of traditional and recent modes and methods of treating the fibres
and fabrics have been discussed. Any final end product in the form of a garment is
incomplete without treating them with colours, prints and desired finishes; this is
where the chapters on dyeing, printing and finishing, respectively, come into picture.
Be it fibres or yarns or fabrics, it is vital that they are tested to identify and under-
stand their trends and behaviour that brings us the chapter on testing. Testing also
gives us an idea and a platform on understanding and accessing the fibre or fabric
on its impact to the environment pre- and post-usage of the product. The chapter on
environmental impacts covers more or less the same, and recent developments that
have taken place. After going through all the earlier chapters, the only next thing
that comes to mind is the design aspect which the chapter on CAD and CAM try to
address. The last few chapters towards the end, which are textile composites and bio-
composites, technical textiles, smart textiles and nanotextiles and nanocomposites,
are huge areas of discussion in themselves, seeing that they are very much in trend
and the need of the hour environmentally on a global level, yet the authors have tried
to bring in relevant, recent and updated information in a concise manner.
xi
xii Preface
This book reflects and represents the contribution and effort of many people
across the globe, without whom it could not have been showcased the way it is, so a
big thank you to everyone is in order. We both hope that you find this book relevant,
recent and interesting in whichever area you are working in to, thereby enhancing
your knowledge base. We are thankful to various sources for granting permission to
use figures and tables used in this edited book.
Editors
Dr Asis Patnaik is working as the acting head of department at the Department
of Clothing and Textile Technology, Cape Peninsula University of Technology
(CPUT), Bellville Campus, Cape Town, South Africa. He is actively involved in the
teaching, research and development of textiles and technical textile-based materials
suitable for manufacturing, automotive, medical, building and footwear industries.
He has 76 publications to his credit, including 5 books, 40 peer-reviewed journal
papers, 11 book chapters and 20 papers in various international conferences. He has
also developed two technologies for filtration, building and automotive industries.
He serves as the editorial advisory member of two journals and also serves as a
peer reviewer for 24 international journals in multi-disciplinary fields of textiles
and materials science. He is a regular reviewer of engineering book proposals from
the leading publishers, research funding proposal reviewer from various funding
agencies, as well as examiner of masters’ and PhD theses. He has an extensive track
record of obtaining research funding from industrial partners as well as from sev-
eral funding agencies. He was the recipient of several international awards, includ-
ing the Textile Institutes Outstanding Young Scientist Paper Award in 2008 and
Outstanding Contribution by an Individual award by the Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa in 2013. He is an NRF (National Research
Foundation)-rated established researcher (C2) in South Africa. He is a voting mem-
ber of the American Society for Testing and Materials standardization committee on
Textiles (D13). He has supervised several PhD and masters students and hosting two
post-doctoral fellows.
Dr Sweta Patnaik has completed her Bachelor in Engineering in textile engineer-

ing with distinction from the College of Engineering and Technology, India in 2007.
Since then, she has worked as a production executive in a leading export house in
India for a year. After that, she obtained her master’s degree in fashion management
from National Institute of Fashion Technology, Bangalore, India, with distinction
in 2010. On completion, one of the leading global companies was the best platform
to get exposed to and gather close to a year experience in their buying office in
Bangalore, India. She obtained her master’s (this time majoring in quality, manufac-
turing and retailing) in 2012 and doctoral degree from Nelson Mandela University,
Port Elizabeth, South Africa in 2018. Currently, she is working as a lecturer at the
Department of Clothing and Textile Technology, CPUT, Bellville Campus, Cape
Town, South Africa, where her job ranges from teaching, research and handling
various departmental portfolios. Her research expertises are into fabric quality,
objective measurements and merchandising areas and focuses on teaching and
supervising post-graduate students. She has published several journal papers and
book chapters and presented an international conference paper. She has also been a
reviewer for a number of journals.
xiii
Contributors
Andrew J. Hebden Asimananda Khandual
Technical Textile Group Department of Textile Engineering
University of Huddersfield College of Engineering and Technology
Huddersfield, United Kingdom (BPUT)
Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Andrew D. Hewitt
Technical Textile Group Asis Patnaik
University of Huddersfield Department of Clothing and Textile
Huddersfield, United Kingdom Technology
Cape Peninsula University of
Anil Kumar Yadav Technology
Department of Computer Engineering Cape Town, South Africa
The Technological Institute of Textile
and Sciences Bibhu Prasad Dash
Bhiwani, Haryana, India Department of Textile Engineering
College of Engineering and
Anindya Ghosh Technology
Department of Textile Technology Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
Government College of Engineering
and Textile Technology
Berhampore, West Bengal, India Brojeswari Das
Central Silk Technological Research
Arobindo Chatterjee Institute
Department of Textile Technology Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India
Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Technology
Jalandhar, Punjab, India Debojyoti Ganguly
Department of Textile Design
Ashvani Goyal National Institute of Fashion
Department of Textile Technology Technology
The Technological Institute of Textile Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India
and Sciences
Bhiwani, Haryana, India Doice Moyo
Department of Clothing and Textile
Asanda Mtibe Technology
Nanostructured and Advanced Materials Cape Peninsula University of
Chemicals Cluster CSIR Technology
Pretoria, South Africa Cape Town, South Africa
xv
xvi Contributors
Elisângela Bezerra das Neves Naveen V. Padaki

Holanda Central Silk Technological Research
SENAC - National Trade Learning Institute
Service of Rio Grande do Norte Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India
Natal, Brazil Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Huantian Cao Osei Ofosu

Department of Fashion and Apparel Nanostructured and Advanced
Studies Materials
University of Delaware Chemicals Cluster CSIR
Newark, Delaware Pretoria, South Africa
and
Iris Oliveira da Silva Department of Textile Science
Department of Textile Engineering Nelson Mandela University
UFRN Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Natal, Brazil
Prithwiraj Mal
Department of Textile Design
Kadir Bilisik
National Institute of Fashion Technology
Department of Textile Engineering
Hyderabad, Telangana, India
Erciyes University
Talas-Kayseri, Turkey
Rajesh Mishra
Faculty of Textile Engineering
Luciani Paola Rocha Cruz Barros
Technical University of Liberec
Department of Textile Engineering
Liberec, Czech Republic
UFRN
Natal, Brazil
Rajkishore Nayak
Fashion and Textile Merchandising
Mohanapriya Venkataraman RMIT University Vietnam
Faculty of Textile Engineering Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Liberec, Czech Republic Rasiah Ladchumananandasivam
Postgraduate Programme in Mechanical
Mokgaotsa J. Mochane Engineering-Centre of Technology
Department of Life Sciences UFRN
Central University of Technology Natal, Brazil
Bloemfontein, South Africa
Sanganna Aminappa Hipparagi
Monica Sikka Silk Conditioning and Testing House
Department of Textile Technology Central Silk Technological Research
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Institute
Technology Ananthapur District, Andhra Pradesh,
Jalandhar, Punjab, India India
Contributors xvii
Subhas V. Naik Teboho C. Mokhena

Central Silk Technological Research Department of Chemistry
Institute Nelson Mandela University
Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India Port Elizabeth, South Africa
Bangalore, Karnataka, India
Veerakumar Arumugam
Sudhakar Muniyasamy Faculty of Textile Engineering
Nanostructured and Advanced Materials Technical University of Liberec
Chemicals Cluster CSIR Liberec, Czech Republic
Pretoria, South Africa
and Vinay Kumar Midha
Department of Chemistry Department of Textile Technology
Nelson Mandela University Dr B R Ambedkar National Institute of
Port Elizabeth, South Africa Technology
Jalandhar, Punjab, India
Sweta Patnaik
Department of Clothing and Textile
Technology
Cape Peninsula University of
Technology
Cape Town, South Africa
1 Textile Fibres and
Recent Developments
Doice Moyo and Asis Patnaik
Cape Peninsula University of Technology
CONTENTS
1.1 I ntroduction.......................................................................................................2
1.2 Fibre Classes......................................................................................................2
1.2.1 Classification Based on the Length of Fibres........................................3
1.2.2 Classification Based on the Origin and Source of Fibres......................3
1.3 Natural Fibres....................................................................................................3
1.3.1 Plant Fibres............................................................................................4
1.3.1.1 Cotton......................................................................................4
1.3.1.2 Other Cellulosic Fibres...........................................................5
1.3.2 Animal Fibres........................................................................................5
1.3.2.1 Wool........................................................................................5
1.3.2.2 Silk Fibres...............................................................................5
1.3.3 Mineral Fibres (Ceramics and Basalt)...................................................5
1.3.3.1 Ceramic Fibres........................................................................6
1.3.3.2 Basalt Fibres............................................................................6
1.4 Man-Made Fibres...............................................................................................6
1.4.1 Rayon.....................................................................................................6
1.4.2 Cellulose Acetate...................................................................................7
1.4.3 Alginate.................................................................................................7
1.4.4 Synthetic Fibres.....................................................................................7
1.4.4.1 Nylon.......................................................................................7
1.4.4.2 Polyester..................................................................................7
1.4.4.3 Polyolefins...............................................................................7
1.4.4.4 Elastomeric Fibres..................................................................8
1.4.5 High-Performance Fibres .....................................................................8
1.4.5.1 CeraTex® Ceramic Fibres........................................................8
1.5 Fibre Morphological Structures, Physics and Properties..................................8
1.6 Recent Developments...................................................................................... 10
1.6.1 Regenerated Silk Fibres ...................................................................... 10
1.6.2 Shape Memory Materials ................................................................... 10
1.6.3 Cell Solution® Polymer ....................................................................... 11
1.6.4 U ltra-High Molecular Weight PE ....................................................... 11
1.6.5 A lumina Silica..................................................................................... 11
1.6.6 M icrosupreme® Fibres......................................................................... 11
1
2 Fibres to Smart Textiles
1.6.7 Bemberg Microporous Membrane ...................................................... 11

1.6.8 OASIS Fibres....................................................................................... 11
1.6.9 TEIJIN CONEX Fibres....................................................................... 12
1.6.10 Aoshen Spandex................................................................................... 12
1.6.11 Japan KBS Belltron Fibres.................................................................. 12
1.6.12 Total Heat® Fibres................................................................................ 12
1.6.13 G raphene Nylon Fibres........................................................................ 12
1.6.14 C opper Nylon Fibres............................................................................ 12
1.6.15 C offee Ground Nylon Fibres............................................................... 13
1.6.16 T hincell Fibres..................................................................................... 13
1.6.17 L yocell Bamboo Fibres........................................................................ 13
1.7 S
ummary and Conclusion................................................................................ 13
References................................................................................................................. 13
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A textile fibre can be defined as a tiny hair-like material having a length that is
hundred times larger than its thickness (or diameter). The dimensions where the
length is relatively larger than the thickness are critical for fibre characteristics
such as flexibility and fineness (Denton and Daniels 2002). Textile fibres are the
most important element of any textile material, and these fibres contribute signifi-
cantly to the macro properties of the material. There are different types of fibres
that are used in the textile and clothing industries, and consequently, their selec-
tion is critical for specific engineering applications and performance requirements.
Textile fibres are spun into yarns, and these yarns are subsequently used in weav-
ing, knitting and braiding techniques. Other textile products are made directly
from fibres, such as non-woven, without passing through the route of spinning. The
desired textile product functionality can be achieved with a good understanding of
the physical, mechanical, chemical and performance properties of the constituent
fibres. There are plenty of ongoing research and development on fibres in many
different countries to meet the increasing demand of textile products (Fangueiro
and Rana 2016). This chapter discusses different fibre classes, namely the natu-
ral, man-made and inorganic fibres that are commonly used in the textile indus-
try. Furthermore, the chapter provides valuable resource information on the latest
developments in textile fibre science. New fibres are presented, and their special-
ized application areas discussed. This chapter discusses the current list of textile
fibres, their physical, mechanical, chemical and performance properties and their
future prospects.
1.2 FIBRE CLASSES
Textile fibres differ in many aspects and can be classified or grouped according to
broad criteria such as fibre length and fibre source or origin. This classification of the
nature of fibres differs from the classification of individual fibre properties (Karthik
and Rathinamoorthy 2018).
Textile Fibres and Recent Developments 3
1.2.1 Classification Based on the Length of Fibres

When textile fibres are spun to yarns or directly processed to non-woven fabrics, the
length of the fibre plays an important role in determining the characteristics of the
material. The fibre length is an important fibre property with two major categories
of either short or long lengths (Chandramohan and Marimuthu 2011; Kalebek and
Babaarslan 2016). Fibres that are in these two common categories are referred to as
follows:
i. Staple fibre refers to fibres of short length. Most of the natural fibres such as
cotton, flax, hemp, wool, except silk, are staple fibres.
ii.
Filament fibre refers to relatively very long or continuous length fibres that
can range from hundred metres to kilometres.
1.2.2 Classification Based on the Origin and Source of Fibres

Figure 1.1 shows a simplified synoptic classification of the textile fibres, which are
broadly classified as natural and man-made/synthetic fibres.
The appearance of some different types of natural fibres is shown in Figure 1.2.
1.3 NATURAL FIBRES
Natural fibres are subdivided according to their origin into subgroups of plant, ani-
mal and mineral fibres. They are obtained directly from plants, animals or mineral
sources and are suitable for textile uses because they can be spun or twisted into
yarn to make woven, knitted and non-woven fabrics. Generally, plant fibres possess
adequate strength and durability, high moisture absorption capacity, provide excel-
lent comfort and aesthetic properties (Chandramohan and Marimuthu 2011; Karthik
and Rathinamoorthy 2018).
FIGURE 1.1 Textile fibres’ classification.

FIGURE 1.2 Appearance of different types of textile fibres. 1. Mulberry silk, 2. Cotton,
3. Flax, 4. Recycled PET, 5. Banana, 6. Trilobal PET, 7. Hemp, 8. Mohair, 9. Acetate.
1.3.1 Plant Fibres
Plant fibres mainly consist of cellulose compounds and are extracted from dif-
ferent parts of plants such as the bast or stem, seed hair, leaf or husk and fruit.
The different parts of plants where the fibres are extracted provide the basis for
further subdivisions of the plant fibres. The bast fibres are extracted from the bast
or skin surrounding the stem of the plants such as kenaf, hemp, flax, jute, roselle
and coir (Fangueiro and Rana 2016). Generally, bast fibres possess high tensile
strength compared with other plant fibres. An example of a plant fibre obtained
from the seed is cotton, a leaf is sisal and fruit is coir or coconut. The chemical
composition of all plant fibres is the cellulosic polymeric structure as the main
constituent of the fibres. Cellulose is a long-chain molecule produced in nature
by means of photosynthesis and is aggregated into fine microfibrils (Karthik and
Rathinamoorthy 2018). Cellulose is a polymer made of repeating glucose mol-
ecules that are in attached end-to-end configuration. The fibre is made from ether
or esters of cellulose, which can be obtained from any part of a plant like the
bark, wood or leaves of plants, or from a plant-based material. The cellulose chain
consists of linked carbon (-C-), hydrogen (-H) and oxygen (-O-) atoms. The six
hydroxyl (-OH) groups that protrude from the chain provide the site for inter-
and intramolecular linkage with other hydroxyl (-OH) groups by hydrogen bonds
(Morton and Hearle 2008).
1.3.1.1 Cotton
Cotton is a natural cellulosic fibre that is used extensively in the apparel textile sec-
tor. The morphology of the fibre is characterized by a long, flat, irregular and convo-
luted or twisted tube-like structure. The cross section has a narrow collapsed visible
lumen. The fine structure consists of helically oriented molecules and fibrils with
spirality angles ranging from 20° to 35°.
1.3.1.2 Other Cellulosic Fibres

Other plant fibres such as flax, ramie, hemp, jute and sisal consist of cellulose.
However, these fibres differ from cotton in the spirality of molecules and fibrils that
is 6° and comparatively smaller than that of cotton. This results in high-oriented
fibrils that give these fibres more strength and low extensibility when compared with
cotton fibres.
1.3.2 Animal Fibres
Animal fibres are made up of protein polymers and are obtained from animal hairs
such as wool, and some are secreted while being formed such as silk (Chandramohan
and Marimuthu 2011).
1.3.2.1 Wool
Wool is a natural protein fibre derived from the hair of animals, such as sheep, goat
and alpaca. Wool produced from the outer coat of domestic sheep is different from
hair or fur. It has overlapping scales with crimps that causes the fibres to stay together
and have greater bulk to retain air and heat. Wool fibres consist of keratin, a poly-
mer made up of non-crystalline proteins of low sulphur (cysteine) and high sulphur
content. The keratin polymers are arranged in a helical form that allows the struc-
ture to open under tensile forces (Fangueiro and Rana 2016). This explains the high
extension of fibres. The cross section of the fibre is cylindrical in shape, consisting
of three distinct parts of the fibre, namely the cortex, the medulla and the epidermis.
The cortex forms the major portion of fibres and consists of long spindle-shaped cells
which are responsible for strength and elasticity of fibres. The outer layer (epidermis
or cuticle) is made of scales responsible for water repellency, though it can be eas-
ily damaged by mechanical treatment. The centre of the fibre is the medulla, which
contains the pigment that gives the fibre its colour (Fangueiro and Rana 2016).
1.3.2.2 Silk Fibres
Silk fibres fall under the animal natural fibre classification produced by Bombyx mori
(silkworm). Bombyx mori caterpillars use the viscous secretion that solidifies in air
to make a cocoon, where the caterpillar changes to moth during metamorphosis. The
chemical composition of silk is made up of fibrous proteins of polymer chain called
fibroin and sericin, which acts as a binder to the silk fibroin fibrils (Heseltine et al.
2019; Perez-Rigueiro et al. 1998). Fibroin consists of two peptide chains linked by
a disulphide bond and exist as a semi-crystalline macrostructure. The cross-section
shape is triangular and non-uniform. The attractive feature of the natural silk is its
high modulus comparable to glass and ceramics fibres (Perez-Rigueiro et al. 1998).
1.3.3 Mineral Fibres (Ceramics and Basalt)

Mineral fibres are derived from inorganic natural sources (Vickers et al. 2015). Glass
and asbestos are the most commonly used mineral natural fibres. However, health
concerns have diminished their use, especially asbestos, which is banned in many
countries.
1.3.3.1 Ceramic Fibres
Ceramic fibres are inorganic materials that include glass, silicon carbide, boron car-
bide and aluminium oxide (Chandramohan and Marimuthu 2011). Generally ceramic
fibres are differentiated from glass. In ceramics, the structure of the main constitu-
ent, namely silicon dioxide tetrahedra, is crystalline or partly crystalline and opaque.
In glass, the tetrahedra (SiO4) arrangement is random and amorphous. Glass is a
transparent amorphous solid (http://chemed.chem.purdue.edu/genchem/topicreview/
bp/materials/ceramic4.html#glass). Morey (NIIR 2017) defines glass as an inorganic
substance in a condition that is continuous with and analogous to the liquid state of
that substance, but which, due to changes in viscosity during cooling, has attained a
high degree of viscosity rendering it rigid. Glass is typically 50% silica and consists
of boron oxide, aluminium and several other minerals (Singha 2012).
1.3.3.2 Basalt Fibres
Basalt is a natural mineral from the rock lava and can be used to produce high
temperature-resistant and chemically inactive products. When extracted from volca-
nic rocks, basalt fibres are practically amorphous, and at high temperatures, the fibre
crystallizes partially depending on the quenching temperature (Matykiewicz et al.
2019; Singha 2012). Basalt largely consists of plagiocene and pyroxene, which are
SiO2 and Al2O3 compounds, respectively, and is chemically highly stable in strong
alkalis. In strong acids, basalt has a relatively low stability (Deak and Czigany 2009).
Basalt is a non-polymeric fibre; hence, it has a low elongation to fracture property
of 3.15%. Other properties include a tensile strength of 2.8 GPa and a density of
2.8 g/cm3 (Fiore et al. 2015).
1.4 MAN-MADE FIBRES
Man-made fibres are manufactured artificially (by combining different chemicals)
or regenerated (from natural sources). Much of research and fibre engineering in dif-
ferent parts of the world is in this class of fibres. The process of making man-made
fibres involves forming a solution of the polymer and then extruding it through a
spinneret. The three common spinning techniques used to produce man-made fibres
are dry spinning, wet spinning and melt spinning (Morton and Hearle 2008). In dry
spinning, the polymer is in a solution form before it is extruded, and the solvent is
evaporated from the chamber leaving a dry filament. Wet spinning is a technique
where the polymer in a solution is extruded through a solvent extracting solution. In
melt spinning, the polymer chips are initially melted by heat. The melt polymer is
extruded and solidified to filaments by cooling.
1.4.1 Rayon
Rayon is a cellulosic fibre that is made of regenerating natural cellulose from plants
without modifying it. The degree of polymerization is 500, which is much lower and
shorter than that of natural occurring cellulose (Le Moigne and Navard 2010). The
viscose rayon polymer arrangement is more amorphous (65%) than crystalline (35%)
because of the relative short polymers. When viewed under a microscope, the fibre
appears smooth and rounded. Rayon fibres are rod-like with numerous longitudinal,
thread-like striations or lines.
1.4.2 Cellulose Acetate
Cellulose acetate is made by chemically modifying natural cellulose. This is
achieved by treating cellulose in solution so that acetyl (CH3.COO-) groups replace
the hydroxyl groups in the molecular chain. When all the six hydroxyl groups are
acetylated, the fibre is known as tri-acetate (Brody 1994; Kihlman 2012).
1.4.3 Alginate
The chemical composition of alginate is the polymeric structure named alginic acid,
which is derived from seaweed. Alginic acid is a long-chain molecule produced in
nature that forms fine microfibrils (Morton and Hearle 2008). The alginate is made
of repeating alginic acid molecules that are attached in end-to-end configuration.
1.4.4 Synthetic Fibres
Synthetic fibres are made from linear polymers with important features such as regu-
larity and uniform shape. The linearity of the polymers allows them to pack closely
and allow molecular attraction, part crystallinity and flexibility (Brody 1994). As
discussed earlier, the method of spinning determines the structure. The structure of
the melt-spun fibres differs depending on the nature of cooling, stretching or heat
treatments because of subsequent polymer arrangement. The widely used synthetic
fibres are nylon, polyester (PET), polypropylene (PP), polyacrylonitrile, etc. (www.
sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/polymer-fibers).
1.4.4.1 Nylon
The chemical composition of nylon fibres is polyamide (PA) aliphatic macromolecu-
lar chains. In nylon 66 (or 6.6), the repeat is longer than in nylon 6. The degree of
orientation of the polymer chains depends on the conditions of drawing after extru-
sion through the spinneret (Morton and Hearle 2008).
1.4.4.2 Polyester
PET is a synthetic fibre polymer made from condensation chemical reaction that
results in a linear molecule (Denton and Daniels 2002). The benzene ring in the
polymer chain assists in imparting crystallization and stiffness or firmness to the
polymer. The aliphatic part of the chain provides flexibility at room temperature
(Morton and Hearle 2008).
1.4.4.3 Polyolefins
Polyolefins are a family of hydrocarbon compounds that contain hydrogen (H)
and carbon (C). There are mainly two polyolefin polymers (alkenes) used to make
synthetic fibres: PP and polyethylene (PE). PE consists of linear macromolecules
of unsubstituted and saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons. PE fibre has a density of
0.95–0.96 g/cm3 and that of PP fibre is about 0.90–0.91 g/cm3. PP fibres consist of
linear macromolecules of saturated aliphatic carbon units in which one carbon atom
in two carries a methyl side group. In textile applications, polyolefins have several
desired properties such as excellent chemical resistance, low thermal conductivity,
high electrical resistivity or quick moisture transmissivity amongst others (Al-Ali
AIMa’adeed and Krupa 2016).
1.4.4.4 Elastomeric Fibres
Elastomeric fibres, also known as spandex or lycra, are characterized by high levels
of elasticity. The constituent polymer is at least 85% segmented polyurethane (PU).
The chain is made of alternating block copolymers of soft and hard segments. The soft
segments are randomly coiled aliphatic polyethers or copolyesters. The hard segments
are aromatic di-isocyanate monomers that can crystallize (Morton and Hearle 2008).
1.4.5 High-Performance Fibres
High-performance fibres (HPFs) are developed to withstand extreme conditions, and it
is expected that these fibres will perform in those conditions. There are several exam-
ples of such fibres and they are categorized under two groups, namely those that resist
mechanical forces and those that have good thermal and chemical resistances (Denton
and Daniels 2002). Examples of HPFs of high strength include ceramics, silicon car-
bide, carbon or graphite, para-aramids (Kevlar®, Twaron® and Technora), polyben-
zoxazole or high-density PE (Spectra® and Dyneema®). The HPFs that are developed
for thermal and chemical resistance include Basofil® (from melamine formaldehyde),
Kynol (from phenol-formaldehyde), poly(m-phenylene terephthalamide (Nomex®),
P84, Kermel, Teflon®, polyetheretherketone, polyphenylene sulphide, polyetherimide,
etc. (Denton and Daniels 2002; Morton and Hearle 2008). Development of new fibres
in this area is extensive, for example, CeraTex® ceramic fibre (www.ceramicfiber.net/).
1.4.5.1 CeraTex® Ceramic Fibres

CeraTex® ceramic fibre is produced from highly purified aluminosilicate material.
The aluminosilicate is fed into a melting furnace before being heated at high tem-
peratures. The molten mixture is then spun into fibres. The fibre that is produced is
odourless and white, useful for high-temperature applications. Some products from
CeraTex® ceramic fibre include cloth, tape, rope, braid, tubing, paper and blanket.
This fibre has several important characteristics such as lightness, high thermal sta-
bility, fire and flame-proof and corrosive resistance. The CeraTex® ceramic fibre
is used for temperature insulation seals and gaskets, protective blankets, curtains,
covers, pads and wrapping, and for making safety clothing (www.ceramicfiber.net/).
1.5 FIBRE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES,

PHYSICS AND PROPERTIES
Fibres possess different fibre properties that determine the functionality of a prod-
uct. It is critical to understand them when designing a material that is expected
to perform. Generally, fibre properties can be explained by the respective fibre
polymeric structure. The polymeric structure consists of atoms linked together by

chemical bonds of varying strength and can be understood from the nature of mat-
ter (Morton and Hearle 2008; Fangueiro and Rana 2016). Matter consists of atoms
joined together by bonds of varying strength. It is the arrangement of these atoms
and the strength of the bonds between them that determines the physical proper-
ties of different materials. When forming fibres, atoms are bonded in a dimension
that results in a linear polymer. It is the resultant molecular arrangement within the
linear polymer that determines the fibre properties (Hearle 2001). The important
chemical and physical properties of textile fibres are a reflection of the molecular
structure of the constituent linear polymers. The intermolecular arrangement of the
polymer chains lies between crystalline and non-crystalline domains. Generally,
textile fibres are viewed as highly oriented semi-crystalline structures. The degree
of orientation and degree of crystallinity control the important mechanical proper-
ties of fibres. These structural characteristics can be effectively determined during
fibre production by the selection of the polymer type and by manipulating fibre
spinning, drawing and annealing conditions. A crystalline structure describes an
arrangement where molecular chains are close to each other and adjacent sections
of polymers are attracted by either hydrogen or van der Waals forces. The other
sections of the same molecules have limited motion. The polymer arrangement in
a crystalline structure is regular, has a defined pattern or order and tightly packed.
Contrary to this arrangement is the amorphous non-crystalline structure, where
there is no defined molecular shape and loose polymer chain ends. Some of the
properties that are dependent on crystalline structure include fibre density, stiff-
ness, strength, rigidity and water absorbency. Crystalline fibres show relatively
higher fibre density, stiffness, strength and rigidity when compared with amor-
phous structures. Absorbency in crystalline structures is generally low because of
the tightness of the structure (Karthik and Rathinamoorthy 2018). Table 1.1 shows
the different fibre properties.
TABLE 1.1
Classes of Fibre Properties
Morphology Physical Mechanical Chemical
Longitudinal and Density, molecular weight, Tensile Effect of acids and
cross-section shape crystallinity alkalis or oxidation
Cross-section area Thermal (Melting point, Modulus Biodegradability
phase change, burning
behaviour, decomposition)
Crimp Appearance (colour and Elongation or Swelling
lustre) extensibility
Electrical (conduction and Elasticity Ultraviolet light
static charging)
Surface – friction, roughness
Liquid absorption
Tensile properties of textile material include any of the following: tenacity, break-
ing extension, work of rupture, initial modulus, work factor, work recovery, elastic
recovery, yield stress, yield strain, yield point, breaking load or creep. The tensile
properties of textile fibres are important because most of the textile products should
be durable, economical and serviceable with a surface that will withstand friction
forces (Hearle 2001). Other properties such as heat conductivity, moisture sorption
and breathability are critical for apparel comfort and other industrial application.
1.6 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
The research and development in new generation fibres is driven by the ever-increasing
demand for better materials that are smart or those that satisfy the requirements.
However, much of the information is proprietary, and production and detailed chem-
istry of the fibres are not fully disclosed. There are innovations in fibre development
to improve the functionality of fibres, and some textile materials are integrated into
electronics in order to be interactive with the environment. The growing electronic
textile (E-textile) market includes the following sectors, namely temperature control,
wearable computing, sensors, illumination, energy harvesting and communication
devices. The first-generation E-textiles integrated electronic devices and conductive
elements directly onto the garment. The second-generation E-textiles saw the use of
conductive yarns, and in the third-generation, the materials consist of embedded elec-
tronics (Hughes-Riley and Dias 2018). Another interesting field in fibre development
is the class of fibres based on polymers from nature and living organisms called bio-
polymers. The attraction for these fibres is that they are made from renewable biomass
and are therefore sustainable and biodegradable (Hughes-Riley et al. 2018). Use of
biomass reduces the dependence on fossil fuels, a shift from petrochemistry to green
chemistry that reduces the negative impact on the environment. The first generation
of biofibres was made from sources such as corn, potatoes and other carbohydrate
sources. Several sources of polymers are used, including animal proteins (Cho 2010).
Some of the latest innovations in fibres are discussed in the following section.
1.6.1 Regenerated Silk Fibres

Silk fibrion is a natural polymer that is finding extensive application in the medical
field. The fact that it is a strong biomechanical protein macromolecule explains its
biocompatibility (Sah and Pramanik 2010). Research has progressed in purifying
natural silk, and engineers at MIT (2018) and Xiros (Agboh 2018) now spin regener-
ated silk fibres (RSF) commercially at a large scale, spinning the filament artificially
as an RSF. The structure of RSF filaments is retained during spinning, and this
ensures that fibres have superior strength, extensibility and toughness, mechanical
performance, where the modulus exceeds 100 MPa (Wojcieszak et al. 2017).
1.6.2 Shape Memory Materials

An increasing number of people want garments that can actively interact with ambi-
ent conditions. To meet this need, shape memory materials (SMMs) are useful in
developing ambient intelligent materials. SMMs are materials that recover their pre-
scribed shape with the help of right stimuli such as heat or electrical current. Shape
memory polymers (SMPs) are characterized by low weight and high extensibility. Most
of the SMPs are composed of polymers that are segmented and PU based (Cho 2010).
1.6.3 Cell Solution® Polymer

Cell Solution® Polymer (CLIMA) is an intelligent lyocell fibre with bidirectional
thermal activity. This polymer offers unique temperature regulation using an active
agent that is integrated with Lyocell. The active agent is an active phase change
material that results in high level of temperature regulation (www.cellsolution.eu).
1.6.4 Ultra-High Molecular Weight PE

This is a PE polymeric fibre with a highly oriented molecular chain leading to a high
specific weight of 0.97 kg/m3. The fibre exhibits high strength and high chemical and
abrasion resistance (Ravi et al. 2015; Fejdyś et al. 2015). The ultra-high molecular
weight PE (UHMWPE) fibres are used to make cut-resistant gloves, anti-stab mate-
rial, ballistic cover, racing suits, etc. (ww.cnqxl.com).
1.6.5 Alumina Silica
This is an example of a ceramic fibre designed to resist high temperature and finds
application in hot air filtration and furnace lining (Zhonglin et al. 2017).
1.6.6 Microsupreme® Fibres
Microsupreme is a micro-acrylic polymeric material that is inherently polar and
has the ability to transport moisture. This is an important property for fabric com-
fort. Microsupreme is used extensively in moisture dissipation and was developed to
mimic cotton fibres. This fibre shows antimicrobial and low pilling properties, which
makes it one of the preferred fabric for military uniforms (www.byarcos.com/eng/
fibers.html).
1.6.7 Bemberg Microporous Membrane

Bemberg microporous membrane is an innovative product in polymer engineering
that is made from cellulose. The polymer is used in the medical field as filters that
isolate pathogens that cause Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and
hepatitis B in the blood. The filtration membrane is homogeneous and multi-layered
with pores smaller than viruses (Ito et al. 1989).
1.6.8 OASIS Fibres
OASIS fibre is a super-absorbent cross-linked acrylic polymer. This fibre can absorb
95% of its capacity and becomes a hydrogel (https://techabsorbents.com/).
1.6.9 TEIJIN CONEX Fibres

TEIJIN CONEX fibre is a meta-linked aromatic PA called polymetaphenylene iost-
halic amide. The most important feature of this fibre is the extremely high tolerance
to heat. The polymer can only decompose at 4,000°C. The TEIJIN CONEX polymer
exhibits other functional properties such as high modulus and tenacity to weight, cut
resistance and excellent dimensional stability (www.teijinaramid.com/en/products/
teijinconex/).
1.6.10 Aoshen Spandex
The normal spandex fibre cannot maintain its fibre properties at high temperature
conditions. Aoshen spandex fibres have been developed with good heat-resistant and
tenacity properties. The fibre has excellent elasticity and heat-resistance performance
that is required for products such as belts and swimming suits (www.ldzaspandex.
com).
1.6.11 Japan KBS Belltron Fibres

Japan KBS Belltron® fibre is a synthetic fibre developed to be conductive, consisting
of PET and nylon as the matrix with carbon black or metal compound as the conduc-
tive material. The filament is produced by composite spinning technology. The use
of PET and nylon as the matrix renders the material bendable, dyeable and launder-
able without loss of electrical conductive. The Japan KBS Belltron® fibres are used
in clothing, working suits and decoration (www.kbs-belltron.com).
1.6.12 Total Heat® Fibres

Total Heat® fibre is a PA fibre with nano-ceramic material added to absorb the
high energy of the sun and translate it to heat energy. The heat energy generation is
achieved while concurrently reflecting the low energy band from the human body.
The Total Heat® fibres are used for good heat preservation, durability, and as an
extensive heat source for fast heating (www.CHTCSinofiber.com).
1.6.13 Graphene Nylon Fibres

Graphene nylon fibre is a melt-spun nylon chip mixed with nano-grade graphene
particles. The addition of graphene gives the fibre important functionality properties
such as antibacteria, anti-mite and anti-ultraviolet properties (www.CHTCSinofiber.
com).
1.6.14 Copper Nylon Fibres

Copper ions are known to have antibacterial properties. The copper nylon fibre with
copper as an active agent has excellent antibacterial properties, with copper ions
providing sites that destroy the metabolism of bacteria (www.jiayicf.com).
1.6.15 Coffee Ground Nylon Fibres

Coffee ground nylon fibres are synthetic fibres whose chemical composition is nylon
6 polymer mixed with ground coffee beans. The main functionality of this fibre is its
excellent anti-odour property (www.jiayicf.com).
1.6.16 Thincell Fibres
Thincell is marketed as a completely environmentally friendly green fibre because it is
made from naturally renewable wood. The chemical composition of this fibre is mainly
cellulosic but has exceptional properties of natural and synthetic fibres. The fibre pos-
sesses good moisture absorption, breathability and high strength that is similar to that
of PET, excellent softness and drape, and antibacterial (www.zfylsxw.com) properties.
1.6.17 Lyocell Bamboo Fibres

Lyocell bamboo is an environmentally friendly green fibre because it is made from
naturally renewable bamboo plant. In the production process, N-methylmorpholine-
N-oxide is used as a solvent, and it is environmentally friendly in that it does not
generate harmful effluent, no chemical reaction, waste or harmful residues. Lyocell
bamboo fibre has high modulus (3.3–3.8 cN/dtex), good breathability and is highly
permeable (Nayak and Mishra 2016).
1.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Fibres are elementary units in any textile material; therefore, current and future inno-
vations in functional product development are dependent on them. The mastery of
nanoscience and nanotechnology is enabling interesting developments in smart and
intelligent textiles. New fibre structures and spinning systems are widening fibre func-
tionality by integrating nanoparticles. Functional fibres are very useful in the develop-
ment of smart and intelligent textiles. Reliable smart and intelligent textile materials
are in demand in several sectors such as space exploration, oil fields, biomedical,
sportswear, chemical industry, warfare and others. The development of functional
nanofibres means seamless integration of wearable sensors and highly resilient fibres
for the use in material design. Furthermore, fibre science is adopting techniques that
limit adverse environmental impact. Green fibres are likely to dominate the textile
industry as an effort to address the adverse impact of production, and the use of fibre-
based materials becomes more of a necessity than as a marketing strategy.
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2 Filament Formation and
Recent Developments
Arobindo Chatterjee
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology
CONTENTS
2.1 I ntroduction..................................................................................................... 17
2.2 Spinning/Extrusion and Their Recent Developments..................................... 19
2.2.1 Melt Spinning......................................................................................20
2.2.2 Solution Spinning................................................................................ 22
2.2.3 Gel Spinning........................................................................................28
2.3 Future Trends and Market Status.................................................................... 29
2.4 Summary......................................................................................................... 30
References................................................................................................................. 30
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Textiles are predominantly used in clothing to satisfy the basic needs of humans,
although a large quantity of textiles or fibres are used as home textiles or many
diverse industrial and technical applications. In each specific application, be it con-
ventional or high performance, it is rarely one property that determines the value or
suitability of a particular fibre, rather it is a combination of properties that decides
the selection, application and success in terms of product design and performance of
textiles (Marks et al. 1967; Chatterjee 2018; Sinclair 2015; Gupta and Kothari 1997).
Many a time, a combination of fibres with different properties is used to achieve
targeted property based on end use. Although fibres these days are broadly cate-
gorized into two groups, i.e., commodity fibres and specialty or high-performance
fibres, but in a true sense, each individual fibres have some special property based
on which it finds a particular application (Sinclair 2015; Gupta and Kothari 1997).
In a broader sense, high-performance fibres are fibres that have superior mechanical
properties. Out of all the available natural fibres, only silk was found to have some
application in demanding areas such as parachute fabric. Though fibres like flax and
ramie, which have better mechanical properties than silk, were available but found
limited applications due to their short length, it makes it impossible to translate the
fibre property to yarn and subsequently to fabric properties. Accordingly, man-made
fibres, available in a continuous form, having equivalent or superior properties, are a
better choice that gradually replaced natural fibres in most of the engineering appli-
cations (Chatterjee 2018; Gupta and Kothari 1997).
17
The search and demand for materials that are strong and at the same time light-
weight in aerospace, defence, automobiles or other high-tech industries has led to the
development of high-performance fibres (Chatterjee 2018; Gupta and Kothari 1997;
Pervorsek 1996; Hori et al. 2014).
The production of artificial silk from natural cellulose polymer by De Chardonnet
in France in 1892 marks the origin of the man-made fibre industry. The invention of
rayon in 1903 triggered a revolution followed by a rapid development of the synthetic
fibre industry followed by other cellulosics and acetates until the development of
nylon by DuPont in 1939. Nylon was followed by the Imperial Chemical Industries
(ICI) development of polyester, discovered in the early 1940s (Marks et al. 1967;
Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985; Sinclair 2015).
The synthetic fibre industry has evolved over the years into a complex field of
technology. To date, the most commonly used fibre formation or spinning meth-
ods include, but are not limited to, melt spinning, solution dry spinning, solution
wet spinning and gel spinning, with nanofibre technologies emerging more recently
(Sinclair 2015; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985).
In recent years, the commodity or bulk production base of fibre has shifted from
Europe to Asia, and China is a major synthetic fibre-producing country followed by
India. Out of the different commodity fibres, the growth of synthetic fibre production
is mainly due to an exponential growth of polyester.
Similar to natural fibres, synthetic fibre or a filament is a fine hair-like structure
having the requisite properties that form the basic building block or fundamental
unit of any textile structure. The dimension of the fibre and its diverse property
requirement can only be met with when fibres are made of long-chain molecules
or polymers. The process of fibre or filament formation involves three basic steps
(Chatterjee 2018; Gupta and Kothari 1997; Pervorsek 1996; Ziabicki and Jarecki
1985; Marks et al. 1967):
1. Conversion of polymer into a fine hair-like continuous form having a dis-

tinct fine structure or give the polymer a fibre-like shape having requisite
properties. The process used for the same is extrusion or spinning.
2. Large-scale deformation or drawing of the continuous filaments to impart
desired fine structure and properties. The process is known as drawing or
stretching.
3. Impart dimensional stability, especially for synthetic polymer-based fila-
ments through heat-setting.
Based on the origin of the starting polymeric material, the man-made fibres are
classified into two groups, i.e., regenerated fibres and synthetic fibres. Regenerated
fibres are those fibres where the starting material is a natural polymer but not in the
form of fibre and, through some physiochemical processes, they are converted in
the form of a fibre or regenerated in the shape of a fibre. Whereas synthetic fibres
are completely synthesized by man, right from the starting polymer to the final fibre
form. Synthesis of polymers for fibre formation are popularly done by either of the
two routes, i.e., condensation or addition polymerization. They have their relative
merits and demerits as well, but it is important to highlight that the possibilities
Filament Formation and Recent Developments 19
of modification of molecular weight distribution and type, choice and incorpora-

tion of functional groups and a wide possibility of structure modification through
copolymerization is an advantage of addition polymers compared with condensation
polymers (Gupta and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985).
Since 1953, several comprehensive literatures on synthetic fibre have been pub-
lished and available for readers. In this chapter, a fundamental and concise approach
has been adopted to highlight the basic processes and products thereof.
2.2 SPINNING/EXTRUSION AND THEIR

RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
Spinning is the process of extrusion of liquid polymer through a die, called spin-
neret, containing large number of fine holes and, subsequently, solidifying those fine
fluid polymer strands to obtain long continuous fine filaments. Most of the natural
and synthetic polymers used for fibre formation are available in solid form, and so
they have to be converted into fluid form for extrusion. Wherever the polymer is
already available in fluid form, conversion is not necessary and they can be directly
used for spinning (Gupta and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985). Conversion
of solid polymer into a liquid may be done by either melting the polymer or dissolv-
ing the polymer in a suitable solvent. Based on the technique used for conversion
of polymer into fluid form, the subsequent spinning process has been categorized
into two classes, i.e., melt spinning and solution spinning. Melt spinning is preferred
as a technique for conversion of polymer into fibre due to some of its advantages
and, wherever melt spinning is not possible, solution spinning is the only viable
alternative. Solution spinning can further be classified into solution dry spinning
and solution wet spinning based on the type of solvents used for dissolution of the
polymer and the subsequent technique used for the conversion of the fluid polymer
to filaments. Basic classification of spinning is shown later (Gupta and Kothari 1997;
Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985);
Melt Spinning
Spinning/Extrussion Solution Dry Spinning
Solution Spinning
Solution Wet Spinning
Out of the three different spinning systems, melt spinning is more popularly used
for some of its advantages over the other spinning systems. Melt spinning is a rela-
tively simple process involving only heat transfer, the control of the process is rela-
tively easy and as it does not require any solvent, therefore, it is a relatively clean
process. Melt spinning can also be effectively used as a tool to modify and generate
new types of fibre such as bi-component or multi-component fibres, hollow fibres,
etc. Using polymers having different structure development kinetics, fibres having a
wide range of fine structure and resultant properties can also be developed (Ziabicki
and Jarecki 1985).
In dry spinning, evaporation of the solvent from the extruded fluid polymer is nec-
essary for the solidification or fibre formation. Analysis of the dry spinning process
is more complex than that of melt spinning as it involves both heat and mass transfer
(Zhang 2014; Deopura et al. 2013; Sinclair 2015).
In wet spinning, the mass transfer for both the solvent and polymer needs to be
considered along with temperature, as the activity of the spinning bath component
is influenced by temperature. This makes the process analysis even more complex
than that of dry spinning (Zhang 2014; Deopura et al. 2013; Sinclair 2015; Gupta and
Kothari 1997).
2.2.1 Melt Spinning
A typical flow diagram of melt spinning is given in Figure 2.1.
General features and typical components of the melt spinning system are shown
in Figure 2.2. Melt spinning is the process of fibre formation from polymer melts.
Molten polymer is extruded through spinneret, stretched, cooled down to solid fine
filaments and taken up in a suitable take-up device. Type of polymer, molecular
weight characteristics of the polymer, the machine and process parameters decide
the structure and the resultant properties of as-spun filaments (Gupta and Kothari
1997; Pervorsek 1996; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985). Selection of polymer, its molecu-
lar weight and distribution, machine parameters and process parameters are decided
based on the end-use requirements and properties. One of the advantages of melt
spinning over other spinning system is its ability to produce profiled filaments by
changing the profile of the spinneret holes. Cross-sectional shapes of some profile
filaments are shown in Figure 2.3.
Other than polyester, nylon and polypropylene, which are the more popular
melt-spun fibres, poly(lactic acid) (PLA) and Vectran® (thermotropic liquid crystal-
line polymer or TLCP) are two other important melt-spun fibres (Chatterjee 2018;
Sinclair 2015; Hori et al. 2014).
PLA is an aliphatic polyester that can be derived from 100% renewable resources
and is the first melt-processable natural-based fibre. As it is obtained from renewable
FIGURE 2.1 Flow diagram of melt spinning process.

FIGURE 2.2 General features of melt spinning process.
FIGURE 2.3 Cross section of profile filaments.
sources and biodegradable, it is considered as a green or sustainable fibre. PLA is

preferred in biomedical applications due to its biodegradability, biocompatibility and
non-toxicity (Chatterjee 2018; Sinclair 2015). Recent development in the fermenta-
tion process of dextrose obtained from corn has helped in bringing down the cost
and increasing the popularity of PLA. Few important manufacturers of PLA are
NatureWorks LLC, Kanebo Gohsen Ltd., Shimadzu Corporation, Toray Industries,
Unitika, Kuraray and Mitsui Chemicals. PLA’s main applications are in short-term
packaging, owing to its biodegradability, and in biomedical applications such as
implants, sutures and drug encapsulations owing to its biocompatibility in contact
with living tissue. Another important application of PLA filament is 3D printing
(Chatterjee 2018; Sinclair 2015).
A detailed discussion about Vectran® has been reported by Hori et al. 2014 (work-
ing paper published in 2014 from the Institute of Innovation Research, Hitotsubashi
University, Japan). Commercially available Vectran® is produced from the polymer
developed by Hoechst Celanese Corporation in the 1970s. The polymer is obtained
by acetylation polymerization of p-hydroxybenzoic acid and 6-hydroxy-2-napthoic
acid and has a thermal distortion temperature of 180°C–240°C and a melting point of
270°C. As the fibre is produced by conventional melt spinning, variability in terms of
filament denier can be achieved relatively easily. Consequently, among all commer-
cially available high-performance fibre, Vectran® is available in widest varieties from
very fine to coarse. High-strength TLCP fibres are used in ropes and cables for dynamic
applications, composites, protective materials, industrial fabrics, medical applications
(catheters and surgical device control cables), veterinary implants and specialty insu-
lating papers (due to excellent dielectric properties and low moisture absorption).
2.2.2 Solution Spinning
Solution spinning is the process of conversion of polymer into fibre by dissolving the
polymer in a suitable solvent, extruding the solution through a spinneret and then sub-
sequently solidifying and collecting the filaments on a suitable device, using a suitable
process. As solvent is used during solution spinning, it is associated with the handling,
removal and subsequent recovery of solvents and the related environmental issues.
Considering the cost of solvent recovery, it is always advantageous to work with high
dope concentration. The factors that influence the dope concentration in case of solu-
tion spinning are as follows (Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985; Gupta and Kothari 1997):
1.
Dissolution: As the concentration of dope increases, dissolution of the poly-
mer becomes increasingly difficult. Attempts have been made to use the
solution directly after solution polymerization of vinyl monomers as dope
with limited success and possibilities and that too for solution wet spinning
only. Hence, dope preparation remains an important integral part of solu-
tion spinning process. Whatever may be the techniques used for kneading
or mixing of the polymer in the solvent, the fine granules of polymer exhibit
a tendency of agglomeration when they come in contact with solvent. To
avoid this tendency, the polymer is introduced gradually into the solvent
maintained at low temperature along with stirring, and then subsequently
the temperature is increased to complete dissolution. To achieve higher
concentration and facilitate filtration of the solution, sometimes a higher
temperature is used. The dissolution condition is more of a polymer-specific
system. For acetates and chlorofibres, dissolution takes place at moderate
temperatures, whereas for acrylic, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) the dissolution
is achieved at a relatively high temperature of 80°C–100°C. Though, higher
temperature facilitates the process of dissolution and filtration, if the poly-
mer is sensitive to temperature, it may lead to discolouration (Ziabicki and
Jarecki 1985; Gupta and Kothari 1997).
2.
Concentration: As the solvent used for dope preparation needs to be recov-
ered, it is always advantageous to work at higher dope concentration to
minimize cost of solvent recovery. However, the concentration is limited

by the following considerations: a) Complete dissolution becomes more and
more difficult with increasing concentration. b) With increase in concen-
tration, the viscosity and the resultant extrusion pressure increase expo-
nentially. c) The rheological properties of the dope should allow smooth
spinning (Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985; Gupta and Kothari 1997).
In general, solution dry spinning operates on the principle of evaporation of solvent

from the extruded filaments. The latent heat of evaporation of solvent is mainly pro-
vided by circulation of a hot gas and partly by extruding a hot dope, which also adds
to the latent heat. Whereas the solution wet spinning is normally carried out at a
relatively low temperature. This working temperature difference of the two process
also influences the concentration of dope in case of solution dry and solution wet
spinning. The concentration of dope in solution dry spinning is generally higher
(15%–45%) than that of solution wet spinning (5%–30%) (Chatterjee 2018; Gupta
and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985).
There is a considerable difference in the speed of spinning process for solution
dry and solution wet spinning. Dry spinning operates at a higher speed of 500–1,500
m/min, whereas solution wet spinning speed ranges between 50 and 300 m/min.
Irrespective of the speed difference, solution wet spinning has certain advantages
such as low temperature processing (little chances of polymer damage or discoloura-
tion), as it can be directly linked in tandem with subsequent post-spinning operations
such as drawing, crimping, heat setting, cutting, etc. (Chatterjee 2018; Gupta and
Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985). The schematic diagram of solution dry
spinning process is shown in Figure 2.4.
FIGURE 2.4 Schematic diagram of solution dry spinning process.

The filament formation or solidification during solution dry spinning depends

on several factors. The filament formation during dry spinning is essentially due to
evaporation of solvent from the extruded filaments. The evaporation rate is governed
broadly by the following factors (Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985; Gupta and Kothari
1997):
1. The solvent retention power of the polymer in turn is influenced by the dope
concentration. At higher dope concentration, the solvent retention power is
more.
2. Vapour pressure gradient of the solvent between the dope and the surround-
ing medium. Vapour pressure of the solvent in the surroundings can be
influenced by temperature, and higher temperature generally facilitates
higher evaporation rate particularly down the line. A very high temperature
close to spinneret, as soon as the filaments enter the spinning cell, may
cause bubbling of filaments.
3. Degree of saturation of gas with solvent at any point.
4. Diameter and number of filaments, which decides the available evaporating
surface.
5. Extrusion speed
Solvent to be evaporated from the extruded filament exists throughout the cross sec-
tion of the filaments, but the evaporation takes place only from the surface. There
are two rate constants that decide the whole process of fibre formation (Ziabicki and
Jarecki 1985; Gupta and Kothari 1997):
1. Rate of evaporation of solvent from the surface of the filaments (E) and
2. Rate of diffusion of solvent from the core to the surface of the filament (v).
The ratio of E/v will decide the process of filament formation. For all practical
purpose, E is always much higher than v and is influenced by the concentration
of the dope. As E >> v, as soon as the dope enters the spinning cell, solvent from
the surface of the filament will evaporate, leading to rigid surface skin formation.
This filament having a relatively rigid surface skin and fluid core will be deformed,
under the stress acting on it due to higher take-up speed. The skin will develop
surface cracks through which the solvent from the core will continue to evapo-
rate. Evaporation of solvent from the core will result in the reduction of included
volume and the filament will collapse diametrically. For a high value of E/v or a
much diluted dope results in a flat dog-bone type filament cross section. As the
E/v decreases, the filament cross section progressively tends to become circular as
shown in Figure 2.5.
FIGURE 2.5 Cross sections of dry-spun filaments.

Cellulose acetate and triacetate, acrylic, PVA, elastomeric fibres and chlorofibres
are produced by solution dry spinning route. Other than acetate and triacetate, all
other fibres can also be produced by alternative routes of melt spinning or solution
wet spinning. Although elastomeric fibres can be produced by any of the three spin-
ning techniques, primarily more than 90% of the fibre is produced through solu-
tion dry spinning route as it facilitates filament formation and subsequent curing of
extruded filaments (Sinclair 2015; Zhang 2014; Gupta and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki
and Jarecki 1985).
In case of solution wet spinning, the dope preparation and extrusion steps are simi-
lar to that of dry spinning. Although, as mentioned earlier, the operating temperature
of solution wet spinning is much less when compared with solution dry spinning,
the concentration of dope is also less than that of dry spinning. Low concentration
will lead to a relatively low viscous dope, which can easily be extruded through a
thin spinneret at a reasonably low extrusion pressure. The filament formation rate in
case solution wet spinning is slowest as it involves diffusion of solvent from the dope
into the coagulation bath at a low temperature or a solvent–non-solvent interaction.
The extruded fluid filaments are in a semi-solid gel state for a higher period of time,
resulting in a relatively low strength of the gel filament. Due to low strength of the
gel filament, it is difficult to use a high stretch ratio or to operate at higher speeds
(Sinclair 2015; Zhang 2014; Gupta and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985).
Schematic diagram of solution wet spinning is shown in Figure 2.6.
The slow spinning speed is, to some extent, compensated by the possibility of
accommodating a large number of filaments/spinneret. As the filaments are imme-
diately surrounded by spinning bath fluid on extrusion, chances of sticky filament
formation are less. Use of annular spinneret in wet spinning facilitates a better inter-
action between the extruded gel filaments and the spinning bath fluid, leading to
more uniform filament formation and reduction of between-filament variations. Use
of annular spinneret also helps to increase the spinning speed to some extent. Wet-
spun filaments, on extrusion into coagulation bath, exhibit a tendency of swelling.
FIGURE 2.6 Schematic diagram of solution wet spinning.

This swelling tendency coupled with the complex process of filament formation and
stretch ratio normally leads to a structure having voids and low density. So, it is dif-
ficult to achieve improved mechanical properties in wet-spun fibres (Deopura et al.
2013; Sinclair 2015; Gupta and Kothari 1997).
Dry jet wet spinning, a modified form of wet spinning where small air gap is
maintained between the spinneret and the coagulation bath, is used to spin lyo-
tropic liquid crystalline polymers (LLCPs) as well as regenerated cellulose spun
using organic solvent. Fibres with superior properties can be produced through
dry jet wet spinning of LLCPs, primarily due to the liquid crystalline phase of the
polymers in the dope and the translation of these liquid crystalline domains in an
oriented form to the spun filaments (Deopura et al. 2013; Sinclair 2015; Gupta and
Kothari 1997).
In melt spinning, the structural characteristics of as-spun fibres such as degree of
crystallinity, crystallite orientation, crystallite size, etc. are very sensitive to spin-
ning conditions and hence influence the post-spinning operations like drawing, heat
setting as well as the final structure and properties of the final product. This is not
the case for solution spinning; the structural parameters are generally not influenced
by spinning conditions. This may be due to lower polymer concentration in the dope
and the presence of large amount of solvent in the extruded filaments leading to high
molecular mobility. In solution dry spinning, the mobility and structure development
are further enhanced by the temperature, and in case of wet spinning, the swelling
of extruded filaments in the coagulation bath and relatively slow filament formation
process. Structure development of the solution-spun filaments seems to be more or
less close to thermodynamic equilibrium without any significant effect of spinning
conditions (Gupta and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985).
On the other hand, structural features such as voids and capillaries, cross sec-
tions, skin-core like structure as well as variations in the fibrillar structure are influ-
enced by the spinning conditions in case of solution spinning but not in case of melt
spinning (Gupta and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985).
In melt spinning, spin line stress, deformation rate and quenching conditions play
an important role in structure development. In dry spinning or wet spinning, mor-
phological features as well as mechanical properties of fibres are strongly dependent
on the intensity of mass transfer during spinning and all kinds of concentration-
controlled transitions (phase separation, gelation, etc.).
New wet spinning methods are being developed and used for various fibre for-
mations. Interrupted wet spinning is used to spin hollow chitosan fibres, where the
reaction in the coagulation bath was interrupted by water washing baths. This pro-
cess allows the formation of a gel-like chitosan outer membrane and a core chitosan
solution. The core chitosan solution is subsequently removed to get the hollow fibre
(Chatterjee 2018).
Wet spinning methods are also being used to develop conducting polymer fibres.
Continuous poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulphonate) fibres were
produced using a modified wet spinning process, where the spinning solution is
extruded from the top and filaments pass into a vertical glass column containing the
coagulation bath (Zhang 2014; Gupta and Kothari 1997; Ziabicki and Jarecki 1985).
Characteristic features of some fibres are summarized in Table 2.1.
TABLE 2.1
Characteristic Features of Some Important Fibres
Fibres Properties Characteristics Applications
Acetate • Density 1.32 g/cc • Luxurious feel and Apparel: Blouses, dresses and
• Moisture regain 6.5% appearance foundation garments, lingerie,
• Tenacity 1.2–1.4 g/d • Wide range of colours linings, shirts, slacks, sportswear.
• Elongation • Excellent drapeability Home Furnishings: Draperies,
25%–35% and softness upholstery.
• Fast drying Other: Cigarette filters, fibrefill for
• Shrink, moth and pillows, quilted products
mildew resistant
Rayon • Density 1.51 g/cc • Highly absorbent Apparel: Blouses, coats, dresses,
• Moisture regain • Soft and comfortable jackets, lingerie, linings, slacks,
11%–16% • Easy to dye sportswear, suits, ties, work
• Tenacity 2.4–3.0 g/d • Deep rich colourations clothes.
• Elongation • Versatile Home Furnishings: Bedspreads,
15%–24% • Good drapeability curtains, draperies, sheets,
tablecloths, upholstery.
Other: Surgical products,
non-woven products, tire cord.
Lyocell • Density 1.51 g/cc • Fluidic feel, soft, strong, Dresses, slacks and coats.
• Moisture regain absorbent
11.5% • Good dyeability
• Tenacity 3.8–4.2 g/d • Fibrillates during wet
• Elongation processing
14%–16%
Polyester • Density 1.38 g/cc • Strong, crisp and Apparel: Blouses, shirts, ties,
• Moisture regain 0.4% resilient lingerie and underwear, permanent
• Tenacity 2.8–6.3 g/d • Resistant to stretching press garments, slacks, suits.
• Elongation and shrinking Home Furnishings: Carpets,
20%–40% • Resistant to most curtains, draperies, sheets and
chemicals pillow cases.
• Quick-drying Other: Fibrefill for various
• Wrinkle- and products, power belting, ropes and
abrasion-resistant nets, tire cord, sail, air bags.
• Retains heat-set pleats
Nylon • Density 1.14 g/cc • Exceptionally strong Apparel: Dresses, foundation
• Moisture regain • Resilient garments, hosiery, undergarments,
3%–5% • Abrasion-resistant raincoats, ski and snow suits.
• Tenacity 3.5–9.0 g/d • Easy to wash Home Furnishings: Bedspreads,
• Elongation • Resists damage from oil carpets, draperies, curtains,
16%–50% and many chemicals upholstery.
Other: Conveyor and seat belts, air
bags, parachutes, racket strings,
ropes and nets, sleeping bags,
tents, sewing thread, tire cords.
(Continued)
TABLE 2.1 (Continued)

Characteristic Features of Some Important Fibres
Fibres Properties Characteristics Applications
Acrylic • Density 1.17 g/cc • Soft and warm Apparel: Dresses, infant wear,
• Moisture regain • Wool-like knitted garments, ski wear, socks,
1%–1.5% • Retains shape sportswear, sweaters.
• Tenacity 2–3 g/d • Resilient Fabrics: Fleece and pile fabrics,
• Elongation • Quick-drying face fabrics in bonded fabrics,
35%–50% • Resistant to moths, simulated furs, jerseys.
sunlight, oil and Home Furnishings: Blankets,
chemicals carpets, draperies, upholstery.
Other: Auto tops, awnings,
hand-knitting and craft yarns,
industrial and geotextile fabrics.
Olefin • Density 0.91 g/cc • Unique wicking Apparel: Pantyhose, underwear,
• Moisture regain property knitted garments.
0.04% • Quick-drying Home Furnishings: Carpet and
• Tenacity 3.5–8.0 g/d • Resistant to most carpet backing, upholstery.
• Elongation chemicals, mildew, Other: Dye nets, filter fabrics,
10%–40% perspiration, etc. laundry and sandbags, geotextiles,
• Sensitive to heat automotive interiors, cordage,
• Soil resistant industrial sewing thread.
• Strong and lightweight
• Prone to creep and
fibrillation
Spandex • Density 1.2 g/cc • Stretchability Athletic apparel, bathing suits,
• Moisture regain 1.3% • Lightweight foundation garments, slacks,
• Tenacity 0.7–1 g/d • Resistant to body oils support and surgical hose.
• Elongation
400%–800%
Aramid • Density 1.38–1.45 g/ • Does not melt Protective clothing, military
cc • Highly flame-resistant helmets, composite reinforcement
• Moisture regain 4% • High strength for aircraft and boats, sailcloth,
• Tenacity 26–33 g/d • High resistance to tires, ropes and cables, sporting
• Elongation stretch goods, hot-gas filtration fabrics.
2.5%–3.5% • Maintains its shape and
form at high
temperatures
2.2.3 Gel Spinning
With rising demands on high-performance fibres, many special spinning methods
have been developed, such as gel spinning, electrostatic spinning and integrate com-
posite spinning (Chatterjee 2018; Zhang 2014; Sinclair 2015). Now, gel spinning
technology is used for a wide range of polymers from low-molecular-weight poly-
ethylene (PE) to high-molecular-weight polymers, such as PVA, polyacrylonitrile
(PAN) and ultra-high molecular weight PE or ultra-strong PE (UHMWPE). Gel

spinning has resulted in commercialization of several high-performance PE fibres
such as Spectra® and Dyneema®. These fibres have tenacities approaching to that of
Kevlar® but have lower modulus and much lower melting temperature (Chatterjee
2018; Zhang 2014; Sinclair 2015; Hori et al. 2014).
According to Pervorsek (1996), in comparison with other high-performance fibres,
where the fibre origin can be attributed to one or a group of inventors, UHMWPE
appears to be more of an evolution, with many scientists and technologists contribut-
ing to the current state of technology. A great deal of scientific research on polymer
morphology, mechanical properties, mechanism of drawing, fibre structure, etc. has
been done on UHMWPE. Availability of UHMWPE in a wide range of molecular
weights, easy handling and sample preparation, and a very simple structure leading
to high degrees of crystallinity made this material most suitable for the research and
development of characterization techniques.
The equipment and machinery used for gel spinning of fibres are mostly built in-
house and the exact process is also a closely guarded secret. Gel spinning is referred
to as a modified solution spinning process, and it is also referred to as semi-melt
spinning depending on the process route followed to convert the polymer to fibre
(Chatterjee 2018; Zhang 2014; Sinclair 2015). Whatever may be the method, the basic
process is to prepare a dilute solution (about 2%–7%) of ultra-high molecular weight
polymer and extrude the viscous gel-type fluid through spinneret to convert it in the
form of filaments. After the extrusion, the gel filaments are cooled in solvent or water.
During cooling, the viscosity of the gel filaments will increase and will be converted
into highly viscous gel filaments, but the gel filaments will still have a large amount
of solvent. These filaments are then subsequently subjected to slow ultra-drawing in
an oven up to a draw ratio of 50× or more to produce the ultra-high strength and high-
modulus fibre. Gel spinning is ideally suited for relatively flexible chain polymers (e.g.
PE, PAN and PVA) to produce high-strength and high-modulus fibre.
2.3 FUTURE TRENDS AND MARKET STATUS

Cotton, wool or other natural fibre production of the world are highly dependent on
climatic conditions and pest infestations. Global warming and a subsequent massive
reduction in snowmelt in the mountains lead to less available water in downstream
rivers and irrigation systems. A reduction in the production of cotton has already
been experienced in different parts of the world due to shortage of water or due to
drought. In the future, water restrictions may lead to cotton and other natural fibres
becoming a higher-priced specialty fibre.
High-performance fibres are being used successfully in apparel, home furnish-
ings and industrial applications. Microfibres and specialty high-end blends used
in apparel are generally targeted to high-income individuals. In general, high-end
industrial products are produced to meet specific criteria and are not easily replaced
by low-value competing fibres. As a result, high-performance, high-value-added spe-
cialty fibres are expected to grow in future.
The textile sector, like other manufacturing sector, must prepare itself for the
trends involving automation and data exchange or Industry 4.0. The present state of
textile production system will be a thing of past, and new smart production systems
based on cyber-physical system, internet of things, cloud computing and cognitive
computing will emerge.
Sustainability is another important issue with respect to textile fibre production
and its subsequent usage. The fibre production or its subsequent conversion to a prod-
uct involves processes that may negatively or positively influence the environmental
footprint. It is important to have a responsible manufacturing system and a conscious
consumption of products.
2.4 SUMMARY
Fibres are one of the most important invention of humankind. Development of nylon
followed by polyester has changed the whole textile scenario. Further, understand-
ing of the structure property relationship in fibres has led to the development of
numerous new fibres having superior properties. At the same time, there has been
considerable development in the fibre production techniques with the introduction of
new techniques like gel spinning. Currently, commodity fibres due to the bulk pro-
duction and continually increasing demand drive the fibre industry. Specialty fibres
are still considered niche product having low volume but high value. Some of the
high-performance fibres are gradually finding applications in value-added products
for common market. High-performance, high-value-added specialty fibre market is
expected to grow in future. Sustainability, automation etc., are the important factors
to look forward to in the future development and new trends in textile industry.
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3 Yarn Formation and
Recent Developments
Ashvani Goyal
The Technological Institute of Textile and Sciences
CONTENTS
3.1 I ntroduction..................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Yarn Formation Techniques............................................................................ 33
3.2.1 Ring Spinning......................................................................................34
3.2.1.1 Various Components of a Ring Frame.................................. 36
3.2.2 Compact Spinning............................................................................... 36
3.2.2.1 COM4 by Rieter.................................................................... 37
3.2.2.2 RoCoS-Magnetic Compacting System................................. 38
3.2.2.3 CompACT3 System of Zinser............................................... 39
3.2.2.4 Elite by Suessen.................................................................... 39
3.2.2.5 Advantages of Compact Spinning........................................ 39
3.2.2.6 Disadvantages of Compact Spinning....................................40
3.2.3 Rotor Spinning..................................................................................... 41
3.2.4 Air-Jet Spinning................................................................................... 42
3.2.4.1 Murata Vortex Spinning....................................................... 43
3.2.4.2 Rieter Jet Spinning................................................................44
3.2.5 Friction Spinning................................................................................. 45
3.2.5.1 DREF-2.................................................................................46
3.2.5.2 DREF-3.................................................................................46
3.2.5.3 DREF-5................................................................................. 47
3.2.5.4 DREF-2000........................................................................... 47
3.2.5.5 DREF-3000........................................................................... 47
3.3 Developments in Ring-Spun Yarn Manufacturing Processes......................... 47
3.3.1 Development in Blow Room................................................................ 47
3.3.1.1 Automatic Bale Opener......................................................... 47
3.3.1.2 Compact Blow Room Line.................................................... 48
3.3.1.3 Mote Knife with Suction in Place of Grid Bars.................... 48
3.3.1.4 Improved Mixing/Blending of Raw Material....................... 48
3.3.1.5 Online Parameter Settings.................................................... 48
3.3.2 Development in Carding...................................................................... 48
3.3.2.1 Chute Feed System............................................................... 48
3.3.2.2 Unidirectional Feed..............................................................48
3.3.2.3 Autolevellers......................................................................... 49
3.3.2.4 Magnetic Flats – MAGNATOP............................................ 49
31
3.3.2.5 W ider Width.......................................................................... 49

3.3.2.6 Rieter Integrated Grinding System (IGS-Top and
IGS-Classic)�� 49
3.3.2.7 Trützschler Carding Setting Measurement System T-Con..... 49
3.3.2.8 T-LED – The New Remote Display...................................... 49
3.3.3 Development in Draw Frame............................................................... 50
3.3.3.1 Auto Draft............................................................................. 50
3.3.3.2 CLEANcoil........................................................................... 50
3.3.3.3 Tension Measuring System................................................... 50
3.3.3.4 Short-Term Auto Levellers.................................................... 50
3.3.3.5 Simple and Automatic Adjustment of Drafting Zone
Widths�� 50
3.3.3.6 Use of Microwave Sensors.................................................... 50
3.3.3.7 Use a Camera to Monitor the Sliver Quality........................ 50
3.3.3.8 High Production Speed......................................................... 50
3.3.4 Development in Comber...................................................................... 51
3.3.4.1 Rieter Combers E 65/E 75 with Computer-Aided
Process Development�� 51
3.3.4.2 Two Twin Drive.................................................................... 51
3.3.4.3 High Speed............................................................................ 51
3.3.4.4 ROBO Lap............................................................................ 51
3.3.5 Development in Roving Frame............................................................ 51
3.3.5.1 Roving Bobbin Transport System......................................... 51
3.3.5.2 Higher Flyer Speed............................................................... 51
3.3.5.3 Individual Motor Drive......................................................... 52
3.3.5.4 Automatic Doffing................................................................ 52
3.3.5.5 Sliver Stop Motion................................................................ 52
3.3.5.6 Bobbins Transport................................................................. 52
3.3.5.7 Others.................................................................................... 52
3.3.6 Development in Ring Spinning System............................................... 52
3.3.6.1 Rieter SERVOgrip................................................................ 52
3.3.6.2 New Drive Concept............................................................... 53
3.3.6.3 Multi-Motor Drive System Rieter FLEXIdraft.................... 53
3.3.6.4 Zinser OptiStep and OptiStart.............................................. 53
3.3.6.5 Automated Cop Transport.................................................... 53
3.3.6.6 Others.................................................................................... 53
3.4 Yarn Numbering System................................................................................. 53
3.4.1 Direct System...................................................................................... 54
3.4.2 Indirect System.................................................................................... 55
3.4.3 Yarn Count Conversion........................................................................ 55
3.5 Fancy Yarns..................................................................................................... 56
3.5.1 Slub Yarn............................................................................................. 56
3.5.2 Marl Yarn............................................................................................. 57
3.5.3 Gradient Yarn...................................................................................... 57
3.5.4 Mosaic Yarn......................................................................................... 57
3.5.5 Vario-Siro Yarn................................................................................... 58
Yarn Formation and Recent Developments 33
3.5.6 Spiral or Corkscrew Yarn.................................................................... 58

3.5.7 Boucle Yarn......................................................................................... 58
3.5.8 Loop Yarn............................................................................................ 58
3.5.9 Snarl Yarn............................................................................................ 59
3.5.10 Chenille Yarn....................................................................................... 59
3.6 Summary and Conclusion................................................................................ 59
References.................................................................................................................60
3.1 INTRODUCTION
The yarn manufacturers are expected not only to produce higher quality yarns
but also must be competitive on prices to survive in the market. A modern yarn
manufacturer must therefore be technologically aware, efficient, flexible and cost
conscious. The majority of recent developments in yarn production have been
refinements of existing techniques plus improvements in process and product qual-
ity. While there are potentially many techniques that could be used to produce yarns,
many have met with limited commercial success. Automation is an obvious way to
reduce labour costs and improve quality; however, this often carries the penalty of
reduced flexibility. In the past a number of new spinning technologies have been
introduced to compete with ring spinning. While both air-jet spinning and friction
spinning have application in specific markets, the open-end rotor system eliminat-
ing roving and winding has been very successful and grabbed a considerable share
of the short-stapled market due to increase in the production against ring spinning.
Though productivity is more but other quality parameters are limited, the commer-
cial application of its yarn to the coarse counts. Among all technologies, still ring
spinning remains uncontested on quality standards and continues to dominate the
high value-added yarn markets. During the last two decades, components of ring
spinning machines have been greatly improved and changes in drafting system,
drive systems and robotics have enabled large gains in productivity, flexibility and
quality. In recent years, compact or condensed spinning is developed which is the
development in ring spinning system. Because it minimizes width and height of the
spinning triangle associated with ring spinning, it produces yarns with enhanced
structure and quality that results in improved performance during downstream yarn
processing (Ahmad 2009).
3.2 YARN FORMATION TECHNIQUES

Ring spinning has remained today as the most used method of yarn production, even
though a number of more highly productive systems were commercially developed
during the 20th century. However, the largest size of yarn package that could be built
on a ring spinning system along with low production speed limits its popularity. Last
century saw rapid developments of new spinning system and those aimed at gaining
major increases in production speeds compared with ring spinning. The common
feature of these successful developments is that the twisting and winding actions
occur separately in the new spinning system. This difference from ring spinning
enables higher production speeds and many times larger package size. Where rotor
FIGURE 3.1 Flowchart showing processing sequence for different spinning systems.
spinning produces yarn at about 150,000 rpm, air-jet spinning produces at approxi-

mately twice the speed of rotor spinning, and is approximately 15 times faster than
ring spinning. Furthermore, new spinning system provides other advantages like
fewer piecing on package, smaller floor space for a given production output, lower
energy and labour cost/kg of yarn, reduced waste, etc. Despite these advantages,
ring spinning still remains the dominant spinning process and seems likely to retain
this position. The main reasons for this are its flexibility in spinning a range of
fibre types, its capability of spinning yarn at the finer end of the usable count range
and very importantly its optimal yarn structure, which results in outstanding yarn
strength.
The flow chart of the operations involved for converting fibres into yarn for vari-
ous spinning system is shown in Figure 3.1. Ring-spun yarns are produced either from
carded or combed fibres. Most of the processes for rotor spinning are the same as for
ring spinning, and the main difference is that rotor spinning does not require roving
and winding process. Instead, the machine spins the yarn directly from the sliver and
hence produces coarser count than ring spinning. Also, as rotor spinning does not
require two additional processes when compared with ring spinning, it makes rotor-
spun yarn less expensive to produce. Similar to rotor spinning, air-jet spun yarn is a
lot cheaper as it uses fewer production stages and produces yarns with high speed,
but due to the sensitivity of the air-jet machine, the sliver must be drawn three times
in order to ensure uniformity.
3.2.1 Ring Spinning
Ring spinning is a method of spinning fibres such as cotton, flax or wool to make
a yarn. (http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2013/05/an-overview-of-ring-spinning.html).
In ring spinning, the roving is drafted to required fineness with double apron roller
drafting system followed by combine twisting and winding to make the yarn. The
principle of yarn manufacturing on ring spinning machine has been shown in
Figure 3.2. The roving bobbins (1) feeded to ring spinning machine are creel in
bobbin holders. The roving is then guided through roving condenser (2) into the
3-over-3 double apron drafting arrangement (3), which draft the roving to the final
FIGURE 3.2 Operating principle of ring spinning machine.
required count. The drafting arrangement (3) is inclined at an angle of about 45°–60°.
The bottom roller (5) is a steel-fluted roller, whereas top roller (4) is synthetic covered
and are housed in top pressure arm. Three pairs of rollers make two drafting zones,
i.e. back and front zones. The back zone is employed with break draft ranges from
1.03 to 1.3. The front zone is also called main drafting zone, where major draft is
employed. The double aprons (6) are present in this zone to control fibre movement.
It is one of the most important assemblies on the machine since it has considerable
influence on the irregularities present in the yarn.
After the drafting arrangement, the emerging drafted ribbon is twisted to impart
strength and winded onto the bobbin. The traveller, a tiny C-shaped metal piece,
slides on the inside flange of a ring encircling the spindle. This twist is generated by
the ring-traveller combination, where ring acts as a track for the rotation of the trav-
eller. The bobbin is encapsulated within the rotating balloon (11) formed between
lappet hook (7) and ring-traveller. Each revolution of the traveller (8) imparts one
turn of twist to the fibre strand. The traveller has no direct drive and is negatively
driven by the yarn pull generated due to difference in spindle speed and winding
speed. The speed of the traveller is lower than that of the spindle (12) owing to
significant friction generated between the traveller and ring (9). This difference in
speed between spindle and traveller enables winding of the yarn to the bobbin (10).
The traveller moves on ring flange provided on the ring (10) encircling the spindle.
Winding of the yarn on to the complete bobbin is done by raising and lowering the
ring rail. The traverse stroke of the ring rail is less than that of the bobbin height and
the ring rail was raised by small amount after each layer of coils to spread the yarn
layer on complete bobbin (http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2013/05/an-overview-
of-ring-spinning.html).
The major drawbacks of this system are the relatively low production speed,
additional processes (roving and winding) required for producing yarns and
difficulty of automation. The production speed of the ring spinning frame depends
on the traveller and spindle speeds. In most cases, the source of low production speed
is the excessive heat generated between the ring and traveller due to high contact
pressure during winding, and the temperature of the traveller might reach more than
400°C. The real problem is not generation of heat, but its dissipation due to very
small mass of the traveller.
3.2.1.1 Various Components of a Ring Frame

Spindle: The spindle is the main part of a ring frame that helps in twisting
and winding simultaneously. It holds the bobbin tightly to prevent slippage.
Ring: The ring is a circular shape body made of low carbon steel. It guides the
traveller in twisting and winding of yarn.
Traveller: Traveller is a tiny c-type wire profile that carries the most important
function of twisting, winding and guiding of thread to the bobbin.
Apron: Apron is made of a synthetic rubber material that helps in guiding the
fibre in main drafting zone.
Cot: It is made of a synthetic rubber material that used on top rollers of ring
frame drafting system. The hardness of rubber cots is expressed by shore
degree. Generally, harder cots are used on the back rollers and softer ones
on front rollers. Hardness ranges from 60° to 90° shore.
3.2.2 Compact Spinning
Compact spinning has been recognized as a revolution in ring spinning. Compact
spinning achieves a remarkable improvement in yarn quality and yarn structure
through better utilization of fibre properties. Compact spinning is a concept gen-
erated through re-engineering of established ring spinning process by attach-
ing a pneumatic zone to existing ring spinning machine. The idea of compact or
condensed spinning is achieved by adding an extra pneumatic condensing zone
between the front rollers and twist insertion (Figure 3.3). As a result, the sliver
width has been significantly reduced before twist insertion, and therefore the
spinning triangle has nearly been eliminated. With the elimination of the spinning
triangle, the edge fibres that previously might have become fly or hairiness could
now be well incorporated in the yarn, thus enabling an increase in fibre strength
contribution, as well as an increase in yarn strength and decrease of hairiness and
yarn break rate (Kumar et al. 2003).
The most important requirement for perfect compact yarn is parallel arrangement
of fibres and close position before twist is imparted. Different machine manufactur-
ers have developed different methods of compact spinning, namely
FIGURE 3.3 Principle of compact spinning.

• COM4 by Rieter
• Elite by Sussen
• RoCoS by Rotorcraft.
3.2.2.1 COM4 by Rieter
COM4 is the only compact system that replaces the front bottom roller with
perforated suction drums as shown in Figure 3.4. This compact system is relatively
stable, the maintenance is convenient and the lifetime for the perforated drum is very
long. The COM4 is based on aerodynamic parallelization and condensation after the
main drafting zone (https://nptel.ac.in/courses/116102038/29).
The heart of this technology is the perforated drum through which suction is
obtained to create air currents that condense the fibres coming out of the main draft
zone. The other important element is the air guide that plays an important role in
condensing process, as air is guided by air guide element, and this air current helps
to condense the fibre strand. This condensing of fibre strand considerably reduces the
width of spinning triangle and hence the problems associated with spinning triangle.
After the compacting has been done, the fibre strand needs to be twisted. COM4 is
an expensive system due to the fact that suction has to be provided to each individual
drum. The yarn produced on this system is named by Rieter as COM4 yarn. Where
COM stands for comfort and 4 indicates the four basic advantages of COM4 yarn
mentioned later.
• Reduced hairiness
• Maximum strength and elongation
• Minimum environmental impact
• Unequalled wearing comfort.
FIGURE 3.4 COM4 compact spinning system.

3.2.2.2 RoCoS-Magnetic Compacting System

RoCoS stands for a ‘RotorCraft compact spinning’ system that was developed by
Rotorcraft of Switzerland. This compact system makes the compact yarn without
the use of air. Magnetic mechanical compacting principle is used in RoCoS
system.
The RoCoS device consists of a front bottom roller that supports the front
top roller and delivery roller, and in between these two rollers, the magnetic
compactor is placed. As shown in Figure 3.5, the major components of RoCoS
compact unit are the front bottom roller (1), the front top roller (2), the deliv-
ery roller (3) and the magnetic compactor (4), with A and B as two clamping
lines. Rollers 2 and 1 replace the front roller pair at a normal drafting system and
after emerging from the clamping line A, the fibres are guided into a compact-
ing slot. The magnetic compactor is pressed against the bottom roller without
any clearance against it due to the magnetic force created by the magnetic part
on the edge of compactor, thus forming an enclosed compression chamber in the
slot. Inside this compact slot, the fibres are compacted mechanically. After the
fibres have been compacted, they pass the clamping line B (https://nptel.ac.in/
courses/116102038/29). The twist coming from the ring and traveller will directly
translate into the compact fibre strand that consists of parallel and straight fibres.
Therefore, the compact state of fibres has been solidified, causing elimination of
the spinning triangle and reduction of hairiness. It forms together with the bot-
tom roller an overall enclosed compression chamber whose bottom contour, the
generated surface of front bottom roller, moves synchronously with the strand
of fibres and transports this safely through the compactor. As the only major
mechanical compact system in the market, a magnetic compactor with magnetic
FIGURE 3.5 Operating principle of RoCoS compact spinning system.

part on the edge, made of high-density ceramic compound, is used as the compact
unit in RoCoS compact system. As RoCoS does not require air suction, air piping,
perforated drum or apron, there is no extra power and maintenance is necessary.
Meanwhile, the maintenance requirement is light since there are no aprons used
and the structure is pretty durable. RoCoS compact units are easy to be installed
or removed, which brings the convenience for switching product kind between
ring yarn and compact yarn. The only problem with this technology is that the
size of the front and the delivery roller is considerably smaller, which leads to
increased fibre lapping and problems in serviceability.
3.2.2.3 CompACT3 System of Zinser

The compACT3 system of Zinser works on aerodynamic compacting principle. The
condensing zone following the conventional 3/3 roller, double apron drafting system
consists of a perforated apron with special vacuum element for correct air current
and drive for the perforated apron. The special vacuum element generates the air
current underneath the apron. The special arrangement of circular and elliptical per-
forations on apron ensures better compacting effect. The fibre properties are largely
influencing the condensing process, e.g. stiff fibres behave in a different manner than
flexible ones. The fibre tension in compacting zone has influence on yarn quality.
Therefore, for cotton compact spinning process, 0%–4% overfeeding is required as
per raw material (https://nptel.ac.in/courses/116102038/29).
3.2.2.4 Elite by Suessen
In EliTe compact spinning system, compacting takes place in the additional com-
pacting or condensing zone following the main drafting zone of the three-roller
drafting system. The condensation zone consists of a profile tube, a lattice apron and
the top delivery roller (Jun 2010).
3.2.2.5 Advantages of Compact Spinning

• Benefits in yarn quality
• Lower hairiness
• Less fibre fly
• Higher abrasion resistance
• Lower dust in yarn
• Higher yarn tenacity and elongation
• Lower imperfection
• Benefits in downstream processes
• SPINNING
– Reduction in yarn twist up to 20%
– Ends down rate reduced by 30%–60%
• WINDING
– Less increase in imperfection due to low hairiness, allow to increase
winding speed
– Fewer clearer cuts
• BEAMING
– Increased production due to 30% less ends down
• SIZING
– 50% less requirement of sizing agent that leads to reduced cost of
sizing and desizing
• WEAVING
– Less warp and weft breakage allow to increase the speed and better
efficiency
• SINGEING
– No singeing that means raw material and process cost savings
– If required, it can be done with high cloth advance rate
• DYEING
– Improved absorption due to low twist, hence less dyeing cost
• Benefits in weaving
• Higher efficiency in weaving preparation and on the weaving machine
• Reduced clinging of warp threads
• Reduced application of size
• Fewer ends down
• Less abrasion
• More attractive final fabric appearance
• Benefits in knitting
• Less end break leads to improved quality and production
• Higher efficiency
• Less dust and fibre fly, fewer foreign fibres
• Reduced knitted-in foreign fibre
• No waxing necessary
• Lower twist with more yarn volume possible
• Replacement of two-ply by single yarn
• Better fabric optic
• Less pilling
• Extended life of knitting needles
• Benefits in finishing
• No singeing that means savings in raw material and process costs
• Excellent printed fabrics – due to better dyestuff penetration and clear
contours
• Much higher fabric tear strength despite non-iron finish
• Benefits in textile fabrics
• Increased strength in the fabric
• Less pilling tendency
• Improved lustre
• Clear print
• Better stitch definition
• Clearer weaving structure and more defined contour
• Better touch of fabric
3.2.2.6 Disadvantages of Compact Spinning

• High cost of machine
• Higher running cost
• Roving traverse reduced from 10–12 mm to 5 mm, which gives reduced life
for cots and apron
• Lubricating film formation on traveller reduced due to low hairiness, so
traveller burns out frequently
• Fabric faults are more clearly visible
• Surface dyeing occur in fabric, so early fading of colour occurs.
• Skilled labour required for handling
• Problem in splicing.
3.2.3 Rotor Spinning
Rotor spinning is a more recent method of yarn formation when compared with ring
spinning. This is a form of open-end spinning where the twist is introduced into the
yarn without the need of package rotation, hence allowing for higher twisting speeds
with a relatively low power cost.
In rotor spinning (Figure 3.6), fibres are presented to the rotor system in the form
of sliver (2) from a can (1). The sliver is then fed through a sliver guide via a feed
roller (4) and feed plate (3) to a rapidly rotating opening roller (5). The opening
roller rotates much faster than the feed roller. The rotating teeth of the opening roller
combs out the individual fibres from the sliver clamped between feed plate and feed
roller (Klein 1993). This means the fibres in the sliver are combed by the saw tooth
and separated under a high draft ratio into individual fibres by the opening roller.
Once opened, the fibres pass through a transport channel or tube (7) in which they
are further separated and parallelized before being deposited on the inside wall of
the rotor (8). Centrifugal forces, generated by the rotor turning at high speeds, cause
the fibres to collect along the walls of the rotor, forming a ring of fibres. To initiate
spinning, the tail end of the yarn (10) already wound on to the package is threaded
through the nip of the delivery rollers and into the doffing tube (9). Since the suction
is generated externally to the rotor, the rotor is under a partial vacuum. The partial
vacuum in the rotor sucks the tail end of the yarn into the rotor. The rotation of the
rotor develops air drag and centrifugal forces on the yarn, pulling the yarn end in
contact with the collected fibre ribbon. Simultaneously, the tail end is twisted with
FIGURE 3.6 Operating principle of rotor spinning machine.

each revolution of the rotor. This twist propagates towards the tail end of the yarn
and binds the ribbon into the yarn end. Once the yarn tail enters the rotor, the deliv-
ery rollers are also set in motion to pull the tail out of the rotor. The pulling action
of the tail results in the peeling of the fibre ribbon from the rotor groove. The degree
of twist inserted in the tail will propagate into each length of ribbon peeled from the
groove, thus forming the next length of yarn. The process is continuous because of
the conservation of mass flow. The yarn is then taken up onto a cross-wound pack-
age, thus separating the winding process from twisting. As the yarn is drawn from
the rotor, some fibres lying at the peeling point may wrap around the yarn, resulting
in the formation of random wrapper fibres, which are the characteristic of the open-
end yarn structure (Klein 1993).
Open-end spinning operates at a rate up to five times that of ring spinning and
can be effectively used for cotton, polyester–cotton blends, as well as other short and
medium staple systems. Rotor-spun yarns are more even, somewhat weaker and have
a harsher feel than ring-spun yarns. Rotor-spun yarns are mainly produced in the
medium-to-coarse count range. End uses of open-end yarns include denim, towels,
blankets, socks, t-shirts, shirts and pants (http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/04/
what-is-rotor-principle-of-rotor.html).
3.2.4 Air-Jet Spinning
Air-jet spinning is also known as fasciated yarn spinning. It produces yarn at
approximately twice the speed of rotor spinning, and approximately 15 times faster
than ring spinning. A renaissance in the historical development of air-jet spinning
started with the Murata Jet Spinner (MJS) machine of the Japanese company Murata
Machinery Ltd. The company introduced its first air-jet spinning machine, MJS 801
at the American Textile Machinery Exhibition in 1982.
The machine contains a three-roll drafting system and is equipped with two air-jet
nozzles that create air vortices rotating in opposite directions. At the time the MJS
801 was introduced, its delivery speed was limited to 160 m/min, ten times faster
than that of ring spinning (Klein 1993). As a result of these advantages, the MJS 801
system captured great commercial success quickly in spinning pure synthetic fibres,
blends of synthetic fibres or rich blends of synthetic with cotton fibres. However, it
is not suitable for pure cotton fibres or rich blends of cotton fibres. In the late 80s,
Murata introduced a new version of this system, the MJS 802 (Basu 1999). The MJS
802 contains a four-line drafting unit and a modified nozzle that provides b etter
fibre control and a speed of up to 210 m/min was possible. The spinning process
used by MJS 802 is depicted in Figure 3.7. It consist of a 4-over-4 high-speed roller
drafting unit (2), nozzle box (3) having two compressed-air twisting jets arranged
in tandem, a pair of delivery rollers (4), a yarn package (6) and a take-up drum (7)
build unit. First a draw frame sliver (1) passes through the drafting unit (2), which
reduces the sliver weight to required fineness. Then the delivered fibre strand, as it
leaves the nip line, passed to twin air-nozzles (3) located directly after the drafting
unit. The nozzles of the first jet are set to give a counterclockwise vortex producing
a Z–S false-twist action, whereas the second jet gives an S–Z false-twist action. The
first nozzle imparts twist to the leading ends of the fibre, while their trailing ends are
FIGURE 3.7 Operating principle of Murata air-jet spinning machine.
still being held by the front roller. The second nozzle imparts false twist to the whole
fibre bundle in opposite direction to that of the first nozzle. Because of the higher air
pressure used in the second nozzle, the false twist to the fibre bundle travels back to
the front rollers of the drafting unit. As the yarn comes through the second nozzle,
the false twist is removed and the core fibres no longer exhibit any twist. They are
arranged in parallel form, and at that point, the surface fibres which were twisted
by the first nozzle are caused to further increase their twist by the untwisting action.
The system is stated to be suitable for processing man-made fibres and their blends
with cotton; however, it was not capable of spinning 100% cotton or rich blends of
cotton yarn (Klein 1993; McCreight et al. 1997).
3.2.4.1 Murata Vortex Spinning

The latest development in air-jet spinning technology is the Murata vortex spin-
ner, which uses a modified single air nozzle, was first introduced at the Osaka
International Textile Machinery Show (OTEMAS) ‘97 by Murata Machinery Ltd.
(Erdumlu and Saricam 2013). The VORTEX III 870 boasts the world’s fastest
spinning of staple yarns at 500 m/min. This provides 20 times the production of
ring spinning. The Vortex provides three times the productivity even against open
end spinning (www.intamakina.com/Murata/VortexIII870_e.pdf). The superior
pilling resistance, external appearance, printability and other characteristics of
VORTEX yarns and fabrics have been recognized all over the world and have greatly
expanded the product development possibilities in the fashion world. This system is
claimed to be capable of producing 100% carded cotton yarns that have a ring spun-
like appearance and higher tenacity due to higher number of wrapping fibres when
compared with the previous air-jet spinning systems.
Murata vortex spinning (MVS) is based on the already existing air-jet spinning
technology by Murata, but essentially differs in principle from the MJS method
because of the geometry of the air-jet twisting device used. This air-jet device
includes a nozzle block with injectors for the generation of swirl flow, a needle holder,
a hollow spindle and a guide member. Figure 3.8 displays a detailed view about the
schematic diagram of the vortex spinning system. In this system, a finisher sliver is
FIGURE 3.8 Operating principle of MVS machine.
supplied directly to a four-roller apron drafting system. As the fibres come out of the
front rollers, they are sucked into the spiral-shaped opening of the nozzle. A guide
needle within the nozzle controls the movement of the fibres towards a hollow spin-
dle. After the fibres have passed through the nozzle, they twine over the hollow
stationary spindle due to the whirling force of air-jet stream and become the wrap-
ping fibres. Subsequently, these fibres are spirally wound around the fibre core and
formed into a vortex spun yarn like a real twisted spun yarn as they are drawn into
the spindle. The finished yarn is wound onto package after its defects have been
removed (Begum et al. 2018).
3.2.4.2 Rieter Jet Spinning

Rieter has developed Rieter J10, J20 and J26 model spinning machines working with
the same principle with MVS system. These are double-sided machines with 100
spinning units and delivery speed up to 500 m/min. The machine application range
covers 100% polyester, combed cotton, cellulosic fibres, microfibres and different
blends including man-made fibres in the yarn count range from Ne 20 to 70.
In this spinning, system fibres that leave the drafting zone are guided through
the fibre feeding element by means of negative pressure into a spinning nozzle.
The front part of the fibres enters the tube of the spinning tip and creates the core
of the yarn. The four air jets in the twist element create a whirlwind air-jet stream.
The air stream drifts the loose fibre ends around the yarn core. In this system, there
is also a regulator connected for adjusting the compressed air pressure to the set
value. The yarn produced by this system is called Comforjet. Lower spinning air
pressure and higher delivery speed result in soft yarns that maintain low hairiness,
good pilling and high abrasion resistance. One of the decisive features from the
other air-spun systems is the profiting from the minimal fibre fly. Rieter-automated
FIGURE 3.9 Rieter air-jet spinning system.
air-jet spinning machine is shown in Figure 3.9. One of the distinctive features of
the system from the MVS system is the connection of sliver condensers, nozzle
and the yarn quality sensor with the traversing device. Hence, this becomes an
advantage for the stable yarn quality and less wear on rollers. By this way, sliver/
yarn is moved slowly over the defined range. The fibre path is another difference
in the design of the nozzles of the two systems. In the Murata system, the drafting
system is located above the spinning nozzle and yarns are delivered at the bottom.
For space-efficiency reasons, Rieter reversed the setup, the sliver is fed from the
bottom and delivered yarn is wound up at the top after passing the air-jet twist
insertion (Günaydin and Soydan 2017).
3.2.5 Friction Spinning
Friction spinning is defined as an ‘open-end’ spinning method, in which the yarn
formation takes place in the yarn forming zone consisting of two friction rollers with
the aid of frictional forces. Friction spinning system was developed by the company
Ernst Fehrer and exhibited in 1973 under the name of DREF-1. With this system,
the opened fibres were made to fall on a vacuum slot of a single perforated cylin-
drical roller, the rotation of which imparted twist to the fibre assembly. Owing to
the absence of positive control over the assembly of fibres, much slippage occurred
between the fibre assembly and the perforated roller, which reduced the twist effi-
ciency. Hence, this particular design could not be commercialized. The commercial
development of two designs of DREF spinning machines is known as DREF-2 and
DREF-3, respectively.
3.2.5.1 DREF-2
DREF-II friction spinning machine incorporates a specially designed inlet system that
provides the required draft. These drafted slivers are opened into individual fibres by
an opening roller covered with sawtooth wires. The individual fibres are stripped from
the opening roller by centrifugal force supported by an air stream from a blower. The
fibres are then transported by additional rollers to two perforated friction drums. The
mechanical friction on the surface of the drums twists the fibres. Suction through
the perforation of the drum assists the twisting process and helps in the removal of
dust and dirt. Due to its versatility and high output speed of up to 300 m/min, the fric-
tion spinning system is considered suitable for producing yarns in the coarse count
range, i.e. greater than 20 Ne (https://nptel.ac.in/courses/116102038/35). The low yarn
strength and the requirement of having more fibres in the yarn cross section have
restricted DREF-2 spinning to the coarser count range (Lawrence 2010).
3.2.5.2 DREF-3
The DREF-3 friction spinning machine was introduced into the market in 1981,
which is a core-sheath type of friction spinning arrangement (Figure 3.10). This
machine was developed to improve yarn quality, extend the yarn count up to 18 Ne
and produce multi-component yarns.
In this machine, an attempt is made to improve the quality of yarn by aligning the
majority of fibres in the direction of yarn axis. The sheath fibres are wrapped round
the core fibres by the false twist generated by the rotating action of drums. On this
machine, there are two drafting units, one for the core fibres and the other for the
sheath fibres (Figure 3.10). One drafting unit consists of 4-over-4 roller arrangement
that attenuates the core sliver and feeds the fibre strand into the entry of the spinning
nip along the direction of the yarn axis. Second drafting unit consists of two pairs
of rollers, which draft the sheath slivers. The fibres of the drafted slivers are then
individualized by a pair of opening rollers or carding drums. The opening rollers
FIGURE 3.10 Operating principle of DREF-3 friction spinning machine.

rotate at 12,000 rev/min and have a sawtooth wire covering. This system produces
a variety of core-sheath type structures and multi-component yarns using different
core and sheath fibres in the count range of 1–18 Ne with delivery speeds as high as
300 m/min (Fehrer 1991).
3.2.5.3 DREF-5
In the DREF-5 friction spinning machine, the drafting unit consists of a feed roller
and pedal, which retain the sliver and feed them to a combing roller that rotates at
speeds of 4,500–5,000 rev/min and individualizes the sliver into fibres. Then, the
individualized fibres from a single sliver are fed through a fibre transport channel
into the yarn forming zone at an inclined angle to the yarn axis. DREF-2 and DREF-3
have vertical feed systems, whereas DREF-5 unit has an inclined fibre feed known
as the forward-feed system. The inclined fibre feed offers advantages such as better
fibre-length utilization and the spinning of finer yarns. However, the vertical feed
results in the production of stronger but coarser yarns. The DREF-5 system p roduces
best quality friction yarns within the count range of 15–37 tex, with production
speeds of up to 200 m/min (Fehrer 1987).
3.2.5.4 DREF-2000
The DREF-2000 friction spinning machine employs the classic DREF-2 system. This
machine can produce S- and Z-twisted yarn without mechanical alterations to the
machine by the operator. Yarns of 41 tex can be produced at production speeds
of 250 m/min (Ishtiaque et al. 2003). DREF-2000 friction spinning machines are
utilized for recycling textile wastes as well as spinning of technical and other yarns.
3.2.5.5 DREF-3000
The DREF-3000 friction spinning machine is utilized especially for the production of
multi-component yarns (hybrid yams) of count 33–666 tex with production speeds of
up to 250 m/min. This machine has a filament guide and is capable of operating with
several yarn cores, which are axially fed to the spinning drums. These core yarns are
then provided with a fibre sheath and are positioned precisely in the middle of the yarn.
3.3 DEVELOPMENTS IN RING-SPUN YARN

MANUFACTURING PROCESSES
3.3.1 Development in Blow Room
The developments in blow room are discussed (Singh and Kothari 2009) as follows:
3.3.1.1 Automatic Bale Opener

The automatic bale opener gives smaller tuft size and thus results in better opening
and cleaning efficiency of the subsequent machines. Unifloc by Rieter and Blendomat
by Trutzschler are the modern automatic bale openers that are very popular nowa-
days. Unifloc uses single plucking roller having double edge tooth for processing
of cotton and man-made fibres. The roller teeth can also be replaced individually.
Blendomat is fitted with two plucking rollers rotating in opposite direction, but at any
given time, only one plucking roller is working while the other is raised according to
the travel direction of the machine.
3.3.1.2 Compact Blow Room Line

The use of three to four beaters in series (CVT-4 Cleaner of Trützschler) in the same
machine rather than two or four machines in tandem in line gives same cleaning.
Thus, the modern blow room line becomes shorter without any compromise on the
quality of the material.
3.3.1.3 Mote Knife with Suction in Place of Grid Bars

The trend of using mote knife with an open slot along suction was initially incor-
porated on carding in the pre-carding and post-carding zones. Recently, the
same principle was adopted by Trützschler on cleaning machines in blow room.
Such a cleaning system consists of deflector blade, mote knife and suction hood.
Trash particles released due to centrifugal forces are separated at the knives and
are continuously taken away by suction keeping the hood clean permanently. The
deflector blade setting depends on the type of cotton processing.
3.3.1.4 Improved Mixing/Blending of Raw Material

Mixed homogeneity depends on the methods of mixing and type of mixing/blending
machine used. Rieter’s Unimix and Trutzschler’s Multimixer mixing machines are
used nowadays with different number of chambers to ensure long-term blending of
fibre stocks. Also, Rieter’s UNIblend sets the highest standards for multi-component
blends where raw material ratios are mixed at a highest degree of accuracy.
A deviation in the blending ratios of less than 1% is guaranteed.
3.3.1.5 Online Parameter Settings

One of the most significant modernizations, which has been brought in the blow
room line, is the online setting of opening/cleaning machine parameters like beater
speed, distance between grid bars, distance between grid bars and beater, distance
between beater and feed roller, etc. The cleaning intensity and amount of waste
extracted can be programmed and adjusted while the machine is in production.
3.3.2 Development in Carding
3.3.2.1 Chute Feed System
Chute feeding is a recent development in feeding small tufts of cotton fibres
directly from blow room to a series of cards, arranged in a circuit through ducts and
chutes (http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2013/08/recent-development-of-carding-
machine.html).
3.3.2.2 Unidirectional Feed
It enables the lap to be presented in the direction of rotation of licker-in teeth. Here
the feed roller is located below the feed plate. Lap moves downward in the direction
of rotation of licker-in. This results in mild action on fibres by licker-in (Singh and
Kothari 2009).
3.3.2.3 Autolevellers
Autolevellers are used to continuously monitor and control the sliver thickness.
In case of any variation in thickness, the draft and speed of feed can be altered.
3.3.2.4 Magnetic Flats – MAGNATOP

MAGNATOP is a novel way of mounting the card clothing to the flats using strong
magnets. The card flat clothing is magnetically attached to the card flat bar body. By
the use of MAGNATOP, the time for changing a set of flat tops has been reduced
from 14 to 2 h. The MAGNATOP system uses neodymium magnets, which are the
strongest permanent magnets ever.
3.3.2.5 Wider Width
Rieter C 60 Card has 1.5 m width in place of 1 m, which means 50% more working
width. The diameter of the cylinder has been reduced, whereas the take-off roller
diameter is increased. Because of more carding width, the available carding surface
is more; hence, this enables the output to be increased by 50% without deterioration
in sliver or yarn quality.
3.3.2.6 Rieter Integrated Grinding System (IGS-Top and IGS-Classic)

Rieter IGS-System comes in two versions: IGS-Classic for cylinder wire grinding
and IGS-Top for flat wire grinding. IGS-Classic has a grindstone, which moves
across the cylinder under automatic control during production. This process is
performed 400 times during the planned lifecycle of the clothing when compared
with every 80–100 tonnes in case of manual grinding. This results in better qual-
ity in terms of reduction in neps and trash of card sliver. IGS-Top is installed
permanently over the returning flats after the flats cleaning unit, and it performs
automatically more than 100 grinding cycles per clothing lifecycle. The flat rods
are raised one after the other by spring force and pressed against the rotating
grinding brush. Short, hard bristles grind the flat points while longer, softer bris-
tles keep the later edges sharp. IGS-System gives prolonged cylinder clothing life
to the tune of 10%–20% (Singh and Kothari 2009).
3.3.2.7 Trützschler Carding Setting Measurement System T-Con

T-Con calculates the distance of the carding elements objectively, based on various
measuring values under production conditions. The various settings displayed on the
card monitor include the flat-cylinder gauge, fixed carding segments, cylinder gauge,
etc., and hence these settings can be optimized. T-Con also registers even slightest
contacts of the clothing and shuts down the card long before damage can occur and
protects against clothing damages.
3.3.2.8 T-LED – The New Remote Display

There is also a new generation of displays: T-LED is based on latest LED t echnology
and is visible to the user even from a long distance. This system, for instance,
visualizes the can filling. Thus, the user can see at a glance which card requires a
new empty can most urgently.
3.3.3 Development in Draw Frame

3.3.3.1 Auto Draft
Trutzschler new draw frames have technology to optimize the sliver by estimat-
ing the corresponding values of the break draft merely in 1 min and take important
parameters like fibre–fibre friction, fibre to metal friction, etc. and calculate the
break draft (http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/02/new-developments-on-draw-
frame-machines.html).
3.3.3.2 CLEANcoil
The deposition of spin finish on the underside of the coiler plate of draw frame when
processing man-made fibres leads to displacement of the sliver layer in can. To avoid
this, the coiler has to be cleaned frequently resulting in production loss. Rieter has
patented a coiler plate that has a honeycomb-like surface and has claimed to reduce
the cleaning frequency from 2 to 3 h to 1–3 days depending upon the type and quan-
tity of finishing agents (Singh and Kothari 2009).
3.3.3.3 Tension Measuring System

When the card sliver is fed to the draw frame, there is a long path to travel. So on the
way, there will be tension variations due to friction forces and weight of the sliver.
To avoid these tension variations, there are tension measuring sensors to detect and
adjust the roller speeds according to it.
3.3.3.4 Short-Term Auto Levellers

In principle, levelling takes place in the entire speed range of the draw frame.
Even when reducing speed before and during run-up after a can change, short-term
levelling (SERVO DRAFT) remains in operation. Due to this, each meter of draw
frame sliver has its optimum quality.
3.3.3.5 Simple and Automatic Adjustment of Drafting Zone Widths

The drafting system rolls are precisely positioned on parallel guides. Since the nip
distance can be set by reading on a dial, it is not necessary to use any gauges. Top
roll support, top rolls and bottom cylinders are firmly connected to each other and
are automatically adjusted as well. Due to a special belt guide, it is not necessary to
tension again the belts after readjustment.
3.3.3.6 Use of Microwave Sensors

This is used in auto levelling to determine band mass of an elongated, substantially
non-twisting fibre structure. This used the moisture content of the sliver as the
measuring principle.
3.3.3.7 Use a Camera to Monitor the Sliver Quality
This is used to monitor the output sliver behalf on quality aspects such as fibre
arrangement, fibre imperfections and irregularities.
3.3.3.8 High Production Speed

The modern autoleveller draw frame is ideal for high productions up to 1,000 m/min.
3.3.4 Development in Comber
3.3.4.1 Rieter Combers E 65/E 75 with Computer-
Aided Process Development
Rieter has developed computer programmes entitled CAPD+ (www.indiantextile-
journal.com/articles/FAdetails.asp?id=2069). The process improvements boost the
efficiency and productivity of the machine and increase mean time between assist
(MTBA) value (i.e. average time between two unscheduled stoppages). Elements
involved in the combing process were recalculated, optimized and checked for
feasibility in several billion computer operations and simulated precisely. It increases
the nip rates to 450 nips/min.
3.3.4.2 Two Twin Drive

The conventional mono drive of the thin detaching rollers produces strong
torsions. As a result, vibrations and deviations in combing quality and amount
of noil occur between the combing heads. Here the overall performance of the
comber is also l imited. The new concept of the Trutzschler Comber (TCO 12) is
based on two-times-two highly dynamic synchronous servomotors. Two motors
on each side drive the two detaching rollers. This results in synchronous run-
ning and absolutely comparable motion sequences on all combing heads. By
using individual drives, the motion sequence can be precisely determined by
machine control. Therefore, an application-oriented optimization of the piec-
ing process is possible (www.truetzschler-spinning.de/en/products/combing/
detailed-information/2-twin-drive/).
3.3.4.3 High Speed
Modern comber can run at a speed of 600 nips/min.
3.3.4.4 ROBO Lap
The established, fully automated ROBOlap lap changing and piecing system is the
standard for a modern combing facility (https://nptel.ac.in/courses/116102038/6).
3.3.5 Development in Roving Frame

3.3.5.1 Roving Bobbin Transport System
Transporting individual roving bobbins manually from the simplex to the ring
spinning machine is labour-intensive and often results in damage to roving (http://
textilelearner.blogspot.com/2014/12/recent-development-of-simplex-machine.html).
For this problem, roving bobbin transport system is available for bobbin transport
from roving frame to ring spinning machine.
3.3.5.2 Higher Flyer Speed

Earlier flyers were invariably made of steel, but they are now mostly made of light
alloy. At high speeds, currently considered normal steel flyers would spread at
the legs considerably. Nowadays modern flyer speed is maximum 2,000 rpm and
1,000–1,500 rpm is commonly used.
3.3.5.3 Individual Motor Drive

The advantages of individual motor drive system are no need of heavy counter-
weight for bobbin rail balancing and differential gear, reduced maintenance, lower
energy consumption, etc. All machine manufacturers incorporate a four-motor-
drive system, except Toyota, that uses three servomotors on FL100 roving frame:
one motor for drafting system and flyer while one motor each for bobbin drive and
bobbin rail.
3.3.5.4 Automatic Doffing
Automatic doffing enables labour requirements and doffing times to be drasti-
cally reduced. This has been made possible by separate actuation of bobbin rail
and doffer rail by two independent frequency converters (https://nptel.ac.in/
courses/116102038/13).
3.3.5.5 Sliver Stop Motion

It is done by light emitter and photocell. It is located between the last transport roller
of the creel and the drafting system. It stops the machine in case of sliver break.
3.3.5.6 Bobbins Transport
Transporting individual roving bobbins manually from the roving frame to the ring
spinning machine is labour-intensive and often results in damage to roving. Sixty
percent wages cost can be attributed to cost of transport due to manual transport.
Automatic transport of bobbins improves high degree of flexibility, causes substantial
increase in quality and productivity and reduces labour costs. The result is well-
organized, space-saving production processes and ready access to machines.
3.3.5.7 Others
• Spindle speed of 1,500 rpm as on date when compared with 600 rpm in
1950s.
• Increase in the roving bobbin diameter from 4″ to 7″ and lift from 8″ to 16″
• Use of straight cone drum instead of hyperbolic cone drum for better c ontrol
over the roving tension, etc.
• Now all closed (AC type) flyers are used to overcome the problem of
air drag on roving. These flyers are aerodynamically balanced and are
lightweight.
3.3.6 Development in Ring Spinning System

3.3.6.1 Rieter SERVOgrip
The yarn has to wind several times around the lower end of the spindle to hold it in the
spinning position at the time of doffing (https://nptel.ac.in/courses/116102038/23).
These underwindings often cause multiple ends down and lead to fibre fly when
machine is restarted after doffing. SERVOgrip is a system of doffing ring cop without
the underwinding threads. The yarn gets inserted in the open crown and the crown
gets closed afterward. When the cop is replaced, the length of the yarn remains
firmly clamped, enabling piecing after the machine is started.
3.3.6.2 New Drive Concept

Bottom rollers are subject to material-specific torsion that causes faults during
spinning start-up and spin-out as of a certain loading level and a critical bottom
roller length. This is taken into account in the Rieter G 35 with a modular drive
concept. A single-sided drive is sufficient for short machines with up to 624 spindles.
Machines with up to 1,200 spindles are driven from headstock and tailstock. The
division of the drafting system cylinders in mid-machine reduces torsion and ensures
high running accuracy and drafting action (Singh and Kothari 2009).
3.3.6.3 Multi-Motor Drive System Rieter FLEXIdraft

It features separate drives for the drafting system and the spindles. This system enables
change in the yarn count and twist and twist direction (S/Z) via the control panel of
the machine. Each drafting system drive can be started or stopped individually via
FLEXIstart system. FLEXIdraft has a further advantage of noise level reduction due
to elimination of gear wheels.
3.3.6.4 Zinser OptiStep and OptiStart

OptiStep is a system of adjusting spindle speed in ten different ranges throughout the
cop build up. The start-up, tip and main spinning speeds can be defined with a ten-
point speed curve. OptiStart (optional) is a running-in programme for ring travellers
to perform the running-in phases of the ring travellers with precise accuracy up to
production speed. Hence, the traveller service life is substantially extended.
3.3.6.5 Automated Cop Transport

It is therefore hardly surprising that there is a steadily increasing awareness of the
importance of transport in spinning mills and among machinery manufacturers
and that opportunities for improvement are being sought. Several textile machinery
manufacturers are already offering automated transport systems.
3.3.6.6 Others
• The speed of spindle has been increased to 25,000 rpm in modern ring
frame.
• Nowadays auto doffing is available on most of the ring frames.
3.4 YARN NUMBERING SYSTEM

Yarn numbering system, also known as yarn count, is a numerical expression that
indicates the coarseness or fineness of a yarn. In other words, yarn count is a number
indicating the mass per unit length or the length per unit mass of the yarn (https://
textilestudycenter.com/yarn-numbering-system/).The fineness of yarn cannot be
expressed easily in terms of diameter, as in the case of wires and cords we measure
its diameter by using instruments such as micrometre or calipers. But in case of yarn,
we cannot measure its diameter using micrometre and caliper because most of the
yarns are relatively soft and compressible. Also, the cross section of the spun yarn
is not fully circular, and it contains variations in thickness because of the presence
of thick and thin places in the yarn. The continuous filament yarns also suffer from
this drawback. Therefore, yarn numbering systems are used to measure the fineness
and coarseness of yarn. Two types of yarn numbering systems are used, i.e. direct
and indirect systems.
3.4.1 Direct System
In direct yarn numbering system, the yarn number or count is the weight of a
unit length of yarn. In this system, the count directly expresses the size of the
yarn, and a coarser yarn will have a higher number while a finer yarn will have
a lower number. The resultant count of the folded yarn can be easily calculated
by just addition of count of individual threads. In direct count system, the length
of yarn is fixed, and the mass of yarn varies according to its fineness. The most
frequently used direct systems are tex and denier. Tex is defined as the weight of
yarn in grams/1,000 m of yarns or 1 km length, whereas denier is the weight of yarn
in grams/9,000 m of yarns. Table 3.1 shows the unit of mass and length for differ-
ent direct systems of counting.
This system is commonly used for polyester, nylon, silk, acrylic and jute yarns.
The main systems in use are as follows:
Tex – Weight in grams of 1,000 m

Denier – Weight in grams of 9,000 m
Decitex – Weight in grams of 10,000 m
1 tex = 10 decitex.
Let
N = the yarn number or count,

W = the weight of the sample at the official regain in the units of the system,
L = the length of the sample and
l = the unit of length of the system.
W *l
Then, N =
L
TABLE 3.1
Units of Length and Weight in Direct Counting System
System Unit of Weight Unit of Length
Tex Gram 1,000 m
Denier Gram 9,000 m
Linen (dry spun), hemp jute Pound 14,400 yards
Silk Dram 1,000 yards
Decitex Gram 10,000 m
Kilotex Kilogram 1,000 m
3.4.2 Indirect System
In an indirect system, the yarn number or the count is the number of units of length
per unit of weight. Hence in this system, higher the yarn number or count indicates
the finer or lighter the yarn size and smaller the yarn number or count indicates the
coarser or thicker the yarn size. This system is generally used for English cotton
count, Worsted count, Linen count, Woolen count, French cotton count and metric
count. Here again, there are various units of length and weight unit of length and
weight and numerous systems (Table 3.2). Generalizing
Let
N = the yarn number or count

W = the weight of the sample at the official regain in the units of system
w = the unit of weight of the sample
L = the length of the sample
l = the unit of length of the system
L*w
Then, N =
l *W
Major indirect systems in use are (Booth 1986) as follows:
English Cotton is defined as number of hanks each of 840 yards weighing in

1 pound of the yarn.
Worsted is defined as the number of hanks each of 560 yards weighing in
1 pound of the yarn.
Metric is defined as the number of hanks each of 1,000 m weighing in 1 kg.
3.4.3 Yarn Count Conversion

Conversion from one system to another system is achieved by conversion factors and
constants shown in Table 3.3. Where a direct to a direct system or an indirect to an
TABLE 3.2
Units of Length and Weight in Indirect Counting System
Numbering System Units of Length (l) Units of Weight (W)
English cotton count (Ne) 840 yards 1 pound (lb.)
Metric count (Nm) 1,000 m/1 km 1 kg
Woolen count (YSM) 256 yards 1 pound (lb.)
Worsted count (Nek) 560 yards 1 pound (lb.)
Linen count (NeL) 300 yards 1 pound (lb.)
Spun Silk 840 yards 1 pound
French cotton count 1,000 m 500 g
Woolen (American run) 100 yards 1 ounce
TABLE 3.3
Conversion Relation for Different Numbering Systems
Convert into
English Cotton
Known Tex Decitex (dtex) Denier (den) Metric No. (Nm) No. (Ne)
tex – 10 × tex 9 × tex 1,000/tex 591/tex
Decitex (dtex) dtex/10 – 0.9 × dtex 10,000/dtex 5,910/dtex
Denier (den) den/9 den/0.9 – 9,000/den 5,314/den
Metric No. (Nm) 1,000/Nm 10,000/Nm 9,000/Nm – 0.59 × Nm
English cotton 591/Ne 5,910/Ne 5,314/Ne Ne × 1.69 –
No. (Ne)
indirect system is concerned, a multiplying factor is used. Where the conversion is

from a direct to an indirect or vice versa, a constant is used, into which the known
count is divided to give the equivalent count in the other system.
3.5 FANCY YARNS
Fancy yarn is defined as ‘A yarn that differs from the normal construction of single
and folded yarns by way of deliberately produced irregularities in its construction.
These irregularities relate to an increased input of one or more of its components,
or to the inclusion of periodic effects, such as knops, loops, curls, slubs or the like
(Denton and Daniels 2002)’. ‘Fancy yarns’ are those in which some deliberate deco-
rative discontinuity or interruption is introduced, of either colour or form, or of both
colour and form. This discontinuity is incorporated with the intention of producing
an enhanced aesthetic effect (Gong and Wright 2002). Most fancy yarns are pro-
duced by specialist fancy spinners, using machines modified or developed for the
purpose. Others are produced from ‘fancy slivers’, which are used as minor com-
ponents in yarns made by spinners using normal equipment. Textile materials that
are produced using yarns with effects find applications in normal and high fashion
clothing. Such yarns are also used for decorative textiles like curtains, carpets, ladies
and children outerwear, decor materials and textile fabrics in the corporate sector
like trim of a car or textile furnishing of a hotel lobby (www.slideshare.net/88azmir/
fancy-yarns). Different kinds of fancy are briefly described later.
3.5.1 Slub Yarn
Slub yarn is a yarn containing thick places of different thickness and length that
is achieved by programmed acceleration of back and middle roller in ring spin-
ning, at the same time maintaining the front roller at a constant speed. Slub yarns
are produced with a change in mass at a constant speed with varying twist factors.
In these yarns, the twist per metre in the yarn remains the same. The slub yarns can
also be produced with different variations in length and thickness of effect.
• Equal slub length and thickness

• Different slub length but same thickness
• Different slub length and thickness
• Slub over slub with different length and thickness
• Reverse slub
3.5.2 Marl Yarn
Marled yarn is simplest among the fancy yarns made by twisting together plies of
different coloured yarns. This results in a yarn with multiple coloured yarns winding
around one another. It is different from a normal double yarn in the sense of texture
(Figure 3.11). This yarn is used as effect in discreet pinstripes for men’s suiting or to
produce a subtly and irregularly patterned knitted fabric.
3.5.3 Gradient Yarn
In gradient yarn, the colour changes uniformly from one to the other. Gradient yarn
is produced by blending two different colour slivers on the draw frame in a con-
trolled manner. The drafting system consists of two sections, namely pre-drafting
section and the main drafting section. First, the slivers of different colours are pre-
drafted separately and then fed together into the main drafting section. There is a
convergence zone between the two drafting sections where no draft is applied on
the slivers. This zone has been named as the convergence zone. By changing the
pre-draft, colour ration of any intensity can be produced in the output sliver. A broad
range of gradient yarns can be produced by varying the percentage and length of the
colour insertions continuously or in stretches as desired, keeping the slivers either
constant or not constant. Gradient yarn can be used for producing shawl, scarf, hat,
tops, etc. (Khan 2017).
3.5.4 Mosaic Yarn
The mosaic yarn is a trade name of new yarn developed by Toyota Industries
Corporation. It produces colour effects by the replacement of one roving by another
of different colour with maintaining the count of the yarn. The yarn suddenly
changes colour, not by dyeing or printing but by a change of fed roving. Also, the
colour transition is extremely short (less than 1 cm) with no tails of the previous
colour dragging behind.
FIGURE 3.11 Structure of a marl yarn.

3.5.5 Vario-Siro Yarn
Vario-siro yarn is produced at a ring frame by continuous feeding of two roving with
different speed. The feeding speeds for both roving are changed in such a way that
the mean thickness of fibre strand entering the main drafting zone remains constant
(Khan 2017). It gives a yarn with varying colour composition and constant linear
density (Figure 3.12).
3.5.6 Spiral or Corkscrew Yarn

A spiral or corkscrew yarn is a plied yarn that displays a characteristic smooth
spiralling of one component around the other. The basic structure of spiral yarn is
very similar to the structure of a marl yarn, except in the differing lengths of the two
yarns involved (https://nptel.ac.in/courses/116102038/42).
3.5.7 Boucle Yarn
This type of yarn is characterized by tight loops projecting from the body of the yarn
at nearly regular intervals, as shown in Figure 3.13. Some of these yarns are made
by air-jet texturing, but most are of three-ply constructions. The three components
of the yarn are the core, the effect and the tie or binder. The effect yarn has loops
wrapped around a core, or base yarn, and then the third ply, or binder, is wrapped
over the effect ply to hold the loops in place. The individual plies could be filament
or spun yarns. The characteristic of these yarns determine the ultimate design effect.
3.5.8 Loop Yarn
A loop yarn has core with an effect yarn wrapped around it by overfeeding so as to
produce nearly circular projection on its surface. Figure 3.14 shows the structure of a
loop yarn. To understand, the core yarn is shown as two straight bars. In reality, the
core yarn always consists of two yarns twisted together, which can entrap the effect
yarn. As a general rule, four yarns are involved in the construction, of which two
forms the core or ground yarns. The effect yarn is formed with an overfed of about
200% or more, and it should be even, low twist, elastic and pliable. The effect yarn
FIGURE 3.12 Structure of colourful vario-siro yarn.
FIGURE 3.13 Structure of a boucle yarn.

FIGURE 3.14 Structure of a loop yarn.
is not completely entrapped by the ground threads, and therefore a binder is needed.
Loop yarns can also be made with slivers in place of yarns for the effect (https://
nptel.ac.in/courses/116102038/42).
3.5.9 Snarl Yarn
A snarl yarn is the one that displays ‘snarls’ or ‘twists’ projecting from the core.
It is produced by a method similar to the loop yarn, but uses a lively, high-twist yarn
and a somewhat greater degree of overfeed as the effect yarn. The required size and
frequency of the snarls can be obtained by careful control of overfeed and spinning
tension, and by the level of twist in the effect yarn.
3.5.10 Chenille Yarn
Chenille yarns are produced from a woven leno fabric’s structure that is slit into
narrow, warp-wise strips to serve as yarn. They are pile yarns in which the pile
length may be uniform throughout the length of the yarn, or it may vary in length to
produce a yarn of irregular dimensions. They are used in furnishings and apparel.
Chenille yarns, as shown in Figure 3.15, have a soft, fuzzy cut pile which is bound
to a core. These yarns can be spun, but the machinery required is very specialized.
For this reason, these yarns are usually woven on a loom. The effect yarn forms the
warp, which is bound by a weft thread. The weft thread is spaced out at a distance
of twice the required length of pile. The warp is then cut halfway between each
weft thread.

The global demand of textile machinery is rising due to growing demand of t extile
industry. The increasing demand in textile machinery is because of the strong
economic recovery after recession, increasing demand for textile products and envi-
ronmentally friendly fibres and growing demand from the developing nations. Today
machinery manufacturers produce textile machineries at competitive prices, and
sophisticated machines of higher speed and production capacity. These entire factors
FIGURE 3.15 Structure of a chenille yarn.

are favourable for yarn manufacturing. The ring spinning has been able to withstand
the competition from other spinning systems, largely because of its inherent advan-
tage of producing yarns with high strength and a wide range of yarn counts from a
wide range of fibre types. Its production speed is currently limited to 25 m/min in
spite of developments in designing new ring and traveller combinations. While some
existing technologies will retain niche markets, there is no doubt that ring, compact
and rotor spinning will continue to be the dominant yarn manufacturing technique.
There is, however, also no doubt that there is a significant interest in the potential of
MVS and Rieter jet spinning.
REFERENCES
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Journal 58(2):52–54.
Basu, A. 1999. Progress in air-jet spinning. Textile Progress 29(3):1–38.
Begum, H. A., Khan, M. K. R. and Rahman, M. M. 2018. An overview on spinning
mechanism, yarn structure and advantageous characteristics of vortex spun yarn and
fabric. Advances in Applied Sciences 3(5):58–64.
Booth, J. E. 1986. Principles of Textile Testing: An Introduction to Physical Methods of
Testing Textile Fibers, Yarns and Fabrics. London: Butterworths.
Denton, M. J. and Daniels, P. N. 2002. Textile Terms and Definitions. Manchester: Textile
Institute.
Erdumlu, N. and Saricam, C. 2013. Wicking and drying properties of conventional ring-
and vortex-spun cotton yarns and fabrics. The Journal of the Textile Institute 104(12):
1284–1291.
Fehrer, E. 1987. Friction spinning: The state of the art. Textile Month September:115–116.
Fehrer, E. 1991. The DREF-3 friction spinning machine. Textilmaschinenfabrik.
Gong, R. H. and Wright, R. M. 2002. Fancy Yarns: Their Manufacture and Application.
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing and Elsevier.
Günaydin, G. K. and Soydan, A. S. 2017. Vortex spinning system and vortex yarn structure.
In Vortex Structures in Fluid Dynamic Problems, ed. H. Perez-De-Tejada, 247–269.
London: Intech Open.
http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2012/04/what-is-rotor-principle-of-rotor.html (accessed
January 15, 2018).
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January 15, 2019).
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(accessed February 10, 2019).
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Ishtiaque, S. M., Salhotra, K. R. and Gowda, R.V. M. 2003. Friction spinning. Textile Progress
33(2):1–68.
Jun, W. 2010. Development of the back-pressurized compact spinning technology and the
application of the accessories. Textile Accessories 6:22.
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yarns in ring spinning frame and glow yarn. International Journal of Textile Science
6(4):105–109.
Klein, W. 1993. New Spinning Systems. Hertford, UK: The Textile Institute Manual of Textile
Technology, Stephen Austin and Sons Limited.
Kumar, A., Ishtiaque, S. M. and Salhotra, K. R. 2003, January. Compact spinning: A criti-
cal review. In ASME 2003 International Mechanical Engineering Congress and
Exposition, Washington, DC, 59–68. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Lawrence, C. A. 2010. Advances in Yarn Spinning Technology. Cambridge: Woodhead
Publishing and Elsevier.
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Manufacturing. Durham, NC: Carolina Academic Press.
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Textile Journal 119(7):17.
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www.truetzschler-spinning.de/en/products/combing/detailed-information/2-twin-drive
4 Fabric Formation and
Recent Developments
Rajesh Mishra, Mohanapriya Venkataraman,
and Veerakumar Arumugam
CONTENTS
4.1 I ntroduction.....................................................................................................64
4.2 Preparatory Process for Weaving and Recent Developments......................... 65
4.2.1 Winding............................................................................................... 65
4.2.2 Warping............................................................................................... 65
4.2.3 Sizing................................................................................................... 65
4.3 Historical and Modern Shuttle Looms............................................................66
4.4 Shuttleless Looms and Recent Developments.................................................66
4.4.1 Air-Jet Weaving................................................................................... 67
4.4.2 Water-Jet Weaving............................................................................... 67
4.4.3 Rapier Weaving.................................................................................... 67
4.4.4 Projectile Weaving............................................................................... 67
4.5 Woven Structures............................................................................................. 68
4.5.1 Basic Weaves....................................................................................... 68
4.5.2 Plain Weave......................................................................................... 69
4.5.3 Twill Weave......................................................................................... 69
4.5.4 Sateen Weave....................................................................................... 69
4.5.5 Theoretical Model of Woven Structure............................................... 70
4.5.6 Other Weaves....................................................................................... 70
4.5.6.1 Terry Fabrics......................................................................... 70
4.5.6.2 Leno Fabrics.......................................................................... 71
4.6 3D Woven Fabrics and Their Applications...................................................... 73
4.6.1 3D Cellular Woven Fabrics.................................................................. 74
4.6.2 Jacquard Woven 3D Fabrics................................................................ 75
4.6.3 Triaxial and Multiaxial Woven Fabrics............................................... 76
4.6.3.1 Basic Patterns........................................................................ 76
4.6.3.2 Manufacturing of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics............... 77
4.6.3.3 Properties of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics....................... 78
4.6.3.4 Advantages of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics.................... 78
4.6.3.5 Applications of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics................... 78
4.7 Recent Developments in Weaving Technologies............................................. 79
4.7.1 Multicolour Weft Selection.................................................................. 79
4.7.2 Selvedge...............................................................................................80
63
4.7.3 Quick Style Change............................................................................. 81

4.7.4 Automatic Start Mark Prevention........................................................ 82
4.7.5 Electronic Control Technology............................................................ 82
4.7.6 Machine Main Drive............................................................................ 83
4.7.7 Multiphase Weaving............................................................................84
4.8 Summary and Conclusion................................................................................ 85
References................................................................................................................. 86
4.1 INTRODUCTION
There are many ways of making fabrics from textile fibres. The most commonly
used fabric-forming methods are weaving, knitting, netting, tufting, braiding, lace
making and non-woven manufacturing. Among these methods, the most traditional
and popular method of fabric manufacturing is weaving. Weaving is the interlacing
of warp and weft yarns perpendicular to each other. There is a large variety of pos-
sibilities of interlacement between warp and weft yarns and the manner in which it
is carried out will determine the fabric structure. In woven structure, the yarns are
held in place due to inter-yarn friction. A prime requirement of textile fabric is that it
should be flexible. Other requirements are very specific, depending on the function-
ality desired in the fabric performance. The woven structures provide a combination
of strength with flexibility. The flexibility at small strains is achieved by yarn crimp
and by the freedom of yarn movement, whereas at high strains, the yarns share the
load together giving high strength to the resultant fabric. In woven formation, great
scope lies in choosing fibres with particular properties, arranging fibres in the yarn
in several ways and organizing in multiple ways interlaced yarns within the fabric.
This gives the textile designer great freedom and variation for controlling and modi-
fying the fabric. The yarn properties and the fabric structure together determine the
properties of the fabric. The selection of fibre mix, yarn structure and fabric design
predominantly depends on the end-use application of the fabric (Parchure 2009;
El Mogahzy 2008).
Production of woven fabric starts with yarn preparation methods like winding,
warping and sizing. During actual weaving process, both warp and weft yarns are
subjected to various complex stresses. The basic objective of yarn preparation meth-
ods is to prepare packages of desired size and build and also to make the yarns
capable to sustain all mechanical stresses during weaving. The efficiency of weaving
process and quality of fabric depend on the quality of yarn preparation to a large
extent. After satisfactory yarn preparation, weaving is carried out on a loom.
Generally, weaving machines are named after their weft insertion systems.
Broadly, weaving machines are classified as shuttle and shuttleless systems. Shuttle
looms have been used for centuries and have now become obsolete in developed coun-
tries and partly being used in some industrialized countries for manufacturing of
some special products. Shuttleless weaving machines emerged in the mid-twentieth
century as potential weaving machines for mass production of high-quality woven
fabrics. Weft insertion mechanisms such as rapier, projectile, air jet and water jet are
now being used for manufacturing various kinds of fabrics depending on the type of
raw material, fabric structure and overall economics of the process (Parchure 2009).
Fabric Formation and Recent Developments 65
4.2 PREPARATORY PROCESS FOR WEAVING

AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
To ensure high productivity and economic efficiency in a weaving mill, good warp
preparation is indispensable. Faultless warps are an essential precondition for utiliz-
ing assets in the best possible way and achieving the fabric quality demanded by the
market. Yarn preparation for weaving depends on the fundamental understanding
of the yarn to be processed and the knowledge of stresses to which the yarn would
be subjected to during weaving. Modern weaving machines have placed increased
demands on warp preparation due to faster weft insertion and use of different weft
insertion devices (Cai and Qin 2008).
4.2.1 Winding
High efficiency is crucial to ensuring economic production. It is unrealistic to assume
that a high-quality warp can be produced with an inferior quality yarn. On the other
hand, it is possible to produce an inferior quality warp from a high-quality yarn, and
to avoid this, a number of important points should be kept in mind while preparing
warp yarns. For example, a knot in the weaving room can cause warp stoppage and
possibly a fault in the fabric. For this reason, a correct weaver’s knot should be used
for every broken end. Nowadays, the use of mobile splicers can be recommended in
weaving to mend broken ends that may cause faults in the fabric (Cai and Qin 2008).
Yarn preparation during warping and sizing is crucial for both loom shed effi-
ciency and fabric quality.
4.2.2 Warping
In warping, hundreds of yarns drawn from individual packages lie parallel to one
another and are wound over a drum. During this process, a preliminary assessment
of yarn quality can be made on the basis of stoppage records. This is especially
important with bought-in yarns that are utilized without being inspected on receipt.
For good warps and economy in the subsequent processes, the stoppage value of the
order of 5 per 107 m of ring-spun spliced warp yarn is considered as satisfactory in
the warping room (Cai and Qin 2008).
4.2.3 Sizing
During sizing, the warp yarn is temporarily coated with a protective layer of adhe-
sive. It gives the warp yarn the resistance necessary to sustain weaving stresses on
the loom. If the sizing machine is correctly set and the correct sizing agent has been
chosen, the strength of the yarn is improved and its hairiness reduced. At the same
time, the sizing process also reduces yarn extensibility, which has a major impact on
warp breakage during weaving (Cai and Qin 2008). In the case of ring and open-
end yarns, this reduction should not be more than 25% of the breaking extension of
the parent yarn (Cai and Qin 2008; El Mogahzy 2008). A modern sizing installa-
tion for spun yarns should be equipped with pre-wetting attachment, two size boxes
depending on the yarn cover factor of the squeeze rolls, wet splitting arrangement
with separate drying, tension regulation system, regulation of squeezing pressure,
regulation of residual moisture, measurement and regulation of size application,
constant winding tension and after-waxing device (Cai and Qin 2008). Pre-wetting
results in 25%–30% saving of sizing agent. With this system, size application is
restricted to the yarn surface, and it offers uniform coating and better size–fibre
interaction, which has a positive impact on the weaving process (Cai and Qin 2008).
4.3 HISTORICAL AND MODERN SHUTTLE LOOMS

On a shuttle loom, the weft package is inserted in the shuttle and the shuttle is then
thrown through the shed with the help of a picking mechanism (Parchure 2009). On
each side of the shuttle loom, there is a box called a shuttle box in which the shuttle
rests after being thrown from one box to the other by the picking mechanism. The
picking mechanism located at each side of the loom propels the shuttle from the box,
through the shed to the other shuttle box. In the next revolution of the loom, the
picking cycle throws the shuttle back to the other side; this process is then repeated
as required.
Automatic shuttle changing looms still use conventional non-automatic shuttles,
and the weft package (provided in the form of either cops or pirns) is therefore inter-
changeable with those used for non-automatic looms. This is an advantage when,
as is often the case, both automatic and non-automatic looms are used in the same
factory, since no change in the spinning equipment is called for (as is the case, for
example, for a pirn-changing loom). Shuttle changing looms are well suited to the
use of wefts of fine or delicate nature. Shuttles are changed by a number of different
methods, though the most successful looms appear to be those that are automatically
stopped for the change and then automatically restarted when the change has been
made (Lord and Mohamed 2010). A vertical stationary magazine, with the capac-
ity to hold about nine or ten shuttles, is located on the opposite side of the loom to
the weft fork and weft feeler, either of which can be used to set the shuttle change
mechanism in motion. When a change of shuttle is required, the loom is automati-
cally stopped and the changing mechanism controls various movements. The shuttle
box front is lifted and the spent shuttle is pushed out of the box; the bottom shuttle in
the magazine is lowered onto a conveyer that places it in the box, afterwards return-
ing to its position below the magazine. The box front is lowered and the loom is
automatically restarted. The whole operation takes 3–4 s (Lord and Mohamed 2010).
4.4 SHUTTLELESS LOOMS AND RECENT DEVELOPMENTS

Weaving machines are known according to the weft insertion systems being employed
on the loom. Weft insertion with a shuttle is the oldest weaving system in which weft
is inserted by a shuttle that traverses back and forth across the loom width. Since the
weight of the shuttle is several thousand times greater than the weight of the weft
to be inserted in a pick, it is considered as an inefficient process and has become
obsolete. Alternatively, other weft insertion systems have been developed and they
are running successfully in industry. The most popular shuttleless weaving machines
are air jet, water jet, rapier and projectile machine (Yan and Gu 2008; Ormerod and
Sondhelm 1995).
4.4.1 Air-Jet Weaving
In air-jet weaving system, the weft yarn is inserted into the warp shed by a blast of
compressed air coming out of a nozzle. Normally, the air velocity in tandem and main
nozzles exceeds the level of sonic velocity resulting in high initial acceleration to yarns.
Subsequently as the air expands freely, relay nozzles are used to maintain high air veloc-
ity across the shed. A profiled reed is also used to guide the air stream and to separate
the weft yarn from the warp. The flow of air during air-jet insertion is unsteady, turbu-
lent and either incompressible or compressible depending on the velocity. The transfer
of weft in air-jet insertion takes place due to the propelling force generated by friction
between the air and the yarn surface (Yan and Gu 2008; Ormerod and Sondhelm 1995).
4.4.2 Water-Jet Weaving
In water-jet weaving, the weft yarn is drawn through the warp shed by means of a
highly pressurized stream of water. The tractive force is provided by the relative
velocity between filling yarn and water jet coming out of a nozzle. This drag force
can be affected by the viscosity of the water and roughness and length of the filling
yarn as higher viscosity causes higher forces (Ormerod and Sondhelm 1995).
4.4.3 Rapier Weaving
In this type of weaving, a flexible or rigid solid element called a rapier is used to
insert the weft yarn across the shed (Ormerod and Sondhelm 1995). The rapier head
picks up the weft yarn and carries it across the shed. After reaching the destination,
the rapier head returns empty to pick up the next filling yarn, which completes the
cycle. The conventional grippers are redesigned to ensure better clamping of the
yarn and prevent rubbing of warp yarns. A rapier machine could be of single or
double rapier type. The single rapier is normally a rigid rapier that carries the weft
yarn from one end, passes it across the weaving machine and returns back empty.
Therefore, half the traverse time is wasted and loom width can be a maximum up to
the length of the rapier, which requires more space per unit reed space. However, this
has only one advantage that it can handle the weft yarn which is otherwise difficult
to control as there is no yarn transfer from rapier to rapier (Ormerod and Sondhelm
1995). In the case of a double rapier system, the transfer of yarn takes place at the
centre of the loom resulting in only half of the rapier movement being used for weft
insertion. A double rapier machine can be either rigid or flexible, which makes the
difference in space requirement (Ormerod and Sondhelm 1995).
4.4.4 Projectile Weaving
Projectile weaving machines use a projectile or a gripper miniature shuttle to insert
the filling yarn across the machine. The gripper grips the end of the weft yarn
presented to it and the yarn is projected across the warp shed. The projectile does
not have to carry the weft package with it, and it is therefore much lighter when com-
pared with the shuttle. The force needed to accelerate the projectile is less and the
picking mechanism is obviously lighter. However, the mass of the projectile is heavy
enough to be unaffected by minor obstructions in the warp shed. Since the mass of
the projectile is much lower than that of the conventional shuttle, the speed can be
increased substantially. The acceleration of the gripper can be increased by a factor
of about 7, which offers advantage in terms of productivity and space. This unique
weft insertion system uses the torsion bar picking system in which the strain energy
is stored by twisting the torsion bar before the picking, and it is released during the
acceleration of the projectile by toggle action (Ormerod and Sondhelm 1995).
4.5 WOVEN STRUCTURES
The pattern in which the warp and weft yarns are interlaced is called weave.
Practically, there is an unlimited number of weaves. This is in fact an obvious advan-
tage that a weaving technologist can avail to produce unlimited woven structures
differing in their appearance, properties and performance. A weave is symbolically
represented by a weave diagram as shown in Figure 4.1, in which the columns repre-
sent the warp yarn and the rows represent the weft yarns. Each square represents the
crossing of an end and a pick (Figure 4.1a and b). A mark in a square indicates that
the end is over the pick at the corresponding place in the fabric that is warp up. A
blank square indicates that the pick is over the end that is weft up (Behera and Hari
2010). Cross-sectional view of the plain weave along the warp and weft is depicted
in Figure 4.1c and d.
4.5.1 Basic Weaves
There are three basic weaves such as plain, twill and satin weaves. These are shown
in Figure 4.2 (Behera and Hari 2010). However, innumerable derivatives can be
FIGURE 4.1 Plan (a), weave representation (b) and cross-sectional view along warp (d) and
weft (c) of plain weave. (Source: Behera and Hari 2010.)
FIGURE 4.2 Basic weaves. (Source: Behera and Hari 2010.)
developed from these three basic weaves: each of these fabrics has different texture
and properties (Behera and Hari 2010).
4.5.2 Plain Weave
Plain weave has the simplest repeating unit of interlacement. It has a one up–one
down interlacement of warp and weft yarns, and as a result the fabric has the same
texture on both sides (Behera and Hari 2010). It also has the maximum possible
frequency of interlacements and therefore has the maximum level of yarn crimp
in the structure. Plain woven fabric has a low modulus when compared with other
structures having less crimp (Lord and Mohamed 2010; Behera and Hari 2010). The
weave gives an equal number of warp and weft overlaps in a unit of weave. Plain
weave fabrics are classified as balanced and unbalanced structures. In balanced fab-
rics, the warp and weft counts are similar, and the ends and picks per centimetre are
also similar. The yarn crimps are usually equal for both warp and weft, respectively
(Behera and Hari 2010).
4.5.3 Twill Weave
The twill weave is produced in a stepwise progression of the warp yarn interlacing
pattern, which results in the appearance of a diagonal line in the fabric. The weave
is widely used for ornamentation of the cloth. This design helps to achieve greater
weight, closer setting and better draping characteristics of the fabric when compared
with plain weave fabric produced from the same yarn. Twill lines are formed on both
sides of the fabric; however, if warp float predominates on one side of the cloth, the
weft float will predominate on the other side in the same proportion (Behera and
Hari 2010).
4.5.4 Sateen Weave
In a sateen weave, one yarn has a long float over several of the other yarns on one side
of the fabric. This produces fabric with a high degree of smoothness, lustre and with-
out any prominence of weave feature. Sateen weave enables one to produce fabrics of
close thread packing and heavy construction (Lord and Mohamed 2010; Behera and
Hari 2010). In pure sateen weaves, the surface of the cloth consists almost entirely of
weft floats, as in the repeat of weave, each thread of weft passes over all and under
one thread of warp. In addition, the interlacing points are arranged so as to allow
the floating threads to slip and cover the binding point of one thread by the float of
another, which results in the production of fabric with a maximum degree of smooth-
ness and lustre and without any prominent weave features (Behera and Hari 2010).
4.5.5 Theoretical Model of Woven Structure

The use of different weave varies the ability of component threads to move relative
to one another, and as a result, the mechanical properties like shear characteristics
and drapeability of fabric change significantly. Therefore, the design of a fabric to
meet the requirements of a particular end use is a complicated engineering problem.
Theoretically, it is possible to design a fabric structure to achieve any desired charac-
teristic, but in actual practice, it is not so easy because of the inherent non-linearity
and complex relationship between structure and properties of textile materials along
with their viscoelastic behaviour (Lord and Mohamed 2010; Behera and Hari 2010).
The factors associated with fabric design include fibre geometry, fabric structure
and finishing method. Although it is difficult to predict the properties of fabric
from these factors, there are empirical relationships between some fabric param-
eters and fabric properties. There are also some established theoretical relationships
based on fabric geometry and simple mechanics using first principles mostly for
plain woven fabrics (Lord and Mohamed 2010; Behera and Hari 2010). The basic
geometry of woven fabric as a unit cell is based on Pierce’s model (Figure 4.3). This
establishes relations between yarn parameters and fabric interlacement geometry.
4.5.6 Other Weaves
4.5.6.1 Terry Fabrics
Textile pile structures in the areas of apparel, home textiles and carpets comprise too
large a group to be considered effectively in a single chapter. Pile carpets have been
selected as a particularly interesting case where the composition and range of struc-
tures affect the design scope, facets of the performance in use and positive effects on
the environment. Typically, they have three layers, presenting a special challenge for
recycling. Tufting remains by far the most important method of carpet manufacturing,
FIGURE 4.3 Pierce’s model of woven fabric. (Source: Behera and Hari 2010.)
FIGURE 4.4 Pile fabrics. (Source: Singh and Verma 2016.)
although recent technical developments have mostly been in the area of weaving. The
position of nylon as the leading pile fibre is being challenged by polypropylene (PP),
which is based on a cheaper monomer and provides better cover in the carpet because
of its low specific gravity. Polyester (PET) fibres are becoming more important for
two reasons: PET fibre is being manufactured from recycled plastic bottles, and PET
fibre has been shown to provide superior carpet properties when compared with PP
(Singh and Verma 2016). Wool remains important in the higher qualities of carpets.
Polymer pigmentation has become the most important coloration technique and, asso-
ciated with the improved flexibility of the technique, bulked continuous filament yarn
production is increasingly being carried out by carpet manufacturing companies. The
weak market position of soft floor coverings has prompted extensive research and
development efforts to make carpet manufacture more environmentally friendly and
to provide information about the positive effects of carpets on the interior environ-
ment. Figure 4.4 shows a typical pile fabric (Singh and Verma 2016).
4.5.6.2 Leno Fabrics
Leno fabric is made from two warp yarns and one weft yarn. Leno weave is also
known as gauze or doup weave, and differs from normal fabric weaves in its level of
complexity, both in terms of fabric formation and structure. In normal fabrics, warp
ends lay parallel to and interlace with the weft threads. During leno fabric weav-
ing, on the other hand, the warp ends are themselves crossed in addition to being
interlaced with the weft threads. Warp yarns in leno fabrics comprise of stationary
ends (also called standard ends or straight ends) and crossing ends (or looping ends).
Two groups of warp threads are arranged in leno pairs. The weft yarns are arranged
in a parallel fashion while the paired warp threads are twisted together. The cross-
ing warp yarns are twisted with the stationary warp yarn in alternate wefts or after
two or more weft yarns that are inserted during the weaving process. In a leno pair,
the crossing warp threads are located on alternate ends of the ground warp threads
(Wahhoud 2007; Chen 2011a).
Several different structures of leno-weave fabrics exist. As shown in Figure 4.5a,
two ends of warp yarn are grouped into a leno pair comprising one crossing end
and one stationary end (Chen 2011a). The crossing end is interlaced with the weft
in the same position during weaving in all leno pairs. The crossing ends in adjacent
leno pairs are interlaced with the weft in opposite positions. The fabric weave for
Figure 4.5b is known as all-over gauze, while the weave for Figure 4.5c is known as
symmetrical gauze (Chen 2011a). In the weaves displayed, the crossing warp thread
is interlaced with the ground warp thread at every weft insertion and is defined as
single weft gauze. The number of warp threads in one leno pair and the number of
weft yarns inserted between the crossing warp of every twist are variable.
In Figure 4.5d, the warp pair is composed of one crossing yarn and two stationary
yarns: this is known as ‘one-twist-two gauze’. The crossing end is twisted with the
stationary ends every two wefts in the same cloth fell, which is known as ‘two-weft
gauze’. In Figure 4.5e, the warp pair is composed of two crossing yarns and two
ground yarns (Chen 2011a). The crossing ends are twisted with the ground end every
two wefts in the same fell, creating ‘two twist two double-weft gauze’. In Figure 4.5f,
the crossing end and ground end are interlaced in plain weave at the twist interval,
which is a typical three-weft leno. Figure 4.5g provides an example of fancy leno
weaves (Chen 2011a).
In addition to its traditional applications in fashion and home textiles, the uses of
leno-weave fabric now extend into industry, civil engineering, the medical sector,
agriculture and other areas where light, loosely woven fabrics with high slip resistance
are in high demand (Chen 2011a). In fashion and home textile applications, the main
advantage of leno-weave fabrics is their fancy and transparent appearance, while in
other areas, leno-weave fabrics are used as reinforcement materials to improve the
flexibility, durability and structural strength and stability of relevant materials.
FIGURE 4.5 Structures of leno weave. (Source: Chen 2011a.)

Warp interlacing is the most critical element for leno-weave fabric. The twine
heald and metallic leno heald systems used restrict the speed of the weaving machine
and causes excessive wear on the leno heddle system (Chen 2011a). Further tech-
niques and devices for leno-weave fabric production have recently been developed
with the aim of improving productivity, flexibility and durability of leno healds.
Leno-weave fabrics have a broad range of uses and are also being used increas-
ingly in technical applications. This results in great market potential. It is expected
that high-performance fibres will be increasingly used for leno fabrics to obtain sta-
ble and lightweight base materials with open structures, for use in composites with
various applications (Chen 2011a).
4.6 3D WOVEN FABRICS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

Three-dimensional (3D) woven fabrics are fabricated by modifying the conventional
weaving mechanisms. Harnesses with multi-eye heddles are used to arrange the
warps into three sections in plane form for weaving convenience. Mainframe and
flanges are interlaced by a set of warps moving to and fro as a joint. Weft passes
through the clear warp sheds separated by multi-eye heddles to form 3D woven
fabrics in plane form. The differential feeding length between warp yarns gives rise
to extra friction, and therefore hairiness may occur. In order to reduce this friction,
the warps are passed through the tensioner and weight with ceramic eyes individu-
ally between the creel and weaving loom. The thickness of the central portion of the
flattened fabrics is different from the side portions (Brandt et al. 1996; Chen 2011b).
This is a group of woven fabrics that is mainly intended for technical applica-
tions. Using weaving technology, 3D solid fabrics can be manufactured with different
designs providing different fabric features. There are basically three types of 3D solid
fabrics, which are (a) multilayered fabric, (b) orthogonal fabric and (c) angle-interlock
fabric. Figure 4.6 represents two varieties of 3D woven fabrics (Chen 2011b).
Multilayered fabrics involve distinctive layers of fabrics, which may or may not
be stitched together during the process of weaving. Integrity of the fabric is achieved
by introducing stitching yarns between the layers. All the warp and weft yarns are
crimped, and therefore the initial modulus could be low under tensile loading. It is
possible to add wadding yarns in either warp or weft directions between any two
layers as an attempt to increase the initial fabric modulus (Chen 2011b). The depth
of the stitches through the fabric layers is controllable. An important feature of an
orthogonal woven fabric is that there are straight fibres/yarns in all three principal
directions of the fabric. The number of layers of straight weft yarn is always one
more than that of the straight warp yarn. The binding warp yarn travels vertically
FIGURE 4.6 3D woven fabrics. (Source: Chen 2011b.)

through the thickness of the fabric and it may bind using any weave (Chen 2011b).
In an orthogonal structure, the straight warp and weft yarn are arranged neatly in
stacks, and the numbers of stacks of straight warp and weft yarns depend on the
binding weave specified. Each binding warp end is placed between two adjacent
stacks of straight warp yarns. The binding weave determines the density of straight-
through-the-thickness yarns in the fabric, with plain weaving providing the highest
density of vertical yarns. The orthogonal fabrics can be further classified into two
types, i.e. the ordinary and the enhanced. An ordinary orthogonal structure is one in
which there is only one binding yarn between two adjacent stacks of straight warp
yarns, whereas an enhanced structure is one that has two binding warp ends between
two adjacent stacks of straight want yarns, and these two binding yarns follow oppo-
site movements (Chen 2011b).
Basically, an angle-interlock fabric contains layers of straight weft yarns weav-
ing with a set of warp yarns that travel diagonally in the thickness direction. For an
angle-interlock fabric that has n layers of straight weft yarns, there will be (n + 1)
picks per layer in the repeat, hence n (n + 1) picks in total in the fabric. The number
of warp ends will be (n + 1) (Chen 2011b).
4.6.1 3D Cellular Woven Fabrics

3D cellular fabrics refer to those that have designed tunnels running between the
top and bottom surfaces in warp, weft or any diagonal direction (Chen 2011b). The
relationship of these tunnels can be one above the other or can be intersecting with
each other. For woven cellular fabrics, two types of cellular fabrics can be defined.
The first one has flat top and bottom surfaces, and the other has uneven surfaces.
A typical cellular fabric is shown in Figure 4.7 (Chen 2011b). Textile composites
FIGURE 4.7 Cellular 3D fabrics. (Source: Chen 2011b.)

started with laminating single-layered fabrics made from high-performance fibres.

Nowadays, advanced textile composites demand that textile reinforcements and pre-
forms provide required mechanical, thermal and other properties for the end-use
applications and demand net-shaped preforms for composite components. The con-
struction of various types of 3D fabric plays an important role in satisfying property
requirements, because 3D fabric formation technology makes it possible to reinforce
fabrics with various geometrical features that can be engineered and manufactured
(Chen 2011b). More complex woven fabric regimes such as the backed cloth and 3D
fabrics will be further explored corresponding to arising demands, but it is likely that
the more complex fabrics will be developed for technical applications rather than
for the fashion industry (Cox et al. 1994; Chen 2011b). Probably it will witness more
development and innovation in the areas of technical textiles, whose end uses may be
in the water, on land or in the air, and may be for agricultural, medical or industrial
uses. Since the areas of application are many, it is believed that novel developments
will take place to accommodate demands from these areas. More 3D solutions will
be made available, and technical fabrics will be engineered to provide more accurate
performance for intended applications.
4.6.2 Jacquard Woven 3D Fabrics

The Jacquard shedding system is capable of producing large intricate weave designs.
Here, the harnesses are replaced by harness cords, which are connected to hooks
from the top and heddle wires from the bottom. Each warp yarn is threaded in the
eye of a heddle wire. The selection of hooks/warp yarns (which hook is to be raised
and which hook is to be lowered) is achieved both in mechanical and electronic
jacquards. A typical jacquard woven fabric is shown in Figure 4.8 (Seyam 2011).
Several methods have been proposed to produce seamless shaped fabrics. It has
been demonstrated through extensive research that seamless shaped products can
be produced using double cloth and strategically placed filling yarns with different
shrinkage, different weaves and different pick density to obtain differential shrink-
age in different parts of the fabric so as to produce the shape. The double cloth
provides the cavity for the body enclosure (Seyam 2011). Products can be created
using a weaving machine with a dobby shedding system. This technique could be
combined with other techniques that require Jacquard weaving to produce specific
effects. Figure 4.9 represents a 3D dome fabric (Seyam 2011).
FIGURE 4.8 Jacquard woven fabrics. (Source: Seyam 2011.)

FIGURE 4.9 3D-shaped fabric by jacquard. (Source: Seyam 2011.)
4.6.3 Triaxial and Multiaxial Woven Fabrics

Triaxial and multiaxial weaving uses three sets of parallel fibres, known as the warp,
the whug and the weft (Tyler 2011). These fibres are typically at angles of 60° to
each other. The whug is not present in conventional, biaxial weaving. The three
sets of parallel fibres can be interwoven in a variety of patterns, producing fabrics
with a variety of different weights and properties. Desirable properties exhibited
by triaxial and multiaxial fabrics include extremely lightweight, good resistance to
damage, near-isotropic strain resistance and the ability to withstand shearing forces.
The fabrics have a long history in traditional cultures, mainly in basketry. In modern
times, some of these fabrics have found uses in a variety of industrial applications,
most notably the reinforcement of composite materials. Some fabrics are shown in
Figure 4.10 (Tyler 2011).
4.6.3.1 Basic Patterns
Triaxial weaving comes in a variety of forms with different properties and relative
densities. The simplest and most basic patterns are described here. It typically has
about half as many structural elements per unit area as a rectangular woven fabric
made using the same elements. One of the features of this fabric is that it has holes in
it. While this makes it unsuitable for some applications, it does help with applications
FIGURE 4.10 Triaxial woven fabric patterns. (Source: Tyler 2011.)

that require holes or ventilation, such as chair fabric, linen baskets and light shades.
Alternatively, it is appropriate where a light material is required but that is still very
strong. This fabric is sometimes known as the basic triaxial weave. This sort of
weave is one of the lightest simple weaves known. Its relative density (compared with
the density of a single flat sheet) is 1.0 (Tyler 2011).
4.6.3.2 Manufacturing of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics

Traditional triaxial and multiaxial weaving was performed by hand. Automating tri-
axial weaving is no trivial feat and was not done until the 1970s, long after the auto-
mation of the production of biaxial fabrics. Large-scale manufacturing of triaxial
and multiaxial fabrics are done typically using techniques derived from traditional
looms or via techniques derived from automating braiding (Tyler 2011). Looms are
used to produce flat sheets of fabric, while braiding techniques are used to produce
tubes of triaxial fabric, which are then typically used to reinforce the skin of com-
pression members. The manufacture of triaxial and multiaxial fabrics is normally
performed via a weaving or braiding process.
Braiding techniques make cylindrical tubes of material. Tubes are often desirable
in the context of composite reinforcement. However, tubes must be cut if a flat sheet
of material is required, and cutting introduces the possibility that the edges of the
fabric will fray. Braiding is the easier process to understand. Braiding techniques
have traditionally been employed manually on a small scale to make candlewicks,
shoelaces and clothing ties. However, with the application of triaxial braiding to
reinforce the shells of airline and rocket engines, mechanical ‘megabraiders’ have
been produced, which implement triaxial braiding on an enormous scale [15]. These
machines typically have a large ring, which is perpendicular to the resulting braid.
The fabric’s warp yarns are supplied from spindles on the ring which rotate around
it as though on a carousel, weaving between each other (Tyler 2011).
Braiding allows triaxial and multiaxial fabrics to deform slightly during the
manufacturing process so as to conform to the curved surfaces of objects they are
wrapped around more closely than is possible with a pre-woven fabric as shown in
Figure 4.11 (Tyler 2011).
FIGURE 4.11 Multiaxial weaving. (Source: Tyler 2011.)

4.6.3.3 Properties of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics

Triaxial woven fabrics take many forms. While there are only a few fundamental
biaxial fabrics, there are quite a large number of different triaxial patterns with a
range of different properties. Triaxial and multiaxial fabrics typically have good tear,
abrasion and bursting resistances. (Tyler 2011). They also have good isotropic strain
resistance, due to fibres running in many directions. Ladders in the fabric tend not
to propagate very easily, since two-thirds of the elements in the fabric have to break
for a ladder to propagate. Also, planar shear resistance is typically good owing to the
locked intersections found in most triaxial fabrics. Triaxial fabrics also exhibit much
more isotropic strain resistance, relative to biaxial fabrics (Gu 2004).
4.6.3.4 Advantages of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics

In the context of reinforcing applications, triaxial and multiaxial fabrics face com-
petition from stitch-bonded fabrics (Gu 2004). Stitching layers of parallel fibres
together with flexible yarn has some advantages and disadvantages when compared
with braiding or weaving. An advantage of stitch bonding is that relatively thick and
inflexible fibres can be employed, since the fibres do not need to be woven in and out
(ASTM D4018–81 1997). The fibres are not bent by the weaving process, a process
that can cause damage to some types of fibre. Also production costs can be lower,
since no triaxial weaving machine is required. The use of stitch-bonded fabrics still
permits use of the name ‘triaxial’, which has become a desirable indicator of quality
for many manufacturers. A disadvantage of stitch-bonded fabrics is that they cannot
so easily be contoured to fit around curved surfaces or completely wrapped around
boards (Lee et al. 2002).
4.6.3.5 Applications of Triaxial and Multiaxial Fabrics

Traditional applications of triaxial and multiaxial weaving include baskets, hats,
marine traps, snowshoes, cane chairs, etc. A little more recently, triaxial weaving
has been used in light shades, furniture, racquetball racquets, and architectural
woven structures (Lee et al. 2002). Triaxial fabrics have a number of attractive
properties, but their market penetration has so far remained very low. The main
problem appears to be the difficulty of manufacturing these fabrics (Lee et al.
2002). This requires specialized and somewhat more complex machinery than
is needed for biaxial fabrics. Also a small market creates higher manufacturing
costs, which leads to higher cost to end users, which creates a vicious circle of lack
of demand.
In traditional applications of weaving, where objects are handwoven, triaxial pat-
terns are used more frequently. However, even there, they are not used very often,
and it seems likely that difficulty of manufacture is also involved here. Triaxial or
multiaxial patterns are not the most obvious patterns to use. They are not the first
patterns people learn, and many people never learn them. In the case of triaxial ten-
nis racquets, one of the main problems was the difficulty of stringing them. In the
future, lack of knowledge seems unlikely to be such an issue.
A global marketplace leads to large global suppliers and the associated econo-
mies of scale, which should help reduce production costs. The ‘long tail’ of such
marketplaces means that even minority interests can be catered to inexpensively. It

seems likely that triaxial fabrics will be judged more on the merits of their proper-
ties and less on the difficulty of manufacturing them in the future. Consequently,
they are more likely used in those applications where they are appropriate. In the
short term, probably, the main area of expansion will be surface structural reinforce-
ment (Lee et al. 2002). This is an area where the virtues of triaxial and multiaxial
fabrics are well proven, but they currently have limited market penetration. Triaxial
fabrics can usually be used where biaxial fabrics currently are, and frequently offer
structural benefits. In the case of structures encased within braided tubes of mate-
rial, the triaxial braiding process is not really much more difficult than the biaxial
braiding. Carbon fibre composites are used in high-status applications such as cars,
surfboards, sports equipment and high-end musical instruments. The carbon fibre
is sometimes exposed by using a transparent resin, so it is publicly visible and is
thus an opportunity for displaying triaxial tartan. Consumers may not know much
about triaxial or multiaxial weaving: however, market will probably learn enough
to recognize it as a selling point, which means that manufacturers will want it as a
feature. Something similar to this has already happened in the worlds of skiing and
skateboarding (Lee et al. 2002).
4.7 RECENT DEVELOPMENTS IN WEAVING TECHNOLOGIES

4.7.1 Multicolour Weft Selection
The weft colour selectors of today’s weaving machines are microprocessor-controlled,
compact-sized ones and can be available in 16, 12, 8, 4 or 2 colours. Picanol devel-
oped the Quick Step filling presenter, which operates with independent module, each
consisting of an electronically controlled stepper motor with a presenter needle. The
colour and weave pattern are microprocessor or jacquard controlled. After the left
gripper has taken the presented yarns, the Quick Step needle returns to an intermedi-
ary position, so the course of the filling yarn is straight and the tension of the yarn is
low and remains constant. The Quick Step filling presenter has several advantages.
It is monitored by the machine microprocessor, so the timing for the presentation
of the filling yarn is perfectly synchronized with the machine speed and the weave
pattern (Maity et al. 2012).
The electronic motor-driven let-off supplies the loom with necessary wrap yarn,
thus maintaining constant yarn tension from full beam to empty beam. Let-off speed
is automatically calculated in context with loom speed, weft density, wrap beam
diameter and close-loop tension control (Maity et al. 2012). Accurate synchroni-
zation with main motor in the forward and reverse direction in addition to latest
features supports to minimize the beginning and ending marks, thus enhancing the
grade and quality of the fabric. Besides this, it enables cramming/density design
possible. With the take-up electronic system, the weft density variation doesn’t need
any more mechanical interruptions on the loom, and it just needs setting param-
eters on the system. The electronic let-off and take-up are shown in Figure 4.12
(Maity et al. 2012).
FIGURE 4.12 Electronic let-off and take-up. (Source: Maity et al. 2012.)
4.7.2 Selvedge
There is more than one technology available for producing selvedge in modern
high-speed looms (Callus et al. 1999; Nie 2004). These are Moto leno, ELSY, disco
leno and power leno, which have been used by different machinery manufactur-
ers. Dornier offers selvedge formation device with decisive advantages (Callus et al.
1999). The two-end full-turn leno-type Moto Leno, is controlled in direct relation
with weave requirements and enables variations in pick density and fabric construc-
tion in easily programmable manner. Warp-end breaks in the selvedge area are sig-
nificantly reduced. The inexpensive alternative to tucked selvedge is the two-end
full-turn leno-type Moto Leno with synchronous motor drive as shown in Figure 4.13
(Maity et al. 2012).
FIGURE 4.13 Electronic leno selvedge mechanism. (Source: Maity et al. 2012.)
4.7.3 Quick Style Change

The quick style change system, developed by several weaving machine manufactur-
ers in their own versions, ensures quick style change in less than 30 min (Callus et al.
1999; Maity et al. 2012). This is achieved by swapping the whole back part of split
frame, with the warp-beam, the back-rest and the supports, the warp-stop motion,
the harness and the reed. This ultimately increases the productivity of the loom
shed (Callus et al. 1999; Maity et al. 2012). The quick style change system is not
only a machine setup but also an integrated system that allows the movement of the
preparation room of some operations normally done on the weaving machine. The
knotting operations and the drawing-in of the warp can be done in the preparation
department, thus improving the workload and avoiding longer machine downtime.
Leonardo (a type of weaving style change system) is integrated with the ‘VQSC’
Quick Style Change System, which ensures reduced machine downtime and the extra
time needed to unload the machine, to adjust the setting and to load the new style as
far as possible. Also, the warp stop motion, frame, reed and beam unloading/loading
operation have been made far easier with the introduction of rational and reliable
technical solutions (Nie 2004). Picanol’s Quick Style Change System is shown in
Figure 4.14 (Maity et al. 2012). Additionally, this unique system makes it possible to
carry out the entire quality-related setting on the warp side, outside the weaving shed
before the style change. This ultimately reduces the labour requirement and thus
increases the loom efficiency with the following benefits and advantages:
• Reduce machine downtime.

• Interference losses due to simultaneous stops are practically non-existent.
• Fewer personal required for warp and article changes in weave room.
• Warp changes can be replaced by style changes, enabling the load on the tying
and drawing in equipment to be balanced instead of having two bottlenecks.
FIGURE 4.14 Quick style change. (Source: Maity et al. 2012.)

4.7.4 Automatic Start Mark Prevention

Automatic Start Mark Prevention (ASP) prevents starts mark at the source. The
simple functionality of ASP saves time and significantly contributes toward quality
improvement.
4.7.5 Electronic Control Technology

The electronics of modern weaving machine are based on multiprocessor archi-
tecture with 32-bit technology. Data transfer between the various subunits of the
machine is via a Controller Area Network (CAN-bus) system, permitting fast and
reliable exchange of data both internally and externally. The terminal has a graphic
display in which various functions of the warp let-off, cloth take-up, weft feeder,
etc., can be programmed easily (Callus et al. 1999; Maity et al. 2012). The modern
electronics give the following advantages:
• Ease of operation.
• High fabric quality irrespective of speed.
• Pick density alterable while the machine is in operation.
• Immediate help in troubleshooting the problem.
• Self-adjusting stop position of the machine.
• Microprocessor-controlled central-forced lubrication system.
• Storage and monitoring of all the production data efficiently.
• Machine function controls pattern weave, warps tension and pick density.
• Pick finding control and the elimination of stop marks by means of pro-set
programs.
• Control and report of style change timing.
• Quick control of the electronic functions (self-diagnostics and auto checkup)
and monitoring of the machinery functions for protection.
• Bidirectional communication between the weaving machine and the central
production computer.
• Speed setup.
• Electronic weaving speed variation depending on the characteristic of the
yarn being used.
• Control of warp let-off and fabric take-up.
• Electronic control of the filling tension.
• Transfer of setting and production parameters of a fabric style to other
machine with the help of memory cards.
In Picanol GamMax, most of the machine functions are digitally controlled (Callus
et al. 1999; Nie 2004). All the machine settings can be digitally stored and trans-
ferred. The electronic terminal on GamMax monitors and controls all machine
functions. Its liquid crystal display screen has self-explanatory menus and enables
the weaver to set the weaving parameters in a user-friendly way. GamMax is
also Internet-enabled. The GamMax terminal features wireless communication
through a universal serial bus memory stick or key tag, permitting robust, flexible,
handy and reliable operation. Sulzer G6500 offers ‘Smart Weave’ – intelligent
pattern data programming. ‘Smart Weave’ offers fabric designer intelligent sup-
port in the preparation of weaves design and picks repeat. The G6500 control
interface is a user-friendly, Internet-ready touch screen terminal. The logical
structuring with self-explanatory pictogram guides the operators to the desired
function simply and with minimum keying. In Leonardo, the computer system is
based on the CAN-bus system. This drives and controls all the main textile and
mechanical function (Callus et al. 1999; Nie 2004). With the CAN-bus in mind,
a new controller has been developed called the FULLTRONIC. This coordinates
all loom functions instant by instant, from the operating conditions of the various
mechanisms to each individual response: heald movement, colour to be selected,
warp tension, density of the weft in the fabric, plus the messages describing the
status of the lubrication circuit. Monitoring takes place at frequencies more than
700 messages/s. The Dornier weaving machine (type PS) has control cabinet
with integrated CAN-bus and various modules for start, stop, warp let-off and
fabric take-up as well as start mark prevention (Callus et al. 1999; Nie 2004).
The Dornier customer service department can directly access machine displays
troubleshooting online.
4.7.6 Machine Main Drive

The Dornier weaving machine is driven with a continuously running motor over a
magnetic brake-clutch unit (Maity et al. 2012). Intelligent electronics monitor the
acceleration time and control the exceptionally short brakes time. This guarantees
the full dynamics of reed beat-up on the first pick, thus eliminating start mark.
Picanol has developed the Sumo main motor. It drives the weaving machine directly,
without belt transmission or clutch and brake. The machine speed is controlled elec-
tronically, which considerably reduces the setting time. With the Sumo motor, it is
possible to continuously adapt the machine speed pick-by-pick to match the strength
of the filling yarn. With the help of this system, it is no longer necessary to keep the
machine speed continuously low if there is one weaker filling yarn in multichannel
weaving. With the Sumo motor, it is possible to continuously adapt the machine
speed pick-by-pick to match the strength of the filling yarn (Maity et al. 2012). The
advantages of Sumo motor are as follows:
• Saving on energy consumption of more than 10% in comparison with con-

ventional clutch and brake configuration.
• Machine speed setting is done accurately and completely, electronically via
the keyboard of a microprocessor. This reduces the setting time to zero.
• Speed setting is easy to copy to other machines either with electronic set
card or with production computer with bidirectional communication.
• Automatic pick finding becomes faster, which significantly reduces the
downtimes for repairing filling and warp breakages.
• The machine can always work at optimum weaving speed in function of
quality of the yarn, the number of frames and fabric construction.
Today’s weaving machine has become fast and exceptionally flexible. It offers
a choice of various reed widths, shedding motions, selvedges, filling inser-
tion colours, etc. The weft colour selectors of today’s weaving machine are
m icroprocessor-controlled, compact-sized ones and can be available in up to 16
colours. The maximum weft insertion rate achieved is 8,000 m/min (Maity et al.
2012). Filling insertion system is microprocessor controlled and synchronized with
other mechanisms. Shedding mechanism has become more versatile. Let-off and
take-up mechanism is synchronized with other mechanisms so that minimum start-
up marks produced in fabric a large diameter of take-up roll. Drive mechanism to
reed provides minimum acceleration to the filling so that minimum filling breaks
occur. Fully programmable high-speed selvedge formation devices such as Moto
leno, Disco leno, Power leno and ELSY are developed to cope up with high-speed
machines (Maity et al. 2012).
4.7.7 Multiphase Weaving
Weaving machines are classified into two groups: single-phase and multiphase
(Maity et al. 2012; Callus et al. 1999). In a single-phase loom, a single insertion
of weft yarn is made in one revolution of the loom, the shed is fully opened across
the whole width of warp and the pick is inserted. In a multiphase loom, not just one
but several sheds are formed, and at the same time, several weft insertion elements
enter the entire width of the warp. Single-phase, shuttleless looms such as rapier,
projectile, air jet and water jet are considered to be the second generation of weav-
ing machines in which the primary mechanisms of weaving (i.e. shedding, picking
and beat-up) take place in one loom cycle, thereby inserting one pick in a single
phase. Only one shed is formed across the width of the warp. In multiphase weaving,
several sheds are formed across the width of the warp at the same time. Multiphase
looms are considered to be the third generation of weaving machines. Multiphase
weaving can be achieved by employing two different principles, either (a) in which
shedding, picking and beat-up occur across the width of the warp, i.e. in the weft
direction or (b) in which these actions take place along the length of the warp (in the
warp direction) (Maity et al. 2012).
Sulzer Textil introduced their first revolutionary multiphase loom M8300 at
International Textile Machinery Association 1995, with a working width of 190 cm
running at 2,050 ppm with weft insertion rates of 3,894 m/min. There are several
developments over the years (Callus et al. 1999; Nie 2004). The machine has no
healds and a non-reciprocating beat-up. The weft is inserted with the aid of com-
pressed air at low pressure and at a uniform speed, with low weft loading. Shedding
is based on the multilinker shed principle: sheds are formed positively by shed-
forming elements that deflect the warp threads into the upper shed position. The cur-
vature and rotation of the rotor cause the shed-forming elements to open the sheds
consecutively. A single movement of the warp positioner positions the warp threads
so that they are either picked up or lifted by the shed-forming elements, thus forming
the upper shed, or remains in the lower position. As many as 2,800 sheds are formed
consecutively per minute. Each warp thread is inserted individually into the eye of a
positioned warp (Nie 2004).
A number of sheds are arranged in parallel, one behind the other in the direc-
tion of the warp, and are opened simultaneously. Four weft yarns are inserted
at the same time, though staggered as in a relay race, into the open sheds on the
rotor. To open a number of sheds one after another in the warp direction, the warp
is led over a 12-channel continuously rotating drum (the weaving rotor), which is
provided with combs consisting of numerous individual elements. The combs form
the shed as well as a guide channel for the insertion of the weft as soon as the shed
is opened.
The rotating movement of the weaving rotor lifts the threads off the shoul-
ders of the shed-forming elements and lays them over the weft channel, while the
remaining threads come to rest below the weft channel. Warp positioners determine
the threads that are to be raised. Once the shed is formed completely, low pressure
air carries the weft yarn through a weft insertion channel. During this insertion,
further weft yarns start to enter the combs that follow. As soon as the weft has been
inserted completely, it is clamped and cut on the feed side. The weft yarn is beaten up
by the special beat-up reed that follows each shed-forming comb (Maity et al. 2012).

The principle of interlacing yarns to make a woven fabric has not changed since
time immemorial. However, there have been dramatic changes in the equipment
used in weaving. In today’s competitive market, low-cost manufacturing of quality
woven fabrics is important for survival. Despite some gains, in particular by knit-
ted fabrics, weaving will continue to be the predominant method of fabric forma-
tion, due to the advantages of structural stability of woven fabric. Weaving machine
manufacturers are finding new, faster and better ways to produce woven cloth. Over
the years, electronics has increased the processing speed, flexibility and reliability
of weaving machines. Multiprocessors are now used to control, monitor and com-
municate functions. Modern control systems are capable of generating production
statistics and efficiency calculations, and a variety of other data can be retrieved
from the machine via an interface. Fabric parameters, patterns, colours and control
functions can be input at the communication panel on the machine. Although the
speed of weaving machines has increased dramatically, the weft insertion rates and
loom productivity of single-phase projectile, air jet and flexible rapiers are expected
to increase further. It is also expected that there will be major improvements in
multiphase weaving as such improvements may not be possible for single-phase
machines due to physical limitations. However, research programmes are under
way to further improve the performance of single-phase weaving machines. For
example, pneumatic beat-up is being studied as a replacement for the traditional
reed in air-jet weaving. In pneumatic beat-up, compressed air is used to push the
filling yarn into the cloth fell. Weaving productivity and flexibility have been sub-
stantially improved with the introduction of the quick style change system, the
off-loom take-up system, inverter drives, filling feeders, electronic let-off and take-
up, automatic filling repair and new monitoring systems. Innovations to further
increase productivity and flexibility are expected to continue and may include auto-
matic warp stop repair, automatic fabric doffing, automatic filling supply systems,
etc. With the ever-expanding fields of application of high-performance industrial

fabrics, weaving machines will continue to be modified to meet the requirement of
their production. Future machines would be wider and stronger to produce a wide
range of industrial fabrics. One area with great potential for improvement is the
manufacture of weaving machines for complex 3D shapes. As industrial textiles
penetrate into almost every industry in the world, 3D woven fabric structures are
gaining importance. As of today, very few 3D weaving machines are commercially
available. However, this is expected to change as the market share of 3D fabrics
increases. New fabric development will be a key factor in survival and success of
the weaving industry in the years to come.
REFERENCES
ASTM D4018–81. 1997. Standard test method for tensile properties of continuous fila-
ment carbon and graphite yarns, strands, rovings, and tows. Annual Book of ASTM
Standards, vol. 15.03, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia.
Behera, B. K. and Hari, P. K. 2010. Woven Textile Structure: Theory and Applications.
Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
Brandt, J., Drechsler, K. and Arendts. F. -J. 1996. Mechanical performance of composites
based on various three-dimensional woven-fiber preforms. Composites Science and
Technology 56:381–386.
Cai, D. X. and Qin, M. L. 2008. Fabric Structure and Design. Beijing: China Textile and
Apparel Press.
Callus, P. J., Mouritz, A. P., Bannister, M. K. and Leong, K. H. 1999. Tensile properties
and failure mechanisms of 3D woven GRP composites. Composites Part A: Applied
Science and Manufacturing 30:1277–1287.
Chen, Y. 2011a. Developments in Leno-weave fabrics. In Specialist Yarns and Fabric
Structures, ed. R. H. Gong, 118–140. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
Chen, X. 2011b. Interwoven fabrics and their applications. In Specialist Yarns and Fabric
Cox, B. N., Dadkhah, M. S., Morris, W. L. and Flintoff, J. G. 1994. Failure mechanisms
of 3D woven composites in tension compression and bending. Acta Metallurgica et
Materialia, 42:3967–3984.
El Mogahzy, Y. 2008. Engineering Textiles: Integrating the Design and Manufacture of
Textile Products. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
Gu, P. 2004. Fabric Structure and Design. Shanghai: Dong Hua University Press.
Lee, L., Rudov-Clark, S., Mouritz, A. P., Bannister, M. K. and Herszberg, I. 2002. Effect
of weaving damage on the tensile properties of three-dimensional woven composites.
Composite Structures 57:405–413.
Lord, P. R. and Mohamed, M. H. 2010. Weaving: Conversion of Yarn to Fabric. 2nd edition.
Maity, S., Singha, K. and Singha, M. 2012. Recent developments in rapier weaving machines
in textiles. American Journal of Systems Science 1(1):7–16.
Nie, J. B. 2004. Woven Structure and Design. Beijing: China Textile and Apparel Press.
Ormerod, A. and Sondhelm, W. S. 1995. Weaving: Technology and Operations. Cambridge:
Parchure, J. W. 2009. Fundamentals of Designing for Textiles and Other End Uses.
Seyam, A. M. 2011. Developments in Jacquard woven fabrics. In Specialist Yarns and Fabric
Singh, J. and Verma, S. 2016. Woven Terry Fabrics. Cambridge: Woodhead Publishing.
Tyler, T. 2011. Developments in triaxial woven fabrics. In Specialist Yarns and Fabric
Wahhoud, A. 2007. Leno technology for plane structure. Melliand Textilberichte 35(9):22–26.
Yan, J. Y. and Gu, P. 2008. Fabric Weave and Jacquard. Beijing: China Textile and Apparel
Press.
5 Knitting and Recent
Developments
Bibhu Prasad Dash
College of Engineering and Technology
Rajesh Mishra and Veerakumar Arumugam

CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction.....................................................................................................90
5.2 K nitting Terminologies....................................................................................90
5.3 Features of Knitted Fabrics............................................................................. 91
5.4 Weft-Knitted Structures...................................................................................92
5.4.1 Circular Weft-Knitting Machines........................................................94
5.4.2 Seamless Knitting Technology............................................................96
5.5 Warp-Knitted Structures.................................................................................97
5.5.1 Types of Warp-Knit Machines............................................................97
5.5.1.1 K nitting Machines................................................................97
5.5.2 3D Knitted Structures..........................................................................99
5.5.3 Multiaxial Warp-Knitted Fabrics........................................................99
5.5.3.1 Applications........................................................................ 100
5.6 Spacer Fabrics................................................................................................ 100
5.6.1 Structure............................................................................................ 100
5.6.2 Production Methods........................................................................... 101
5.6.3 Properties of Knitted Spacer Fabrics................................................. 101
5.6.3.1 Mechanical.......................................................................... 101
5.6.3.2 Shear................................................................................... 101
5.6.3.3 Impact................................................................................. 101
5.6.3.4 Bending Rigidity................................................................. 102
5.6.3.5 Compressibility................................................................... 102
5.6.3.6 Air Permeability and Moisture Management..................... 102
5.6.4 Applications of Knitted Spacer Fabrics............................................. 103
5.6.4.1 Cushioning Applications..................................................... 103
5.6.4.2 Composites.......................................................................... 103
5.6.4.3 Protective Applications....................................................... 103
5.6.4.4 Thermo-Physiological Clothing.......................................... 103
5.6.4.5 Medical Applications.......................................................... 104
5.6.4.6 Other Applications.............................................................. 104
89
5.7 Future Trends and Summary......................................................................... 104

References............................................................................................................... 105
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Knitting is a process of manufacturing of fabric by the intermeshing of loops of
yarns. The word knitting has been derived from the Saxon word ‘Cnyttan’, which has
its origin from Sanskrit word ‘Nahyati’. Knitting has been associated with human
civilization even before 256 AD. Three small pieces of wool-knitted fabric found in
Syria by archaeologists have established this fact (Ajgaonkar 1998). In the known
history, the credit for developing the knitting machine goes to Reverend William Lee
of Calverton near Nottinghamshire, England during 1600 AD. (Liu and Hu 2010,
2011, 2015).
The basic unit of a knitted structure is called a loop. A stitch is formed when
one loop is drawn through another loop. Stitches may be formed in horizontal or
in a vertical direction. Weft knitting is a method of forming a fabric by means of
interlacement of horizontal loops in a circular or flat form on a course-wise basis.
In this method, one or more number of yarns are fed to a group of needles placed in
either lateral or circular fashion. The figure of a weft-knitted fabric is illustrated in
Figure 5.1 (Liu and Hu 2015; Ajgaonkar 1998; Spencer 2001).
Warp knitting is a method of forming a fabric by interlacement of loops made in a
vertical way from each warp yarn. In this method, a number of end of yarns are fed
simultaneously to individual needles placed in lateral fashion.
5.2 KNITTING TERMINOLOGIES
Loop – The fundamental unit of knitted structure that is formed by bending the yarn
as shown later. For warp-knitted structure, it is usually called lap.
Open loop – A loop in which the same thread enters and leaves the loop at the
opposite side without crossing over itself as shown earlier.
Closed loop – A loop in which the same thread crosses over itself at the base is
as shown earlier.
Needle loop – The aggregate of the top arc and the two sides of a loop is known
as needle loop.
Sinker loop – The loop formed at the bottom by the thread connecting two adja-
cent needle loops is called sinker loop.
FIGURE 5.1 Weft-knitting elements. (Source: Spencer 2001.)

Knitting and Recent Developments 91
FIGURE 5.2 Float and tuck stitches. (Source: Spencer 2001.)
Wale – The vertical column of loops running along the length direction of the
fabric is called wale. Loops in a wale are made by the same needle in different knit-
ting cycles.
Course – The horizontal row of loops running along the width direction of the
fabric is called a course. Loops in a course are made by different needles in the same
knitting cycle.
Float – A length of yarn connecting two loops without forming loop or lap in
between.
Tuck – A length of yarn received by a needle and not pulled through the loop of
previous course. Figure 5.2 shows the float and tuck structure.
5.3 FEATURES OF KNITTED FABRICS

Extensibility – Knitted fabrics (more specifically, weft knits) are highly extensible
with incomplete elastic recovery. This semi-permanent deformation left after the
partial recovery can be almost removed by agitation, as in washing and tumble dry-
ing. This characteristic makes the fabric more comfortable when body movements
are made, and it provides better freedom to the wearer. However, the extensibility of
knitted fabric is also responsible for creating problems in cutting and sewing the gar-
ments. The semi-permanent deformation may generate bagging at knees and elbows
(Ionesi et al. 2010).
Crease and tear resistant – The knitted fabrics are highly crease resistant. This
is due to the loop arrangement of such fabrics. When bent or folded, the loops act
as reversible hinges at the edges. High tear resistance of knitted fabrics is due to the
fact that the loops distribute the stress throughout the entire fabric, being extensible.
Limpness – It is the opposite of stiffness. Both the warp and the weft knits have
low bending length, which is reflected in their typically soft drape.
Softness – The feel of the fabric is related to its stiffness or flexural rigidity of
the material. As the knits have lower flexural rigidity than the wovens of the same
weight, they have a softer feel.
Fullness – The fullness or hand of the knitted fabric is dependent on the bend-
ing modulus of knitted structure. Bending modulus is directly related to the flexural
rigidity and inversely to the cube of thickness of the fabric. Since the weft knits have
low flexural rigidity and high thickness, they are fuller than wovens or even warp
knits. In addition, the low twist of the yarns also contributes to softness and fullness
of the knitted fabrics.
Air permeability – Knitted fabrics are several times more air permeable than the
woven fabrics. This attribute is due to the fact that the structure in itself is composed
of much airspace generated due to the interlacement of loops. This property is a use-
ful quality for underwear, whereby the garment next to the skin can breathe (Ciobanu
2011; Bruer et al. 2005).
5.4 WEFT-KNITTED STRUCTURES
1. The mechanical properties of the weft-knitted fabrics are strongly related
to the fabric structure, yarn properties and fabric directions, respectively
(Spencer 2001). These properties may be designed according to the needs
of a particular application by choosing the fibres and yarns with the most
appropriate properties and placing them in the most appropriate struc-
ture to obtain the required fibre architecture. The flexibility provided
by weft-knitting technology enables the production of a wide range of
structures with different properties. Three-dimensional (3D) structures
and directionally oriented structures are reviewed and represent various
types of textile fabrics developed for engineering applications, especially
for the reinforcement of composite materials. In composite materials,
the ends of the straight or nearly straight yarns are introduced to engi-
neer the fabric characteristics and to enhance the fabric properties in
the required directions, thus the fabric produced offers an ideal combi-
nation of excellent mechanical properties and cost-effective production.
Simulation and modelling are reviewed, these being very important tools
for engineering design. They may enable the development of new struc-
tures with particular properties and a significant reduction in time and
costs of sample manufacturing and testing (Fung and Hardcastle 2001;
Fung 2002).
2. The properties of weft-knitted fabrics may be designed according to the
needs of a particular application. The flexibility provided by weft-knitting
technology enables the production of a wide range of structures with dif-
ferent properties. In fact, the variation of material and structural param-
eters such as fibre, yarn and loop size and type combined with machine
parameters such as machine type, gauge, needle selection capability, yarn
feeding and take down technologies may lead to an endless number of weft-
knitted fabric possibilities (Fung and Hardcastle 2001; Fung 2002; Liu and
Hu 2011).
3. Knitted fabrics usually deform easily at low loads presenting a good elastic
recovery, and this is enabled by their loop construction leading to excel-
lent conformability. This is perhaps the most important property of knitted
fabrics, being responsible for their wide range of applications in clothing
and in some medical applications, such as bandages and compression stock-
ings. The natural elasticity of the structures may be enhanced by introduc-
ing elastic yarns. In this case, special yarn feeding systems are required
to control the yarn tension during knitting. In this way, it is possible to
obtain highly extensible structures with excellent elastic recovery at much
higher loads (Smith 2004; Iyer et al. 1992; Ertekin and Marmarali 2011;
Abounaim 2011; De Araujo et al. 2001).
For some technical applications, however, stiffness may be required in particular

directions. In this case, special knitting constructions may be developed by using
directionally oriented non-knitting stiff yarns to prevent extensibility (mono- and
biaxial structures). The introduction of the in-laid yarns in the course-wise direc-
tion is an easy task to achieve. However, to inlay a straight yarn in the wale-wise
direction is rather more complicated as the yarn has to cross the fabric-forming or
knitting zone, which is normally occupied by yarn carriers and feeders as well as
the cam system itself which obstruct the in-laid yarns passage. Several prototypes
have been developed to overcome this problem. One interesting technology is LAPIS
from Shima Seiki, which combines warp- and weft-knitting technologies. Initially
developed to produce intarsia fabrics (knitted patterns with multiple colours), it may
be successfully used to inlay yarns in the wale-wise direction. Further developments
should be undertaken in this area to provide a reliable technology to produce a biax-
ial weft-knitting technology (De Araujo et al. 2001).
1. The use of weft-knitted fabrics in technical applications usually involves

the use of yarns made of high-performance fibres such as aramids, glass,
carbon, etc. The properties of these materials are quite different from those
usually used for the production of knitted apparel, such as cotton, wool or
polyester. High-performance fibre-based yarns are stiffer leading to high
yarn input tension peaks during knitting, especially in intermittent pro-
cesses such as flat knitting. Conventional yarns present a natural elasticity
that partially absorbs yarn tension leading to lower tension peaks during the
knitting process, thus enabling good knittability. On the other hand, knitting
glass or carbon fibre based yarns are rather more complex due to their high
stiffness, low extension at break and high flexural rigidity. Moreover, due
to the brittle nature of these fibres, filaments may break easily when sub-
jected to bending and abrasion during the knitting process. The knittability
of high-performance yarns may be substantially improved by decreasing
the yarn tension in the loop-forming area, by decreasing the friction coef-
ficient between the yarn and the machine parts in contact with it, and also
by decreasing the total number of contact points between the yarn and the
machine components. The positive feeding systems successfully used in
circular knitting to control loop length and to set an adequate yarn tension
as it is fed to the needles cannot be used in flat knitting due to the intermit-
tent nature of this process. In this case, yarn storage systems may be used
as close as possible to the knitting area to decrease the number of yarn con-
tact points. The use of appropriate lubricants in high-performance yarns is
crucial to decrease the coefficient of friction (Liu et al. 2012a, 2012b, 2013;
Yip and Ng 2008).
2. The main problem in flat knitting, especially in 3D knitting, is fabric take
down. In order to keep a uniform take-down tension in each loop, various
sinker systems have been devised to hold down the loops during knitting.
Possibly, the most effective is a novel sinker system with spring-type move-
able sinkers and computer-controlled take-down tension. Even though these
systems have brought improvements, the opinion of many users is that it is
still not easy to control with precision the take-down tension in 3D knitting
production (Arumugam et al. 2016c, 2017a; Dias et al. 2007).
3. An important limitation of weft-knitting technology is machine gauge,
which leads to a limited range of yarns that can be used for each gauge,
thus influencing the properties and dimensions of the knitted fabrics pro-
duced. The idea of ‘one machine, one gauge’ does not seem to be useful
anymore, taking into account the market trends led by mass customization.
The response of flat-knitting machine manufacturers to this limitation was
to develop multi-gauge, gauge-less or multiple gauge machines. Using this
technology, several gauges may be provided on the same machine with-
out replacing the knitting elements. A particular machine may be adjusted
to produce a knitted fabric with areas knitted with different gauges. This
greatly improves the flexibility of both conventional and technical fabrics.
The principle is based on the use of slide needles, whereby a variety of
gauges can be knitted on a single machine and into a single garment. The
split-stitch technique was made possible by the use of a slide needle, which
allows smoother gauge-to-gauge transitions. Flexibility in circular knitting
is being achieved by providing machines with the ability to produce several
products, not only in terms of patterning but also in terms of structural
design. The use of interlock machines being able to produce rib structures
is yet another example of the trend that is being followed by machine manu-
facturers. Furthermore, in response to the trend of spinning very fine yarns,
circular knitting machines are now available in very narrow gauges, which
may reach 60 needles per inch. This is a remarkable development taking
into account the complex systems that are involved in the knitting process.
As far as machine speed is concerned, recent developments addressed at
increasing productivity enable large diameter circular machines to run at
speeds of the order of 100 rpm (Dias et al. 2007; Liu and Hu 2015; Sancak
2015).
5.4.1 Circular Weft-Knitting Machines

Until now, circular knitting machines have been designed and manufactured
for mass production of knitted fabrics. The special properties of knitted fab-
rics, especially fine fabrics made by the circular knitting process, make these
types of fabric suitable for application in clothing, industrial textiles, medical
and orthopaedic garments, automotive textiles, hosiery, agro and geo textiles,
etc. (Semnani 2011). The most important areas for discussion in circular knitting
technology are increasing production efficiency and improving fabric quality as
well as new trends in quality clothing, medical applications, electronic garments,
fine fabrics, etc. Many manufacturing companies have pursued developments in
circular knitting machines in order to extend their product offering for the new
markets. Textile specialists in the knitting industry should be aware that tubular
and seamless fabrics are highly suitable for various applications not only in tex-
tiles but also in medical, electronic, agriculture, civil and other fields (Sancak
2015; Semnani 2011).
There are many types of circular knitting machine that produce long lengths
of tubular fabric manufactured for specific end uses. Single jersey machines are
equipped with a single ‘cylinder’ of needles that produces plain fabrics of about
30 inches in diameter. Wool production on single jersey machines tends to be l imited
to 20 gauge or coarser, as these gauges can use two-fold wool yarns. The cylin-
der system of single jersey machines is demonstrated in Figure 5.3 (Semnani 2011).
Another inherent feature of woolen single jersey fabrics is that the fabric edges tend
to curl inwards. This is not a problem whilst the fabric is in tubular form, but once cut
open can create difficulties if the fabric is not finished correctly. Terry loop machines
are the basis for fleece fabrics that are produced by knitting two yarns into the same
stitch, one ground yarn and one loop yarn. These protruding loops are then brushed
or raised during finishing, creating a fleece fabric. Sliver knitting machines are sin-
gle jersey machines that have been adapted to trap a sliver of staple fibre into the knit
structure (Sancak 2015; Arumugam et al. 2016c, 2017b; Liu and Hu 2011).
1. Double jersey machines (Figure 5.4) are extensions of single jersey

machines with a ‘dial’ that houses an extra set of needles positioned hori-
zontally adjacent to the vertical cylinder needles (Semnani 2011). This extra
set of needles allows the production of fabrics that are twice as thick as sin-
gle jersey fabrics (Sancak 2015; Arumugam et al. 2016c, 2017a; Liu and Hu
2011). Typical examples include interlock-based structures for underwear/
base layer garments and 1 × 1 rib fabrics for leggings and outerwear prod-
ucts. Much finer yarns can be used, as single yarns do not present a problem
for double jersey knitted fabrics. The technical parameter is fundamental
to the classification of knitting machines. The gauge is the spacing of the
needles and refers to the number of needles per inch. This unit of measure
is indicated with a capital E (Sancak 2015; Arumugam et al. 2016c, 2017a;
Liu and Hu 2011).
FIGURE 5.3 Single jersey knitting machine. (Source: Semnani 2011.)

FIGURE 5.4 Double jersey knitting machine. (Source: Semnani 2011.)
5.4.2 Seamless Knitting Technology

1. Seamless garment knitting can be achieved either on the circular knitting
machine or flat (V-bed) knitting machine shown in Figure 5.5 (Semnani
2011). However, seamless circular knitting machines differ from seamless
flat knitting machines in that seamless circular machines create only a
single tubular type of garment such as those produced on circular knitting
machines. Seamless knitting machines can create more than one tube and
join the tubes together on a machine (Ye et al. 2008; Anand 2003). The
complete garments knitted on circular machines may also need a minimal
cutting operation. In addition, seamless circular machines require differ-
ent diameters to make major changes in garment size, whereas seamless
flat machines can adjust to different garment sizes on the same machine.
Consequently, seamless knitting on circular machines is not true seam-
less knitting. It should be mentioned that knitting on V-bed seamless
FIGURE 5.5 Seamless knitting technology. (Source: Semnani 2011.)

machines produces truly seamless garments since they do not require any
cutting or sewing. In recent years, many machines have been developed
with a four-feed single-jersey electronic circular machine, which enables
the creation of a shaped garment by reciprocal movement (Ye et al. 2008;
Anand 2003).
5.5 WARP-KNITTED STRUCTURES
A warp knit fabric has a structure made of several warp threads or warps that form
similar loops in a course. The different stitches are knitted by changing the sideways
motion or shogging movement of the guide bars during knitting. There are three
basic types of fabric: woven, weft knit, and warp knit. Woven and warp knit fabrics
need a warp to form a fabric and a weft knit needs an end to form a fabric. A woven
fabric is formed by interlacing warp ends with filling or weft ends to form courses.
Only one end is needed to form a course in weft knit, but many ends are needed to
form a course in a warp knit (Ye et al. 2007). In the United States, many technicians
call weft knit fabrics ‘circular knits’, while warp knit fabrics are called as ‘flat knits’.
In reality, both weft and warp knit fabrics can be knitted on circular as well as flat
machines. However, most weft-knit fabrics are knitted on circular machines, and
most warp-knit fabrics are made on flat machines.
5.5.1 Types of Warp-Knit Machines

There are four basic types of warp-knit machines. They are Tricot, Raschel, Simplex
and Milanese (Ajgaonkar 1998; Gajjar 2011). The Tricot and Raschel machines can
be either one-bed or two-bed machines. There are three types of needle used in warp
knitting. They are shown in Figure 5.6 (Gajjar 2011).
5.5.1.1 Knitting Machines
To understand warp-knit Raschel machines, it will be helpful to compare them
with warp-knit Tricot machines. The following are the 12 basic differences
FIGURE 5.6 Types of knitting needles. (Source: Gajjar 2011.)

(Armakan and Roye 2009; Mecit and Roye 2009; Savci et al. 2001; Abounaim
et al. 2009, 2010).
• Raschel machines are heavier and produce heavier fabrics.

• Older Raschel machines have latch needles with knitting speeds of 800–900
stitches/min (spm), whereas the older Tricot machines have spring-bearded
needles with knitting speeds of 800–2,000 spm.
• New Raschel and Tricot machines use compound needles, with Raschel
machines knitting more than 1,300 spm and Tricot machines knitting more
than 2,000 spm.
• Raschel machines use two 50-inch beams for 100-inch wide machines,
or four 50-inch beams for 200-inch wide machines, six 21-inch or three
42-inch beams for 130-inch wide machines. Tricot machines use four
42-inch beams for 168-inch wide machines.
• In Raschel machines, the gauge of the machines is measured in needles per
two inches and common gauges are 64 gauge (32 npi) and 56 gauge (28 npi).
On the other hand, in Tricot, gauge equals needles per inch, and common
gauges are 28, 32 and 36. The 40 gauge machines have been developed but
are not used widely (Armakan and Roye 2009; Savci et al. 2001; Abounaim
et al. 2009, 2010).
• The fabric angle to the warp on Raschel machines is 160° take-up, whereas
in Tricot machines, the angle is 90° take-up. This is the reason why Raschel
Pailthorpe stitch constructions such as heavy Gentlissimo and Power Net
cannot be knitted on Tricot machines.
• On Raschel machines, fabric take-up tension is high, whereas on Tricot
machines take-up tension is lower.
• Raschel machines with latch and compound needles do not need a presser
bar. Since the needles are heavier and bigger, Raschel machines can use
spun yarn or heavier spandex yarn, whereas the Tricot machines with
spring-bearded needles need a presser bar, and since needles are smaller,
knitting of spun yarn is more critical.
• Raschel machines knit up to 1,500 denier yarn, whereas Tricot machines
knit up to 240 denier hard yarn (for spandex 1,000 versus 140 denier,
respectively).
• In Raschel machines, the links move half a course, whereas in Tricot
machines, the links move one course. Because of this, lap notation of
Raschel is written as 2-0, 2-4 for the back bar Jersey stitch. The same lap
notation for Tricot is written as 1-0, 1-2.
• Raschel machines are more versatile and are used for fancy pattern work,
whereas Tricot machines are less versatile in styling and designing.
• Raschel mills are smaller, whereas Tricot mills are larger and more likely
to be integrated mills.
Warp-knit machines require a warp to knit. The four basic types of warp-knit
machine produce six different warp-knit machines with various types of nee-
dles. Tricot machines with spring-bearded and compound needles are lightweight
machines and run very fast, whereas Raschel machines with latch needles are very
heavy and run slowly. Tricot machines with compound needles are faster as the
needles are a more recent discovery. Raschel machines with latch needles are slow,
whereas newer Raschel machines with compound needles are faster than but not as
fast as Tricot (Ajgaonkar 1998; Gajjar 2011).
5.5.2 3D Knitted Structures

1. Three-dimensional knitted fabrics have been widely used in many fields,
especially in technical textiles. The development of 3D knitted fabrics is
based on 2D knitted fabrics (Guo 2011). However, while a considerable
amount of research has been performed on 2D knitted fabrics, by com-
parison, little is known about the mechanical properties and applications
of 3D knitted fabrics. There are three types of 3D knitted fabrics currently
available, which are broadly categorized as multiaxial warp-knitted fab-
rics, space fabrics (or sandwich fabrics) and 3D knitted fabrics (or near-
net-shaped knitted fabrics). The structures, properties, production and
applications of these different 3D knitted fabrics are described separately
(Verpoest 1995; Phillips et al. 1997).
5.5.3 Multiaxial Warp-Knitted Fabrics

This type of fabric is defined as a base fabric combined by a knitting system. Multiaxial
warp-knitted fabrics possess inlay yarns at directions of 0°, 90° and ± θ. Yarn lay-
ers are tied together by a tricot stitch or pillar stitch. Therefore, multiaxial warp-
knitted fabrics are multilayered fabrics. Fibbers are laid along different directions
in one plane and along the thickness direction to form 3D net structures (Philips
and Verpoest 1998; Verpoest 1995; Phillips et al. 1997). The fabric consists of one
or many parallel yarn layers, each of which can be arranged at a different orienta-
tion. Each layer can possess different densities and can be combined with fibre net,
film and other materials. The orientation of each layer depends on the production
orientation. The production direction is defined as 0°. The direction of each layer is
expressed by the angle between the layer and 0°, as shown in Figure 5.7 (Guo 2011).
FIGURE 5.7 Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics. (Source: Guo 2011.)

5.5.3.1 Applications
Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics have been widely used in technical fields due to their
low cost, high production efficiency, structural integrity, design flexibility and good
shear property. In particular, multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics are usually used as the
reinforcement of composites (Philips and Verpoest 1998; Verpoest 1995; Phillips
et al. 1997).
5.5.3.1.1 Aeronautical and Astronautic Fields

Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics have been widely used in the aeronautical and astro-
nautics field for reinforcing composites. Fibre-reinforced composites are suitable for
use in the aeronautical and astronautics fields due to the high ratio between their
strength and mass. The use of composites reduces weight, increases service life and
prevents fire from spreading in the aircraft. Above all, the strength of aircraft com-
ponents can be designed precisely (Philips and Verpoest 1998).
5.5.3.1.2 Train and Ship Manufacturing

Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics have been widely used in train and ship manufactur-
ing. These fabrics are made from glass, aramid, carbon and high-strength polyester
fibres, and non-woven fabrics can be fed in during fabric production. Ships are used
in extremely hostile environments, facing temperature changes and water erosion.
Wind power generator blades are made from glass fibre reinforced composites. At
present, multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics are usually used to reinforce the composites
(Liu and Hu 2015; Philips and Verpoest 1998; Verpoest 1995).
5.5.3.1.3 Other Fields
Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics can be used to reinforce composites that can be
fabricated into flak suits and helmets. The fabrics are manufactured using the mul-
tiaxial machine. The yarns are inlaid at only ±45°, which gives the fabric good
forming property. Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics can be coated to form cylinder
containers that can be used as an air film. Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics are
also used for producing snowboard, board and canvas (Mecit and Marmarali 2011;
Scott 2005).
5.6 SPACER FABRICS
5.6.1 Structure
Two plane fabrics are connected by fibres or yarns to form a fabric. A space exists
between two surfaces, so it is called ‘space fabric’. The thickness of space fabric
is about 3–10 mm, and it depends on the type of space fabric being produced.
The structure of the space fabric is like a sandwich, so it is also called ‘sandwich
fabric’ or spacer fabric. Spacer fabric comprises two surface layers and one space
layer. The yarns in the space layer are at right angles to the two surface layers and
connect them together. There are two types of spacer fabric: warp-knitted space
and weft-knitted spacer fabrics (Crina et al. 2013; Ciobanu 2011; Bruer et al. 2005;
Bawadi 2007).
5.6.2 Production Methods
Warp-knitted spacer fabrics are manufactured using the double needle bed Raschel
machine. (Liu et al. 2012a, 2012b, 2014). The machine possesses at least four guide
bars, but between five and seven guide bars are used most of the time. The distance
between two needle beds can be adjusted to produce different thicknesses according
to requirements. Weft-knitted spacer fabrics are manufactured using a circular or
a flat knitting machine. Two surface layers are manufactured on two needle beds,
respectively, and they are connected by tuck stitch. The distance between two needle
beds can be adjusted to produce different thicknesses according to the requirement.
At present, weft-knitted spacer fabrics are usually manufactured using an automatic
flat knitting machine (Liu et al. 2014).
5.6.3 Properties of Knitted Spacer Fabrics

5.6.3.1 Mechanical
The critical mechanical properties of spacer fabrics are those related to the tensile
strength, tear strength and stiffness. Tensile strength of spacer fabrics measures the
fabric’s ability to resist the tensile forces resulting from pre-stress in combination
with external loads, and it measures the level of direct pull force required to rupture
the fibre of material (Rock and Lohmueller 1998). Stiffness is related to the modulus
of elasticity of the material and the cross-sectional area of fibres, which may vary in
the warp and fill directions of the material.
5.6.3.2 Shear
This property enables fabric to undergo complex deformations and to conform to
the shape of the body (Arumugam et al. 2016c). Shear properties influence draping,
flexibility and also the handle of fabric. The shear behaviour of 3D spacer fabrics
was investigated using a picture frame fixture. The image analysis procedure can
provide much more information about the shear behaviour of the fabric than stroke
measurement. The displacement data and shear angles change during loading pro-
cess can aid in the understanding of the shear behaviour of the fabric. It is found
that shear deformations depend very much on the type of spacer yarn and the fabric
stitch density.
5.6.3.3 Impact
The structural parameters of a spacer fabric have significant effect on its protective
performance (Bawadi 2007). Among a group of spacer fabrics, the spacer fabric
knitted with higher inclination and coarser spacer monofilaments, a bigger fabric
thickness and a more stable outer layer structure will have a better force attenuation
capacity. Researchers have studied the impact properties of warp-knitted spacer fab-
ric by varying different parameters (Unal et al. 2006). First, the thickness and outer
layer stitch density of the two fabrics are also nearly kept the same. It can be seen that
the spacer fabric with the coarser spacer monofilament has a lower peak transmitted
force and a longer time to the peak point and, therefore, has a better impact force
attenuation property (Liu et al. 2006, 2013).
5.6.3.4 Bending Rigidity
It appears that the bending rigidity of a spacer fabric is greatly related to the type
of fabric. Thus, a weft-knitted spacer fabric has a higher bending rigidity in the
weft-wise direction, while a warp-knitted spacer fabric has a higher bending rigid-
ity in the warp-wise direction. This behaviour is mainly due to the directionality of
the incorporated yarn. When the samples are of the same fabric type (weft-knitted
spacer fabric for example), the bending rigidity is closely related to the fabric’s den-
sity, spacer structure and spacer type (Abounaim et al. 2009, 2010).
5.6.3.5 Compressibility
Spacer fabrics are resilient and will resist and recover from pressure that may be
applied on them; thus, deformation is not a problem in apparel made using spacer
fabrics and may increase the life of the garment. The stress–strain curve of the spacer
fabric has been reported in a recent paper (Arumugam et al. 2016b). The modulus
of elasticity is defined as the initial slope in the linear elastic part of the stress–
strain curve (modulus region). The initiation of collapse region is characterized by a
relatively large deformation that occurs with a constant stress. The most compress-
ibility behaviour and deformation of 3D fabrics occurs in this region. The compres-
sion elasticity of spacer fabrics depends on type, fineness and the density of space
filaments. The spacing distance and the angle between the space filament and the
fabric surface also affect the compression elasticity of fabrics (Miao and Ge 2008;
Arumugam et al. 2016a; Guo et al. 2013; Lee et al. 2009; Liu et al. 2012a).
5.6.3.6 Air Permeability and Moisture Management

Air permeability is another important factor that should be taken into account when
choosing fabrics for certain applications. In this regard, weft-knitted spacer fabrics
have significantly better air permeability ratings and are thus more able to resist
air penetration, than the warp-knit fabric. It should be noted that the density of the
fabric, regardless of whether it is a warp knit or a weft knit, will have a substantial
impact on the air permeability and thermal regulation properties (Liu and Hu 2011;
Pause 2002). A spacer fabric that is quite dense will have a higher thermal conduc-
tivity value, but a low air permeability value; therefore, end use must be taken into
consideration to find an optimum density for the fabric.
The moisture absorption properties of the two surfaces of spacer fabrics are iden-
tical if they possess the same material and structure. Good moisture conductivity is
achieved if one surface is composed of natural fibres and the other is composed of
chemical fibres. In this case, the surface composed of natural fibres absorbs moisture
from air, and then transmits moisture to the surface composed of chemical fibres by
the capillary effect of space filaments. Space filaments must possess good moisture
conductivity if good moisture conductivity of space fabrics is required (Rothe 2001;
Liu et al. 2014; Guo et al. 2013).
5.6.4 Applications of Knitted Spacer Fabrics

5.6.4.1 Cushioning Applications
Cushioning materials are used to dissipate the kinetic energy of the impacting mass
while keeping the maximum load (or acceleration) below some limit. They generally
absorb kinetic mechanical energy under compression actions at a relatively constant
stress over a large range of displacement. A combination of excellent transversal
compressibility and high permeability makes spacer fabrics much suitable for mul-
tifunctional clothing and technical applications. Some efforts have already been
made to investigate the compression properties of warp-knitted spacer fabrics, and
the results showed that warp-knitted spacer fabrics are a new class of alternative
candidate materials for cushioning applications Ye et al. 2007; Arumugam et al.
2016b, 2017b).
5.6.4.2 Composites
Spacer fabrics are 3D textiles. Properties of spacer fabrics, such as 3D fibre loca-
tion, possibility to use different materials and production in one step, provide the
spacer fabrics to use in different application areas. This type of 3D spacer fabric
with multilayer reinforcements in the fabric structures is expected to show superior
mechanical properties and especially suitable, as textile preforms for lightweight
composite applications (Arumugam et al. 2016b, 2017b). Future applications of com-
posites made from 3D multilayer spacer fabrics involve the replacement of conven-
tional panel structures that are being used for aircraft, transport vehicles, marine
applications and infrastructures, lift cabins, ballistic protection for buildings and
combat vehicles, etc.
5.6.4.3 Protective Applications
Over the past few decades, a wide range of personnel protective equipment (PPE)
has been developed to protect wearers from various types of risks or hazards to their
health and safety. Impact protectors, which are the most commonly used PPE, are
normally manufactured to include energy-absorbing material in the form of pads.
The use of warp-knitted spacer fabrics in clothing and equipment providing protec-
tion against impact has attracted great attention in recent years due to their combina-
tion of protection and comfort in use (Arumugam et al. 2017b).
5.6.4.4 Thermo-Physiological Clothing
In last few years, extensive research has been carried out on knitted fabrics for
thermo-physiological comfort clothing (Arumugam et al. 2016a, 2017a). Spacer fab-
rics have the ability to trap and hold air and insulate the body because of its nature
of spacer yarns between two surface layers. This, along with the ability to wick
away moisture, maintains the body’s microclimate, and thus keeps the person dry
and comfortable. There are many outdoor/active apparel manufacturers who still
employ the layering concept to achieve all the desirable properties in active apparel.
Warp-knitted spacer fabrics tend to have a higher thermal insulation value than weft-
knitted spacer fabrics regardless of whether the fabric is wet or dry, an important
feature for those who may utilize this fabric in the snow.
5.6.4.5 Medical Applications
As a 3D structure, the spacer fabric contains a considerable amount of space inside
the fabric, and the spacer yarns oriented in the Z or thickness direction provide
superior compression and recovery properties. In addition to having the well-known
advantages of knitted structures, such as high bursting strength, high elongation,
low Young’s modulus and high porosity, the 3D spacer fabric stands out as a one
piece multilayered structure with high volume-to-weight ratio, softness, breathabil-
ity, moisture conductivity, compression resistance and excellent recovery properties
(Arumugam et al. 2017b, He 2011).
5.6.4.6 Other Applications
Sports shoes are the main market for applying spacer fabric in sports equipment.
The fabric thickness is about 1.5–1.8 cm. The fabric can possess two compact sur-
faces, or one compact surface and one loose surface according to requirements (Liu
et al. 2014; Guo et al. 2013; Oglakcioglu and Marmarali 2007; Ucar and Yilmaz
2004). Spacer fabrics are mainly used in the upper, tongue and ankle of the shoe.
The fabric is made from polyester and nylon. Elastomeric yarn can be knitted into
two surfaces to obtain good elasticity. Spacer fabric is easily dried, and possesses
a soft handle and good resistance to erosion, so it can be applied in the lining of
swimsuits. The spacer layer contains a lot of air, which makes the wearer warm
and comfortable, so it can be also applied in diving suits. In addition, spacer fab-
rics can be applied in protective sports and golf garments. Furthermore, the spacer
fabrics are still under active research for a number of advanced functional applica-
tions, especially in mattress, insole, automobile upholsteries, mats, etc. (Arumugam
et al. 2017b).
5.7 FUTURE TRENDS AND SUMMARY

The use of weft-knitted fabrics when compared with the warp-knitted fabrics in
technical fields has still been limited. For this reason, the most important aim for
weft-knitted fabrics in the future is to extend their applications to a larger range of
technical fields, such as the automotive industry, functional clothing, medical field,
composite reinforcement, sports, etc. To reach this objective, the use of new kinds
of fibre material such as high-performance fibres, optical fibres, biodegradable fibres
and shape memory fibres, to mention a few, is becoming indispensable. However,
increasing the efficiency of knitting these new types of fibre and manufacturing the
required complex fabric structures is still a big challenge. Developing new weft-
knitting processes and techniques to knit these kinds of fibres efficiently is an impor-
tant future trend. Knitting to shape is an important feature of weft knitting for the
production of 3D-shaped knitted fabrics. Combining this technique with others, such
as laid-in yarn techniques, to fabricate weft-knitted fabrics with both high mechani-
cal performance and integrated shaped forms is another future trend. With the use
of weft-knitted fabrics in engineering applications, the knowledge of their properties
related to structure design is very important. Modelling and the use of new testing
methods to characterize the weft-knitted fabrics produced with the new structures
and fibres, as well as the establishment of a reference database in this area, are also
important trends for the future.
Smart knitted fabrics can be made due to advances in many technologies coupled
with advances in textiles and structures. At a glance, the production of elegant, cir-
cular knitted materials such as seamless fabric is due to advances in biotechnol-
ogy, information technology, microelectronics, wearable computers, nanocoated and
micro-electromechanical devices. In many cases, the purpose of these systems is to
provide both military and civilian personnel engaged in high-risk applications with
the most effective survivability technologies. Some new applications of knitted gar-
ments in circular form are being developed, such as the introduction of conformal
antennas to the fabric body for integrating radio equipment into clothing, power and
data transmission devices in the knitted structure, photovoltaic integrated into fab-
rics, smart footwear, quality knitted coating in home applications such as carpets or
covers, energy-converting and protective tubular fabrics, which generate electricity
from the thermal energy in people’s movements. The application of phase-changing
materials for heating and cooling of the individual (used in double face knitted fab-
rics or spacer fabrics that are knitted in circular knitting machines). The specific
features of circular knitted fabrics such as flexibility and seamless structure make
the circular knitting industry the most improved quality textile sector of the future.
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6 Technology, Applications
Non-Woven Fabrics
and Recent Developments

Vinay Kumar Midha and Monica Sikka
Dr. B R Ambedkar National Institute of Technology
CONTENTS
6.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................... 110
6.2 Web Formation.............................................................................................. 110
6.2.1 Dry Laid............................................................................................ 111
6.2.2 Wet Laying......................................................................................... 112
6.2.3 Polymer Laid..................................................................................... 113
6.2.3.1 Spunbonding....................................................................... 113
6.2.3.2 Melt-Blowing Technology................................................... 115
6.2.3.3 Spunbond/Melt-blown (SM) and SMS Laminates............. 116
6.2.4 Other Techniques............................................................................... 117
6.2.4.1 Flash Spinning.................................................................... 117
6.3 Web Bonding................................................................................................. 117
6.3.1 Mechanical Bonding.......................................................................... 117
6.3.1.1 Needle Punching................................................................. 117
6.3.1.2 Hydroentanglement............................................................. 122
6.3.1.3 Stitch Bonding.................................................................... 123
6.3.2 Chemical Bonding............................................................................. 125
6.3.3 Thermal Bonding............................................................................... 125
6.3.3.1 Area Bonding...................................................................... 126
6.3.3.2 Point Bonding..................................................................... 126
6.4 Finishing Techniques..................................................................................... 127
6.4.1 Splitting............................................................................................. 127
6.4.2 Perforating......................................................................................... 127
6.4.3 Calendaring....................................................................................... 127
6.4.4 Compression...................................................................................... 127
6.5 Current and Projected Market Trends........................................................... 127
6.6 Summary....................................................................................................... 128
References............................................................................................................... 128
109
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Non-wovens are considered as a sheet of fibres, continuous filaments or chopped yarns
of any nature or origin formed into web by any means and bonded together by any
means, with the exception of weaving or knitting. ISO 9092:1988 defines non-wovens
as ‘A manufactured sheet, web or batt of directionally or randomly orientated fibres,
bonded by friction, and/or cohesion and/or adhesion, excluding paper and products
which are woven, knitted, tufted, stitch-bonded incorporating binding yarns or fila-
ments, or felted by wet-milling, whether or not additionally needled. The fibres may
be of natural or manufactured origin. They may be staple or continuous filaments
or be formed in situ’ (Purdy 1982). The definition has been accepted by European
Disposables and Nonwovens Association (EDANA). Whereas Association of the
Nonwoven Fabrics Industry states that ‘Nonwoven fabrics are broadly defined as sheet
or web structures bonded together by entangling fibres or filaments (and by perforat-
ing films) mechanically, thermally or chemically. They are flat, porous sheets that are
made directly from separate fibres or from molten plastic or plastic film. They are not
made by weaving or knitting and do not require converting the fibres to yarn’.
Non-woven fabric manufacturing offers several advantages over their woven and
knitted counterparts; first, it requires shorter production process and has higher
production speeds, which make its production much cheaper. Second, textile waste,
recycled fibres or rags and cuttings, which were regarded as unusable, can also be
used to manufacture non-woven fabrics. Third, the fibre properties or inter-fibre
spaces are better utilized in non-woven structures, especially for applications like
filtration or thermal insulation. Fourth, the properties displayed by conventional tex-
tiles are much higher than the requirements. Fifth, the non-wovens technique can be
used for a wide range of fabric properties from open waddings suitable for insulation
(containing only 2%–3% fibres by volume) to stiff reinforcing fabrics where the fibre
content may be over 80% by volume (Albrecht et al. 2003).
Non-woven fabric manufacturing process consists of four stages (Wirth 1988):
• Opening of fibres
• Web formation
• Web bonding
• Finishing
6.2 WEB FORMATION
The fabric formation process starts by the arrangement of opened fibres in a sheet
or web. The fibres can be staple fibres packed in bales or filaments extruded from
molten polymer granules. Three basic methods used in web formation are as follows:
• Dry laid
• Wet laid
• Polymer laid
Dry-laid and wet-laid processes use the staple fibres, whereas the polymer laid use
continuous filaments produced directly from the polymers.
Non-Woven Fabrics 111
6.2.1 Dry Laid
About 50% of the non-woven fabric production is based on dry-laid web formation
process. The dry laying process uses the conventional opening machines used in the
spinning process. The opened fibres are passed through revolving flat cards or roller
and clearer card for individualization of fibres and web formation. The carding web
has preferential orientation of fibres in the machine direction, and it can be used to
produce non-woven fabrics with different orientations. On the basis of the orienta-
tion of fibres, the dry-laid web formation can be of following types (Purdy 1982);
• Parallel laid
• Transverse laid
• Random laid
• Perpendicular laid or vertical lapping
Carded webs when overlapped along the longitudinal direction produce the paral-
lel laid webs by arranging carding machines one behind the other or side by side.
Parallel laid webs have higher tensile strength, low elongation and low tear strength
in the machine direction and the reverse in the transverse direction because of orien-
tation of fibres in the longitudinal direction. Transverse laying of the carded webs is
done by using cross-lapper machines. A cross-lapper consists of carriage elements,
which are driven by a servomotor to control the width and thickness. The carriages
take the fibrous web towards the one end of the belt and reverse the direction of
motion at the other end (Kuo and Chiang 2003). Transverse laid webs have higher
strength in transverse direction, but the difference in strength in machine and trans-
verse directions is lower than that observed in parallel laid webs. In transverse laid
webs, the laying of fibres takes place at an angle to the transverse direction, which
enables the continuous laying in transverse direction along with overlapping of webs.
The number of overlappings can be increased by using a smaller laying angle and
vice versa.
If isotropic webs are required, then random laying is done using air laying
technique or using a scrambling roller operating at slower surface speed in the
carding machine between the cylinder and doffer (Kroschwitz 1990; Hsing and
Kao 2003). In air laying, short fibres are laid randomly onto a moving perforated
screen with the help of an air current. Air-laid webs have lower density and better
softness properties. Moreover, in air-laid webs of over 250 g/m 2, few fibres may
get laid in the thickness direction of the web, and they offer better resilience to
compression. Air-laid webs also offer great versatility in terms of the fibres and
fibre blends used.
In perpendicular layering or vertical lapping, the fibres are oriented in the thick-
ness direction of the web using a vibrating perpendicular lapper such as Struto,
Santex Wavemaker and V-Lap technologies (Njeugna et al. 2011). A reciprocating
comb or forming disc with teeth is used to lay the carded web in a vertical direc-
tion between the conveyor belt and the wire grid. Figure 6.1 shows the schematic
view of the vertical lapping using wavemaker process and the structure of verti-
cal lapped web. The carded web made from thermoplastic or bi-component fibres
FIGURE 6.1 Vertical lapping. (a) Schematic view of wavemaker technology, (b) Vertical-
lapped web. (Source: Yang et al. 2018).
is stabilized using through-air bonding. The fabrics exhibit excellent compression

recovery, softness and very good sound absorption properties. Such fabrics are also
known as spacer fabrics and are used as foam replacement in automotive industry,
sound insulation in automobiles, depth filters, air filters, thermal insulators and bed-
ding products (Yang et al. 2018).
The vertical orientation of three-dimensional (3D) non-wovens obtained through
existing vertical lapping processes is not optimum, and the structure gets crushed
when a high shear moment is applied. The patented vertical lapping (VERTILAP)
process addresses the problems whereby a tow or web is pleated using the folding
elements after defibring of filaments. Thermal treatment is simultaneously given to
fix the pleats and the 3D structure. Major application is the replacement of foam for
automotive parts like headrest and door panels (Njeugna et al. 2011).
6.2.2 Wet Laying
The wet-laid process is a development of papermaking process, where very short
fibres (6–10 mm) are used to produce structures with fabric-like attributes at paper-
like production rates.
The fibres are dispersed into water; the rate of dilution has to be large enough
(about ten times that used in paper making) to prevent aggregation of fibres. The dis-
persion of fibres is passed through a perforated screen, where the water gets filtered
and fibres lay over the surface of screen to form the sheet or batt, which is bonded
using usual bonding techniques and dried. The longer fibres have a potential for
unintended entanglements leading to rope formation, which can then become incor-
porated into the product as blemishes. Measures to decrease the tendency of entan-
glement involve high dilution rates, use of surfactants, dispersants and thickeners.
A variety of cellulosic fibres like flax, cotton, regenerated cellulose, wood pulp and
chopped synthetic fibres such as glass, polypropylene (PP), polyamides and polyester
(PET) are used in wet-laid webs. Wet-laid market comprises a $534 million global
industry with wide applications in disposable products, for example, in hospitals as
drapes, gowns, sometimes as sheets, disposable filters and as cover stock in dispos-
able nappies. The market for wet-laid products is expected to have an annual growth
of 5.1% through 2019 (Gopal 2005; Smithers Apex 2015). Latest development in
wet-laid products is flushable wipes by Andritz Kusters using degradable cellulosic
fibres, bonded by hydroentanglement (Küsters 2016).
6.2.3 Polymer Laid
6.2.3.1 Spunbonding
Spunlaid or spunbond non-woven fabrics are composed of continuous filaments pro-
duced by an integrated fibre spinning, web formation and bonding process. As it
eliminates intermediate steps, it is the shortest textile route from polymer to fabrics
in one stage and provides opportunities for increasing production and lowering cost.
Presently, it occupies the largest share amongst various non-woven manufacturing
techniques and finds application in different fields like diapers and incontinence
products, automotives, geotextiles, civil engineering, medical and packaging.
The production process involves four simultaneous and integrated operations,
viz. filament spinning, drawing, lay down and bonding. The first three operations
are directly adopted from conventional man-made fibre spinning process. Although
any of the spinning techniques, viz. melt, dry and wet can be used, melt spinning is
most widely used because of its simplicity and economics. The main function of this
system is to solidify and draw the extruded filaments from the spinneret and deposit
them onto a conveyor belt. The last operation is web consolidation, whereby strength
is provided to the web through mechanical, chemical or thermal bonding methods,
discussed in subsequent sections (Malkan 1995; Bhat and Kotra 2008). Figure 6.2
shows the schematic view of the spunbonding process.
The key components of the spunbonding line are extruder, filter, metering pump,
spinning block, quenching, drawing, web forming, bonding and winding. The
extruder consists of a barrel, screw and a channel. Screw helps to guide the molten
melt homogeneously into the gear pump through filters. Different kinds of screws are
FIGURE 6.2 Schematic view of spunbonding process.

available, but a single screw is commonly used. Twin-screw extruders show excellent
mixing capabilities for polymer additives and offer plant flexibility.
The amount of polymer in the barrel is very small, and hence it is easy to change
the line from one polymer to another. The operation spinning speed is 4,700–5,000
m/min for PP and 3,400–3,700 m/min for PET. PP and PET are widely used in the
spunbonding process. Kobelco spunbond plant is capable of producing PP and PET
spunbonds in one line (Midha and Kothari 2004; Lim 2010; Tokunaga 1998).
The line consists of two filters, one before the metering pump and other in the
spinning block. The polymer melt is then pumped into the spinning block by the
metering pump. For bi-component filaments, two independently driven metering
pumps are used. The spinning block consists of spin block body, spin pack and spin-
neret. The spinneret is a single block of metal having thousands of drilled orifices on
it. Several spinnerets are placed side by side to produce wider webs. Design of spin-
neret influences the web quality. The orifice length depends on the pressure exerted
by the metering pump, but olefins normally require a spinneret with longer length to
diameter capillary.
The emitted filaments solidify on being subjected to cool air. Cross flow or inflow
systems are used to supply conditioned air to the filaments. Simple quench air box,
multi-zone quench air box and quench air box for air-conditioned zones are used as
quench system. The quench air is generally introduced at a temperature that may
vary from 5°C to 55°C at a rate of 17–70 m3/min/m of machine with a nozzle opening
from about 3 to 25 mm (Mark et al. 1985). Filaments are provided strength by draw-
ing. Attenuation of filaments leads to molecular orientation and improves strength.
Old spunbonding lines used gadget rollers for drawing the filaments, but the produc-
tion speeds were very low. In the new spunbonding lines, the drawing takes place
with the help of air (air speeds of 1.5–4 times the filament velocity), and it is possible
to reach filament speeds of 6,000 m/min (Wilson 1998).
Depending upon the pressure of air, the technology is divided into three catego-
ries, viz. (Wilson 1998)
• High pressure
• Low pressure
• Under pressure
Reifenhauser Reicofil spunbonding uses low-pressure air system for processing

polyphenylene ether (PPE), PET, polyethylene and polyamides (Kunze 1998). PET-
spunbond fabrics are difficult to produce with negative attenuator pressure. Nordson’s
MicroFilTM spunbond system with a positive attenuator pressure makes it possible to
produce PET-spunbond non-wovens with excellent properties (Midha and Kothari
2004; Wang and Michielsen 2002; Wang et al. 2007).
The bundle of filaments is deposited onto a moving belt randomly or in a required
direction to form the web. A suction box is located just below the forming belt.
The individual filaments are separated mechanically, aerodynamically or electri-
cally, before reaching the collecting belt to achieve maximum uniformity and cover.
In electrical method of filament separation, an electrostatic charge of the order of
30,000 esu/m2 is given to the filaments, which releases on contacting the grounded
conductive belt (Goswami 1997). The filament separation in the spunbond fabric
can be determined by calculating the bunching coefficient. It also helps to define the
pore size distribution in the structure, which is important for applications like surgi-
cal gowns. Several bonding methods like thermal, chemical/adhesive, needling and
hydroentanglement, available for staple fibre fabrics, have been successfully adapted
for continuous filaments.
Further developments in spunbonding process have made it possible to produce
microfibres on spun-laid machines, giving the advantages of better filament distri-
bution, smaller pores between the fibres for better filtration, softer feel and also the
possibility of making lightweight fabrics. For this reason, spunlaid production is
increasing more rapidly than any other non-woven process. Perfobond 3000 from
Rieter is designed to lay down the filaments at 45° from the machine direction and to
monitor and control all critical process parameters every half metre crosswise mak-
ing the fabric more uniform and even (Salvado et al. 2006). Reicofil bico technology
offers bulky spunbond non-woven production using two filaments of different raw
material using side-by-side bi-component fibres (www.reicofil.com, 2018).
Ason/Neumag spunbonding technology incorporated the features of melt-blowing
process (i.e. very high filament velocity, very high temperature of the filaments),
adjustable collector to slot attenuator distance in the spunbonding line and produce
low-base weight fabrics with higher uniformity, which is comparable to melt-blown
fabrics (Midha and Kothari 2004; Fu 1997). Moreover, it has reduced the building
height required for the plant to 6 m when compared with 10–25 m for low-pressure to
high-pressure spunbond lines.
The structure of woven and knitted fabrics permits the fibres to move readily
within the fabric when in-plane shear forces are applied, resulting in better con-
formability, whereas calendar bonding (normally used) of a spun web causes fibres
to fuse, imparting integrity to the sheet. The resulting structure has a stiffer handle
or drape due to immobilization of the fibres in the area of fusion. The effect can be
moderated by limiting the bonds to very small areas (points) or by entangling the
fibres mechanically (needle punching or hydroentanglement). Saturation bonding
of spun webs with chemical binders like acrylic emulsions can bond the structure
throughout to give stiff sheets.
Random fibre structure, breathability, resistance to fluid penetration, lint-free
structure, sterilizability and impermeability to bacteria make the fabrics suitable for
use in medical fields like disposable operating room gowns, shoe covers and steriliz-
able packaging (Midha et al. 2004).
6.2.3.2 Melt-Blowing Technology
In melt-blowing process, finest fibres of 1–5 µm are produced from the polymer melt.
The polymer pellets or granules are fed into an extruder hopper. As the polymer
moves along the barrel, it melts due to the heat and friction of viscous flow and the
mechanical action between the screw and barrel. The melt is then filtered and enters
the metering pump, goes to the feed distribution system to provide uniform flow to
the die nosepiece in the die assembly (Figure 6.3).
High-velocity air (6,000–30,000 m/min) blows the molten polymer from the
extruder die tip onto the conveyor or take-up screen. Cooling of the filaments is
FIGURE 6.3 Melt-blowing technique.
done with the help of the secondary air, and the die-to-collector distance can be
varied to change the properties of the fabric. The melt-blown fabric has random
fibre orientation, low-to-moderate web strength and high opacity, and the fabric
weight/unit area can be from 8 to 350 g/m 2, but typically 20–200 g/m 2. Filtration
remains the biggest market for PP melt-blown non-woven fabrics with a current
market size of $4 billion, and compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 7.5%
projected over 2015–2020 (Mukhopadhyay and Midha 2008).
6.2.3.3 Spunbond/Melt-blown (SM) and SMS Laminates

The current preference in hygienic sector is for spunbond/melt-blown/spunbond
(SMS) products, and Reifenhauser is the leader in this technology. Reifenhauser’s
Reicofil spunbonding and melt-blowing lines can either be installed as separate
production lines or combined for the production of SMS products. The spunbond
is providing physical strength, while the melt-blown layer acts as a liquid barrier.
Modern Reicofil system is capable of producing spunbonds in a 12–17 g/m2 range
at speeds of up to 450 m/min. Another development from the manufacturer employs
two-filament extrusion beams and two melt-blowing sections, making it possible to
produce various complex constructions such as spunbond/melt-blown/melt-blown/
spunbond (SMMS) for a variety of consumer and industrial applications.
Splitting of bi-component melt-blown webs using hydroentanglement have also
been investigated, but strong interfacial adhesion exists between the two components
of melt-blown structures, and the fibres are too week to stand the hydraulic force of
hydroentangling to achieve significant fibre splitting (Wadsworth et al. 1992; Fischer
1990; Schmidt 2001; Sun et al. 2004).
Coform non-woven webs, which are composites of a matrix of melt-blown fibres
and an absorbent material (e.g., pulp fibres), have been used as an absorbent layer
in a wide variety of applications, including absorbent articles, absorbent dry wipes,
wet wipes and mops. Netherlands-based Akzo group is producing Colback (Colback
type A and N in 80, 100 and 120 g/m2 for primary backing and Colback type NHD
30 and NHD 50 for secondary backing), a thermally bonded spun-laid non-woven
produced from bi-component filaments with PET as core and polyamide as skin.
Spunbonding has also been combined with hydroentanglement to combine the
strength of filaments and drape of spun-laced fabrics, and it is possible to produce
fabrics of weights below 10 g/m2 to more than 600 g/m2. Freudenberg Vliesstoffe
has produced hydroentangled spunbonds named as Evolon made from 0.05 to 0.15
dtex filaments, which is a high-tenacity isotropic fabric with high density and low air
permeability (Fischer 1990; Schmidt 2001; Watzl 2001; Schuster 2001).
Ahlstrom has produced VaporCoolTM, a smart soft SMS fabric treated with
AdaptiveTM, a hydrofunctional polymer that captures and distributes moisture for sur-
gical scrub suits (www.ahlstrom-munksjo.com, 2018). Ahlstrom Reliance® Tandem
range utilizes SMS technology in combination with wet-laid and crepe technologies
to produce a surgical barrier system for light-to-heavy medical instrument trays (ahl-
strom.episerverhosting.com, 2018).
6.2.4 Other Techniques
It consists of a group of specialized technologies where fibre production, web forma-
tion and bonding usually occur simultaneously.
6.2.4.1 Flash Spinning
A complex method of manufacturing spunbond fabrics known as ‘Flash Spinning’
involves spinning of heated pressurized solutions under precise conditions. Flash-
spun webs are made by dissolving a polymer in a suitable solvent and then spraying it
into a vessel held at reduced pressure. The solvent evaporates, or flashes off, leaving
a cloud of fibres, which are collected and bonded. DupontTM uses this method to pro-
duce Tyvek Type 10 as area-bonded and Type 14 and 16 as point-bonded fabrics with
unique structure and properties. A 10%–15% solution of high-density polyethylene
in trichlorofluoromethane or methylene chloride is heated to 200°C and extruded
through the spinneret at a pressure of 4.5 MPa to get 3D film fibril network referred
as plexifilaments. Multiple plexifilaments are thermally bonded to produce a sheet-
like fabric, which has high tenacity and soft handle (Mark et al. 1985).
6.3 WEB BONDING
The webs produced by various methods have little strength in their unbonded form
and therefore need consolidation, which is achieved by a process known as bonding.
Basically, there are three types of bonding techniques, viz. mechanical, chemical
and thermal, respectively.
6.3.1 Mechanical Bonding
The oldest technique for consolidating a web is mechanical bonding, in which the
strengthening of web is achieved by interfibre friction as a result of physical entan-
glement of the fibres.
6.3.1.1 Needle Punching
Needle-punched non-wovens are produced by mechanically orienting and interlock-
ing the fibres of a web. This mechanical interlocking is achieved with thousands of
barbed felting needles repeatedly passing into and out of the web. The basic elements
of a needle-punch machine are a web feeding mechanism, a needle beam with a
FIGURE 6.4 Schematic representation of needle-punching machine.
needle board and needles (ranging in number from 500/m to 7,500/m of machine
width), a stripper plate, a bed plate and a fabric take-up mechanism as shown in
Figure 6.4. The fibre web (sometimes carried or reinforced by a scrim or other fab-
ric) is guided between the metal bed and stripper plates, which have openings cor-
responding to the arrangement of needles in the needle board. The needle board
descends, driving the needles through the fibrous web. The needle barbs on their
downward passage engage the fibres and push them through different layers of the
fibrous web, thereby interlocking individual groups of fibres. As the needle board
recedes upwards, the punched fibrous groups slide clear of the needle barbs leaving
the fibres in their newer configurations (Purdy 1982).
The properties of needled fabrics depend on the nature of component fibres and
the manner in which fibres are arranged in the structure. Fibre properties, such as
dimension, mechanical and surface, have both direct and indirect effects on fabric
properties. Fibre properties along with the various machine and web parameters
contribute to the structure that emerges from the needling operation.
The most important parameters that affect the properties of the needled fab-
ric are depth of needle penetration, punch density and type of needle (Midha and
Mukhopadhyay 2005; Midha 2011a; Midha 2011b; Midha et al. 2004).
Depth of needle penetration: Depth of needle penetration is defined as

a.
the distance by which the needle point passes below the top surface of
the loom bedplate. The effect of depth of needle penetration on the fabric
structure depends on the number of barbs that pass into the web and the
distance travelled by barbs through the web. The needle penetration not
only determines the amount of fibres being taken up by the needle barbs
but also the extent of movement of fibres. With higher needle penetration,
the fabric becomes more stretched, and needling is also more likely to
cause fibre breakage.
Punch density: The needling density represents the number of needle pen-
b.
etrations/unit area and it affects the compactness of fibres in the web struc-
ture. It is calculated using Equation 6.1:
St × N
Pd = (6.1)
Ad
where Pd is the punch density (punches/cm2); St is the number of strokes/

min; N is the number of needles/cm working width of the loom; and Ad is
the amount of advance/min (cm).
It is known that, in a needle-punching machine, the needles follow
repeatedly the same points of pre-needled batt/fabric by the movement of
needle board. This creates a patterning appearance called tracking on the
fabric. When a fabric achieves same punch density by higher number of
passes (by decreasing the strokes/min), the chances of tracking formation
minimize, because the chances of superimposition of the points selected by
the rows of needles are less. Thus, the needle density will be well distrib-
uted with higher number of passes. However, the higher passes also lead to
heavy breakage of fibres, since the fibres of the compact fabric experience
severe needling force.
Needle Type: There is large variety of needles different in sizes and
c.
shapes (Lunenschloss 1974b; Russel 2006). Figure 6.5 shows the different
types of needles used in the needle-punching technique. Most commonly
used needle is a triangular felting needle with nine barbs on a three-sided
working area. General needle shape and dimensions have become fairly
standard, but barb design is the area in which most developments are tak-
ing place. Fork needle is used for structuring and patterning pre-needled
fabrics. They have a forked opening at the end of the needle, which can
transport large number of fibres during needle penetration. Crown nee-
dles have only three barbs or opening, one on each apex of the needle.
These barbs are used to carry a large number of fibres to the other side
of the fabric for the purpose of structuring the surface of the fabric on a
random velour needle loom.
FIGURE 6.5 Types of needles. (a) Felting needle, (b) Crown needle and (c) Fork needle.
On the basis of the type of needles used, there are three basic types of needle looms.
They are
1. The felting loom

2. The structuring loom
3. The random velour loom
The felting looms are the type just described earlier. These needle looms may have
one to four needle boards and needles from the top, bottom or top and bottom. The
primary function of this type of loom is to do interlocking of fibres resulting in a flat
fabric. The types of products made with this process and needle loom are diverse and
multifaceted. They exist in a variety of industrial products, geotextiles, automotives,
interlinings, home furnishings, etc.
Instead of carrying fibres into a bed plate hole, the fork needles carry fibre tufts
into lamella bars that extend from the entry to the exit of a structuring needle loom.
These fork needles carry large tufts of fibres into parallel lamella bars. Depending
on the orientation of the fork needle, a rib or velour surface is produced. The most
popular products made with structuring looms include home and commercial car-
pets and floor mats, automotive rib and velour products, wall covering and marine
products. The random velour looms are used to produce velour surfaces. Unlike
the structuring looms, the velour products produced by this loom are completely
isotropic. It is almost impossible to distinguish the cross direction from the machine
direction.
Oblique needle punching is a technique, where needles penetrate the web at
75°–45°. Oblique needling gives higher strength to the fibrous web, because the
needle penetrates through a longer path and therefore interlocks the fibres thor-
oughly, when compared with vertical punching. Fabrics produced by double-sided
oblique needling have greater tenacity, lower breaking extension and higher density
with lower air permeability than fabrics produced by single-sided perpendicular
punching (Russel 2006). Longitudinal extensibility and air permeability decrease,
and fabric density increases with an increased needle inclination. Various methods
of oblique needles were invented by Baumann and Smith and were realized into
commercial machine type OR, Rontex, Di-Loft and SKR by DILO. Smith mounted
the needles at an angle to the needle board, whereas Baumann used inclined needle
board. DILO machines used cylindrical surface for moving the fibrous bed, and
therefore the penetration of needles occurred obliquely. Fehrer AG, Austria devel-
oped H1 technology based on these methods of oblique needling and designed the
curved bed plate for feeding the web and obtaining the diagonal penetration of
needles (Figure 6.6).
The fibrous web passes through curved bed plates, and the angle of penetration
of the needles increases towards the delivery side, which results in low draft dur-
ing needle punching and therefore low fibre orientation from the cross direction
to machine direction. Moreover, the needles penetrate the fibrous web at different
angles and form crisscross stitching channels, which contribute to a structure that
offers higher compression and strength.
FIGURE 6.6 H1 technology by Fehrer.
In contrast to the single axle movement of the needle board, DILO has devel-
oped an elliptical needle movement in its hyperpunch technology (Figure 6.7). In
this technology, the needle board has a simultaneous vertical and horizontal stroke
movement. The bed plate and stripper plates have slotted holes to allow elliptical
needle movement. The prevalent drafts and shrinkage associated with needling
action is claimed to be avoided, because the needles provide an additional transport
to the fibrous web during their elliptical movement. A similar development has taken
place from TEXNOLOGY elliptical needle loom ELLITICA (Anon 2014).
NAPCO is a needle-punched technology developed by textile machine manufac-
turer LAROCHE, which links two pre-needled non-wovens with a fibrous bridge in
between the two (Figure 6.8a). Figure 6.8b shows the structure produced from the
technology.
FIGURE 6.7 Hyperpunch technology by DILO.

FIGURE 6.8 Spacer non-woven technology. (a) NAPCO web linker, (b) 3D non-woven
fabric.
6.3.1.2 Hydroentanglement
Hydroentanglement uses high-speed water jets to strike a web to bond the fibres
(Russel 2006). As a result, non-woven fabrics made by this method have specific
properties, as soft handle and drapeability. So far, there are many different specific
terms for the technology like spunlacing, jet entangled, water entangled, hydroen-
tangled or hydraulically needled. The term, spunlace, is used more popularly in the
non-woven industry. In fact, the spunlace process can be defined as the process that
employs multiple rows of fine high-pressure jets of water to entangle the pre-wetted
and compacted fibrous web moving on a perforated or patterned screen. The tensile
strength, tear resistance, softness and bending behaviour of spunlaced fabrics are
comparable to those of wovens and knits. However, they exhibit lower initial modulus,
poor tensile recovery and wash durability.
The water pressure (approximately 2,200 psi) generally increases from the first to
the last injectors. Injector hole diameters range from 100 to 120 µm, and the holes are
arranged in rows with 3–5 mm spacing, with one row containing 30–80 holes/25 mm.
The impinging of the water jets on the web causes entanglement of fibres. The jets
exhaust most of the kinetic energy primarily in rearranging fibres within the web
and, secondly, in rebounding against the substrates, dissipating energy to the fibres.
Since hydroentangling is an energy transfer process, the effective transfer of energy
from the water jets to the web can reduce cost of manufacturing. For every 100 bar
increase in water pressure, the cost of energy doubles (Pourmohammadi et al. 2003).
A vacuum within the roll removes used water from the product, preventing flooding
of the product and reduction in the effectiveness of the jets to move the fibres and
cause entanglement.
The hydroentangled product is then passed through a dewatering device where
excess water is removed and the fabric is dried. Hydroentanglement carried out at
standard conditions (six manifolds of needles, 1,500 psi and web weighing 68 g/m2)
requires 800 pounds of water/pound of product. Hydroentangled fabrics can be
produced in two variants:
Non-apertured fabrics – where hydroentanglement is only a mechanical bonding
process to impart strength to the web or combine two or more webs.
Apertured fabrics – a textured fabric surface with a distinct mark from the forming
wire is desired.
IHSAN Sons of Pakistan have introduced a 100% cotton spunlace fabric under
the brand ‘BELCOT’ for various applications. For use in coverstocks/top sheets of
panty liner and tampons, the company has introduced a natural and hypoallergenic
‘FEMCOT’, a 100% cotton hydrophobic spunlace fabric (Ihsansons.com/product,
2018).
6.3.1.3 Stitch Bonding
Stitch-bonded fabric has been defined as the fabric in which fibres, yarns or fibres
and a ground fabric are held together by subsequent stitching or knitting-in addi-
tional yarns (Cotterill 1975; Smith 2000). The stitch bonding equipment allows to
produce textile fabrics either to the stitch bonding or to the web-knitting processes.
The loop formation may take place with the help of thread or the fibres present
within the webs. In the following sections, various variants of the process have been
discussed for simplicity (Smith 2000).
6.3.1.3.1 Batt Bonded by Threads

Stitch bonding process where fibre webs (cross-laid or air-laid) or spunbond webs are
bonded using threads is known as Maliwatt process (Lunenschloss, 1974a). The batt
passes over a supporting rail and is penetrated by a compound needle with closing
wire. As the compound needle penetrates to the other side of the batt, a guide bar
lays the thread in the hook of the needle. As the needle starts moving back, the old
loops knock over the needles and new loops are formed. In this way, a warp knitting
stitch is incorporated over the batt. The degree of bonding depends on the number
of loops of thread/unit area. Pillar stitch and tricot stitch are commonly used in
this process. However, cord stitch, velvet stitch, atlas and inlay are also used. The
nature of this fabric is very textile-like, soft and flexible. PET filament is mainly
used as the stitching yarn, but other polymers are also used. The main applications
of Maliwatt fabrics are soft furnishing, upholstery fabrics for mattresses and camp-
ing chairs, blankets, transportation cloth, cleaning cloth, secondary carpet backing,
lining fabrics, interlining for shoes and apparel.
Malimo process uses the insertion of warp and weft yarns along with webs,
backing fabrics, films, paper or any other sheet materials (Hausding et al. 2006). The
yarns may be inserted in cross direction, parallel or multiaxial direction besides the
use of glass filaments. The stitch formation takes place with the help of compound
needle and the warp yarns as discussed earlier. The Malimo fabrics are used in surf-
boards, skis, pipes, poles, containers, press moulding, components for aviation and
textile-reinforced concrete.
6.3.1.3.2 Stitch Bonding without Threads

In this case, the machine is basically the same as in the previous section, but the
guide bars are not used. The compound needle penetrates through the batt of fibres
and the hook takes up fibres from the web. These fibres are formed into a loop on the
first cycle, and on subsequent cycles, the newly formed loops are pulled through the
previous loops, just as in normal knitting. In this process, longer fibres are preferred
as they contribute better during loop formation. The final structure is felt-like on one
side and knitted fabric on the other. The fabric has applications in internal lining of
cars (head liners, rear and side lining), textile wall coverings and furnishing felts,
packaging, insulating, absorbing and polishing cloths, filter fabrics, geotextiles, etc.
6.3.1.3.3 Stitch Bonding to Produce a Pile Fabric

Stitch bonding uses two processes to form pile fabrics using fibre loops, viz. with
base material (Voltex) and without base material (Kunit) (Lunenschloss, 1974). In
the Voltex process, fibre web is tied up in a base material (Njeugna et al. 2011). A
brush is used to press the fibres into the hook of compound needle, which draws
through the base material and forms loops on the surface facing the knocking over
sinkers. Pile folds are adjusted using the height of pile sinkers. In Kunit process,
the compound needle is not pointed, because it does not need to penetrate the base
material, but it folds the fibre web fed in so that the brush can press it into the hook
of the compound needle. It also does not require pile sinkers; pile height is adjusted
using the height of oscillation of the brush. A variety of products like upholstery,
laminated composites for automotive and furniture producing industries, insulation
and filtration materials can be produced using Kunit process. Applications of Voltex
process include blankets, shoe lining, soft toy material and lining for winter gar-
ments. Another method of producing a pile fabric using a pile yarn and the ground
fabric is Malipol process.
6.3.1.3.4 Stitch Bonding with Double-Sided Meshing

In this process known as Multiknit, pile fibres of non-woven or other textile mate-
rials with pile loops (such as Kunit/Voltex non-wovens or high-pile knitwear) are
meshed. In this process, compound needles penetrate the pile clusters, take the fibres
and make them into a layer of loops. The layers of loops are connected by one and
the same fibres. The process allows meshing of one non-woven fabric on its face and
back or two non-woven fabrics meshed to produce a non-woven composite.
6.3.1.3.5 Loop Stitch Bonding to Bond Two Fabric by Meshing

Kunit layer bonding process is used to bond two fabrics with pile layers. The
compound needles take the pile fibres of the fabrics to make a third layer of loops
in the middle of the fabric. The main advantage being that both fabrics do not lose
their initial volumes after formation of the composite structure and therefore show
excellent insulation and compressive resilience properties.
6.3.2 Chemical Bonding
Chemical bonding mainly refers to the application of a bonding agent to the web.
Three groups of materials are commonly used as binders: acrylate polymers and
copolymers, styrene–butadiene copolymers and vinyl-acetate ethylene copolymers
(Lunenschloss 1974). Water-based binder systems are the most widely used, but pow-
dered adhesives, foam and, in some cases, organic solvent solutions are also used.
There are many ways of applying the binder on the fibrous web like impregnating,
coating or spraying or intermittent application as in print bonding. After the applica-
tion of bonding agent, the fibrous web is subjected to drying and curing. Perforated
drum dryer with the ‘Fleissner System’ throughflow principle is widely accepted in
practice for drying and bonding of impregnated non-wovens (Wirth 1988).
6.3.3 Thermal Bonding
Thermal bonding uses heat energy to melt or soften the binder material in the web,
which bonds the neighbouring fibres after cooling (Purdy 1982). The binder material
should have efficient melt flow, good adhesion to the carrier fibres, lower melting
point and appropriate stiffness/elasticity, which may be in the form of thermoplastic
fibres/bi-component fibres or thermoplastic powder. The whole web may be made
of thermoplastic fibres or a small amount of thermoplastic fibres or powder may be
blended/sprinkled with non-thermoplastic fibres or higher melting point fibres.
The major disadvantage encountered when using 100% single-component fibres
is the narrow temperature range available for thermal bonding. Too low tempera-
tures lead to inadequate bond strength and too high temperatures lead to melting of
all the fibres in the web and making it a plastic sheet, which loses its identity as a
textile material.
When bi-component fibres are used, the acceptable temperature range for bond-
ing is 25°C. Polymer with high melting point maintains the integrity of the web,
whereas the low melting point portion melts and provides bonding. PP fibre with
a low melting point of 165°C is most suitable for thermal bonding. Polyethylene
powder is a most commonly used binder powder, used when a lightweight and open
structure is required with a soft hand or when a reinforced, moulded product is
necessary.
Various methods used in thermal bonding are hot calendaring, belt calendaring,
oven bonding, ultrasonic or radiant heat bonding (Purdy 1982). The most commonly
used method is hot calendaring. In hot calendaring, the fibrous web having binder
material is passed through heated and pressurized calendar rollers, whereby the
thermoplastic fibres melt and form bonds with the neighbouring fibres.
The degree of fusion, viz. point or area bonding, determines many of the fabric
properties like handle or softness.
6.3.3.1 Area Bonding
For area thermal bonding, the spun web is subjected to the source of heat, usually
steam or hot air causing fusion of filaments at crossover points (Purdy 1982). The use
of steam is limited to PP and polyethylene fusion, since the pressures needed to reach
the temperatures more than 200°C required for bonding PETs are impractical. Area
thermal bonding is based mainly on temperature and is applied to web-containing
binder fibres. Complete fusion gives a paper-like structure with little resistance to
tearing. The spun web may contain small amounts of lower-melting fibre, or the fila-
ments may contain undrawn segments that melt at lower temperatures than the fibres
in the web. Hetero filament structures utilize a low melt sheath to effect fusion. Both
polyethylene and nylon-6 have been used as the low melting temperature sheaths
in commercial spunbond products. Thermal bonding is far more common and eco-
nomical than chemical bonding, besides chemical bonding requiring thermal curing
of the adhesives. Embossing, resin treatment, flame retardancy, dyeing, printing and
antistatic finishes can be given to the bonded fabric depending upon the application.
6.3.3.2 Point Bonding
Thermal point bonding commonly used for light- to medium-weight webs results
in the fusion of fibres at points, with fibres in between the point bonds remaining
relatively free, leading to softer fabrics than area bonded. Point bonding is achieved
in three steps, by subjecting the spun web into the nip of paired heated rolls, one of
which has a raised pattern on its surface (Fedorova et al. 2007):
1. Heating the web to partially melt the crystalline regions

2. Diffusion of the newly released chain segments across the fibre-to-fibre
interface
3. Subsequent cooling of the web to cause its re-solidification and to trap the
diffused chain segments
Bonding temperatures for PP fibres usually do not exceed 170°C, but pressures on
the raised points are between 138 and 310 MPa. Typically, only 10%–25% of the
surface available for bonding is converted to fused, compacted areas of bonding. The
products formed range from thin, closed, inelastic, strong and stiff to open, bulky,
weak, flexible and elastic depending on the number density, the size and the pattern
of bond points.
Thermal bonding process offers several advantages over other bonding methods
especially chemical bonding, which are listed as follows:
1. Thermal bonding produces softer and bulky fabrics when compared with
other methods
2. Since no water evaporation is required; it offers high economic efficiency
when compared with chemical bonding
3. The capital investment required for the machinery is low.
6.4 FINISHING TECHNIQUES
Finishing of non-woven fabrics is done to improve the technical functionality and
appearance of fabrics. The finishing techniques are divided into wet finishing
and mechanical finishing techniques (Russel 2006). The wet finishing techniques
include washing, dyeing, printing, chemical impregnation, coating and lamination
with various antibacterial/waterproof flameproof finishes/UV stabilizers, softeners,
stiffeners, etc. Mechanical finishing techniques include singeing, shearing, raising,
polishing, softening, heat setting etc. Some of the mechanical finishing techniques
specifically used for non-wovens are discussed as follows.
6.4.1 Splitting
In order to produce high-density fabrics with low thickness, e.g. heavily bonded
needle-punched fabrics for synthetic leather, heavier fabric is first produced and then
split into two fabrics using a hoop knife.
6.4.2 Perforating
Perforation of non-woven fabrics using heated needles or modified calendar rollers is
useful for increasing the softness and drape in interlinings or increasing the vertical
liquid transfer in hygiene cover stocks.
6.4.3 Calendaring
Calendaring is the process of passing the fabrics through heated calendar rollers
under pressure. The fabric is compressed and the thickness reduced, which ultimately
smoothens the fabric surface and increases compactness of the fabric.
6.4.4 Compression
The Micrex and Clupak processes are commonly used by non-woven industry,
wherein a pre-wetted non-woven fabric is passed around a heated cylinder with the
help of a belt or blanket. The process provides a 3D crepe texture enhancing softness,
drape, bulk and extensibility.
6.5 CURRENT AND PROJECTED MARKET TRENDS

Non-woven market, which accounts for 52.6% of the total technical textile market
was $32.7 billion industry in 2015 and is expected to reach $47.7 billion by 2020.
According to EDANA statistics disclosed during INDEX 17, overall production
of non-wovens in Europe grew by 2.5% by volume in 2016. Germany, Italy and
Spain all witnessed growth, with Spain exhibiting an impressive growth at 5%.
The production of dry-laid and air-laid non-wovens recorded an increase of 2.2%
and 2.9%, respectively, while wet-laid technologies remained stable, and spunmelt
non-woven showed a growth rate of 3.3%. Through air-bonded materials showed an
increase of 13.1%. Major markets include hygiene (30.7% share), agriculture, con-
struction, food and beverages, garments and air filtration. Air filtration, construction
and food and beverage markets increased by 3.2%, 4.5% and 4.2%, respectively,
whereas medical and personal care wipes markets remained stable with a slight fall
of 0.4% (Davies 2018; Anon 2017).
A recent high potential trend that could revolutionize the whole industry is the
growing preference for using bio-based PP (partly derived from plants) to p roduce
non-woven textiles. In 2016, global bio-based PP market was valued at $32.3 million
and is projected to grow to $50.7 million by 2025. Besides this, alternative bio-plastics
using bio-based polylactic acid and bio-based polyethylene terephthalate are also
finding increasing use in textiles (Davies 2018).
6.6 SUMMARY
Non-woven fabrics are textile structures that are produced by bonding or interlocking
fibres or both accomplished by mechanical, chemical or solvent means or by a combi-
nation thereof. The properties of non-woven materials differ widely from one another,
because of the wide variety of available raw materials and many possible methods of
locking or bonding the fibrous webs. Most of the non-woven fabrics are used in techni-
cal applications like hygiene and healthcare, in roofing and civil engineering, house-
hold and automotive, in cleaning, filtration, clothing, food wrap and packaging, to name
a few; and has limited use in the apparel sector. The finished non-woven fabrics are
designed for specific end uses, and therefore, the selection of fibre type, binder system,
technique and equipment used in their manufacture determines their characteristics.
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7 Braiding and Recent
Developments
Kadir Bilisik
Erciyes University
CONTENTS
7.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................... 131
7.2 Braiding Patterns........................................................................................... 132
7.2.1 Jamming and Effect of Patterns in Braided Fabrics.......................... 134
7.2.1.1 Unit Cell Architecture........................................................ 134
7.2.1.2 Unit Cell Dimensions.......................................................... 134
7.2.1.3 Unit Cell Angle................................................................... 135
7.2.1.4 Unit Cell Yarn Orbit........................................................... 135
7.3 Fibres and Additives for Braiding.................................................................. 135
7.3.1 Fibres................................................................................................. 135
7.3.2 Matrices and Additives...................................................................... 136
7.4 Braiding Techniques and Structures.............................................................. 137
7.4.1 2D Braided Fabric.............................................................................. 137
7.4.2 3D Braided Fabric.............................................................................. 138
7.4.3 Multiaxis 3D Braided Fabric............................................................. 141
7.4.4 Comparison of Braided Fabrics and Methods................................... 143
7.5 Applications................................................................................................... 145
7.5.1 Deep Water Moorings........................................................................ 145
7.5.2 Climbing Ropes................................................................................. 145
7.5.3 Composite Structural Components.................................................... 146
7.5.4 Ballistic Applications........................................................................ 147
7.5.5 Sailing and Yachting.......................................................................... 147
7.5.6 Medical Applications......................................................................... 147
7.5.7 Sports Applications............................................................................ 148
7.7 Recent Developments.................................................................................... 148
7.8 Summary....................................................................................................... 149
References............................................................................................................... 149
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Fibrous structural two-dimensional (2D) braided fabric and three-dimensional (3D)
braided preforms are generally used in different industrial areas as a form of dry and
rigid composite structural materials. Some of them are soft technical textile fabrics
131
used in civil engineering as barrier net; in composite and ballistic engineering as

rigid composite plates; in transportation industries as plate, stiffened panels, beams,
spars and shell; in medical devices and artificial organs as tendon, hip joint, scaffold
and artificial muscle and in industrial robots as artificial leg and arm. Braided pre-
forms possess high specific properties such as strength and stiffness when compared
with basic materials like metal and ceramics (Kamiya et al. 2000; Ko and Chou
1989; Beyer et al. 2006; Yamamoto and Hirokawa 1990; Donnet and Bansal 1990).
Research study on 3D braided composites exhibited that there was no delamination
between interlayer and intralaminar regions as these composites were considered as
damage-tolerant materials (Ko and Chou 1989; Bilisik 2013).
In the braiding process, 2D braided fabric was formed by traditional maypole
technique in which its principle was based on the gear-horn assembly to intertwine
the braider bobbin sequential manner. On the other hand, 3D braiding is a pre-
form technique used in the multidirectional near-net shape manufacturing of high
damage-tolerant structural composites (Ko 1987). The traditional maypole or more
innovative Cartesian technique including 3D rotary braiding and multistep braiding
was utilized to make 3D braided preform. 3D braiding is highly automated and is one
of the readily available manufacturing process (Bilisik 2016; Popper and McConnell
1987; Kostar and Chou 1994a; Bilisik 2013). The fabrication of small sectional 3D
braided preforms is cost-effective and it is not a labour-intensive process (Dow and
Dexter 1997). However, the fabrication of large sections of 3D braided preforms may
not be feasible due to position displacement of yarn carriers. Multistep braiding is
a new concept and, with this technique, it is possible to make multidirectional 3D
braided preforms by orienting the yarn in various directions in the preform volume
(Kostar and Chou 1994a; Bilisik 2013).
2D fabrics and 3D braided preforms are categorized based on various param-
eters such as yarn type and formation; the number of yarn sets, yarn orientation and
interlacements; micro–meso unit cells and macro geometry (Ko and Chou 1989; Lee
1990; Kamiya et al. 2000; Bilisik 2013). Recently, Bilisik et al. proposed the 2D/3D
braided preforms as illustrated in Table 7.1, where 2D/3D braiding was divided into
three subclasses such as 2D/3D braid, 3D axial braid and multiaxis 3D braid. They
were further subdivided based on reinforcement directions ranging from 1 to 7 with
Cartesian or polar forms. This classification scheme may be useful for further stud-
ies on the development of multiaxis 3D braided fabric and 3D braiding techniques
(Bilisik et al. 2015). This chapter reviews the recent advances on 2D and 3D braided
structures, including their production methods and properties.
7.2 BRAIDING PATTERNS
In 2D braiding, basic patterns for both flat and circular braid fabrics were one over
and one under intertwining (1/1 diamond), 2 over and 2 under intertwining (2/2
regular), and 3 over and 3 under intertwining (3/3 Hercules). The intertwining yarn
crossing requires two distinct motions. First motion is intertwining each braid yarn
carrier and second motion is the take up. 3D braided preform structure was basically
formed by four distinctive steps excluding the take up. In the 3D fully braided and
axial braided structures, both flat and circular shapes are patterned during formation
TABLE 7.1
2D/3D Braiding Classes Based on Interlacement Types and Yarn Orientation
Three-Dimensional Braiding
Number
2D/3D Braided Fabric 3D Axial Braided Fabric Multiaxis 3D Braided Fabric
of Yarn
Sets Cartesian Polar Cartesian Polar Cartesian Polar
1 or 2 Square/rectangular Tubular Square/rectangular Tubular Square/ Tubular
• 2D braid (1/1 • 2D braid (1/1 • 3D braid through- • 3D braid through-the rectangular • Through-the-
diamond, 2/2 diamond, 2/2 the-thickness (1 × 1, thickness (1 × 1, 2 × 1, • Through-the- thickness
regular, 3/3 regular, 3/3 2 × 1, 3 × 1, 4 × 1 3 × 1, 4 × 1 patterns) thickness (out-of-plane
Braiding and Recent Developments
Hercules) Hercules) patterns) (out-of-plane at an angle)

• 3D braid • 3D braid at an angle)
through-the- through-the-
thickness (1 × 1, 2 × thickness (1 × 1, 2 ×
1, 3 × 1, 4 × 1 1, 3 × 1, 4 × 1
patterns) patterns)
3–7 Square/rectangular Tubular Triaxial fabric Triaxial fabric Square/ Tubular
• 3D braid • 3D braid • Braid yarn in • Braid yarn in surface Rectangular • Through-the-
through-the- through-the- surface (in-plane) (in-plane) • Through-the- thickness
thickness thickness Square/rectangular Tubular thickness (out-of-plane
(out-of-plane at an (out-of-plane at an • Through-the- • Through-the-thickness (out-of-plane at an angle)
angle, 1 × 1, 2 × 1, angle, 1 × 1, 2 × 1, thickness (out-of- (out-of-plane at an at an angle)
3 × 1, 4 × 1 3 × 1, 4 × 1 plane at an angle, angle, 1 × 1, 2 × 1, 3 ×
patterns) patterns) 1 × 1, 2 × 1, 3 × 1, 4 × 1 patterns)
1, 4 × 1 patterns)
Source: Bilisik (2013).

133
as 1 × 1, 2 × 1, 3 × 1 and 4 × 1. First number represents row/circumferential direc-

tional movement for forming 3D braided flat/circular shapes, respectively. The sec-
ond number represents column/radial directional movement for forming 3D braided
flat/circular shapes, respectively (Bilisik 2016).
In the 1 × 1 braid pattern in 3D braided flat preforms, the braider carrier moves
just one braider carrier distance in the row and column. However, in the 2 × 1 braid
pattern, the braider carrier moves two and one braider carrier distance in the row and
column, respectively (Bilisik 2016; Bilisik and Sahbaz 2012). In the 1 × 1 braid pat-
tern in 3D braided circular preform, the braider carrier rotates just one braider carrier
distance in the circumferential direction and moves radial row direction. However,
in the 2 × 1 braid pattern, the braider carrier rotates two and moves one braider car-
rier distance in the circumferential/radial row directions, respectively (Bilisik and
Sahbaz 2012; Bilisik 2011).
7.2.1 Jamming and Effect of Patterns in Braided Fabrics

7.2.1.1 Unit Cell Architecture
Braid unit cell patterns influenced the 3D fully braided preform and 3D axial
braided preforms produced by the four-step method. For instance, patterns on
odd numbered rows resulted in fully interconnected integral unit cell structures,
whereas patterns on even numbered rows resulted in layer-to-layer interconnec-
tion on the edge of the unit cell structure. The unit cell structure has a fine inter-
twine in the 1 × 1 pattern, but it has a coarse intertwine for 2 × 1 to 4 × 1 braid
patterns (Bilisik 2016; Brown and Ratliff 1986). Jamming in the braided fabrics
affect 2D/3D fully and 3D axial braided unit cell structures for all braid patterns.
Minimum jamming decreases the width of the unit cell. Maximum jamming
increases their width. Width reduction of the unit cell structure in the 1 × 1 pattern
was high when compared with that of 2 × 1 or 4 × 1 patterns. Also, minimum jam-
ming increased the densities of the 3D fully braided preform and 3D axial braided
unit cell. On the contrary, maximum jamming decreased their densities (Bilisik
and Sahbaz 2012; Bilisik 2011).
3D braid preform has a large directional Poisson ratio. When the axial yarn
layers were added to the 3D braid preform, its tensile strengths increased and the
directional Poisson ratio decreased. In addition, adding the filling and Z-yarn to the
axial 3D braided preform could enhance the properties of the 3D braided preform
in the transverse direction and the Poisson’s ratios of the structure became identical
(Bilisik 2016).
7.2.1.2 Unit Cell Dimensions

Layer numbers influenced the yarn length in 3D braided and 3D axial braided pre-
forms. When the number of layers increased, their braider and surface yarn lengths
increased. However, increasing the number of layers also decreased the surface arc
length and corner yarn length, including edge yarn lengths. It was found that jam-
ming conditions did not affect yarn length in 3D braided fabric and 3D axial braided
preforms (Bilisik and Sahbaz 2012; Bilisik 2011).
Braiding and Recent Developments 135
7.2.1.3 Unit Cell Angle

Braid pattern slightly affected the yarn angles in 2D/3D braided fabric/preform
and 2D triaxial/3D axial braided preform. In 3D braided preform, the braider angle
slightly decreased when the braid pattern changed from 1 × 1 to 3 × 1. On the con-
trary, the surface angle increased when the braid pattern changed from 1 × 1 to 3 ×
1. In 3D axial braided preform, the braider angle slightly increased when the braid
pattern changed from 1 × 1 to 3 × 1. But, the surface angle slightly increased when
the braid pattern changed from 1 × 1 to 3 × 1 (Bilisik and Sahbaz 2012; Bilisik 2011).
Jamming in 2D/3D braided fabric/preforms affected their yarn angles (Bilisik 2016).
7.2.1.4 Unit Cell Yarn Orbit

An increase in the number of layers resulted in an additional yarn path known as
‘multilayer yarn path’ on the edge of the 3D braided preform and 3D axial braided
preform. This could affect the mechanical behaviour of the 3D braided preform and
3D axial braided composites. This was especially important for the fabrication of
near-net-shape thick 3D braided preforms and 3D axial braided preforms and com-
posites (Bilisik and Sahbaz 2012; Bilisik 2011; Bilisik 2013).
7.3 FIBRES AND ADDITIVES FOR BRAIDING

7.3.1 Fibres
In braiding, generally, high-performance fibres were utilized due to mechanical
requirements under harsh environments. However, natural fibres were also used in
making 2D/3D braided fabric and preforms due to their recycling properties and
comparatively low cost. High-performance synthetic and natural fibres in braiding
were used for diverse end uses as ropes, cables, drive shafts, hoses, belts and struc-
tural component applications. Cotton fibre has good moisture absorbency. Jute is a
weak stem fibre due to its short fibre length. Flax is a strong fibre, especially in wet
form, and it can absorb moisture up to 20% of its dry weight. Hemp fibre is strong
and has the highest resistance to severe environment (www.fao.org/docrep/007/
ad416e/ad416e06.htm).
Polyamide fibre is used for high tensile strength required areas such as various
ropes in marine, industrial, climbing and leisure activities; in braided nets to make
protective lines for petrol platform in the sea and marine functional applications.
Polyester fibre is also used for static climbing rope, mooring lines on small yachts,
mooring line rope for petrol platform as well as ropes for sailing and yachting and
marine functional applications. Polyolefin fibres such as polyethylene and polypro-
pylene can be used for dynamic climbing ropes, ropes and netting for fishing indus-
tries as well as ropes for sailing and yachting (Hearle 2001).
When the high modulus and high strength fibres are considered, E-glass is pro-
duced on a largest scale followed by S-glass, D-glass, A-glass and electrical/chemical
resistance-glass. Ultrapure silica fibres, hollow fibres and trilobal fibres were other
examples of special-purpose glass fibres (Wallenberger et al. 2001). Glass fibre is
used in composite forms in transportation industries as drive shaft, structural panels
and various components including tubes, joint and connectors, and electrical power
cables and hoses. 2D braided fabrics made from ceramic fibres are used for the filtra-
tion of gases at high temperatures (Wallenberger 1999). Ceramic fibre was employed
in composite forms in transportation as ablative structural parts and various com-
ponents including rods, cones, tubes and connector. Carbon fibres are manufactured
from an acrylic fibre precursor polyacrylonitrile and polyetheretherketone. Graphite
fibre refers to a very specific structure in which adjacent aromatic sheets overlap with
one carbon atom at the centre of each hexagon (Donnet and Bansal 1990; Buckley
and Edie 1993). Carbon fibre is used in composite forms in transportation as drive
shaft, structural panels and various car components including tubes, joints and con-
nectors. Para-aramid fibre has very high strength with temperature resistance, with
60% strength and modulus retention at 260°C. It does not melt but chars to a black
colour. Aramids are resistant to many solvents, have low water absorbency, but are
sensitive to ultraviolet (UV). Para-aramid fibre is used climbing rope, mooring rope
for petrol platform as well as ropes for marine, transportation as structural panels,
car components, exhaust part, joint and connector (Hearle 2001).
7.3.2 Matrices and Additives

In 2D/3D braiding and braided preforms, thermoset or thermoplastic matrices
were employed by making the prepreg and rigid structure for various applications.
Thermosets are polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, etc. Thermoplastic includes
polyethylene, polypropylene, acrylic polymer, polyamides and polyurethanes.
Thermosets are used to make the braided composite to enhance thermo-mechanical
properties. Contrarily, thermoplastic contributes to the fracture toughness of the
resulting material. Epoxy has outstanding mechanical, thermal and fracture tough-
ness properties and is moisture resistant. However, it is expensive and requires high
processing temperatures during curing (Babcock and Rose 2001). Rubber can be used
to coat the braided fabric surface to suppress crack propagation in the case of loads
as well as protect the braided structure from critical environmental conditions such
as UV light, seawater and sunlight. Examples of some of the coating materials were
natural rubber, polybutadiene, polyisoprene, ethylene–propylene copolymers, poly-
urethane elastomers, silicone elastomers, and thermoplastic elastomers (Harpell et al.
1988). Another thermoplastic polymer is polycarbonate that is made by the reaction
of the precursor monomer bisphenol A and phosgene (COCl2). It is very tough and has
high impact resistance as well as being optically transparent (Bilisik 2018).
Carbon nanospheres (CNS) are made of carbon atoms that form hexagonal and
pentagonal faces, whereas carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are cylindrical in shape, with
hexagonally arranged carbon atoms (Khan and Kim 2011; Thostenson et al. 2001).
CNTs can be either single-walled (SWCNTs) or multiwalled CNTs (MWCNTs).
Short and continuous carbon nanofibers (CNFs) are currently being studied at various
research centres and universities. Furthermore, graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) were
developed. Their average thickness and sizes were 5‒10 nm and 50 μm, respectively.
GNPs were in a planar form.
CNS can be produced by either the arc method or the combustion method. The
synthesis methods for single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) and multiwalled
carbon nanotubes include arc discharge, laser ablation, gas-phase catalytic growth
from carbon monoxide and chemical vapour deposition (CVD) using hydrocar-
bons (Khan and Kim 2011). GNPs are generally produced by the treatment of min-
eral acids (potassium permanganate or sulphuric acid) and oxidizing agents such
as oxygen, hydrogen peroxide and halogens via specifically developed methods as
explained in many literatures (Dreyer et al. 2010; Kim et al. 2010; Potts et al. 2011).
Short CNF is made using vapour-grown techniques in which CNF is produced by
pyrolysis of hydrocarbon (acetylene) or carbon monoxide on a metal catalyst such
as iron. The iron catalyst nanoparticles are produced by pyrolysis of organometallic
compounds such as ferrocene and iron pentacarbonyl. Fibre thickness depends on
the catalyst size, operation conditions and catalyst activity (Al-Saleh and Sundararaj
2011). Spinning techniques can also be used to make short nanofibres and staple
nanoyarns. The first method was to spin CNT fibres from a liquid crystalline suspen-
sion of nanotubes. The second method involved the formation of a gas-phase aerogel
of SWCNTs via CVD process. CNT fibres were then directly spun from the SWNT
aerogel. Another method included simultaneous spinning and twisting of MWCNTs
to form staple nanofibres yarns (Thostenson et al. 2001). The electrospinning method
is another efficient method for the fabrication of nanofibre webs. After the nanoweb
is fabricated, it is converted to staple nanoyarns by continuous condensation and/
or twisting (Reneker and Chun 1996). If CNTs, CNFs and GNPs were used as fill-
ers, they enhanced the mechanical properties (stiffness, strength, and surface hard-
ness), barrier properties, electrical and thermal conductivity properties of the 2D/3D
braided fabrics and braided preforms and their composite forms due to pure carbon
or pure graphite (Potts et al. 2011).
7.4 BRAIDING TECHNIQUES AND STRUCTURES

7.4.1 2D Braided Fabric
2D braided fabric is the most extensively used material in recreational textiles and
industrial textiles, especially in the composite industry. It has one yarn set called
braiders (oriented at an angle in ±θ directions), which are intertwined with each
other to form the braided fabric, as shown schematically, and para-aramid fabric
structure in Figure 7.1a and b. Braided fabric patterns are generally diamond, regular
FIGURE 7.1 (a) 2D biaxial braided fabric schematic and (b) actual para-aramid fabric,
(c) 2D triaxial braided fabric schematic and (d) actual carbon fabric.
and Hercules, and they are fabricated by employing the traditional maypole braid-
ing (Brunnschweiler 1953). 2D biaxial braided fabrics can be utilized as single layer
as well as layered depending upon the required thickness. They were consolidated
to make 2D/3D braided composites. However, 2D over-braided structures have low
delamination strength in their interlayer regions, and 3D braided composite has also
low impact resistance mainly due to surface crimp (Chou 1992). The delamination
resistance of the 2D over-braided structure was improved by stitching. However, its
in-plane properties probably decreased due to stitching induce local damage. 2D
triaxial braided fabrics have basically three sets of yarns: ±braid (±bias) and warp
(axial). Braided yarns intertwine with each other around the axial yarns at about 45°
angle, whereas axial yarns lie throughout the structure. Thus, the triaxial braided
fabric is formed as shown schematically and as carbon fabric structure in Figure 7.1c
and d. This type of braided fabrics generally has a large open area between the axial
yarns at the intrayarn regions. Dense fabrics can be produced with this technique. It
was claimed that the axial yarn in the triaxial braided fabric improved its bending/
tensile strength (Rogers and Crist 1997).
Recently, some special 2D braid fabrics with additional fibre sets were devel-
oped. It was reported that the 2D circular braided structure with outer surface wrap
(circumferential yarns) made the braided fabric auxetics from positive Poisson ratio
materials. As indicated, textile structures with negative Poisson’s ratio behaviour
are defined auxetic textile structures. The 2D braids exhibited high negative Poisson
ratio behaviour (Jiang and Hu 2017). Both 2D braided and 2D triaxial braided fabrics
can be formed for part manufacturing with simple or complex geometries via single
or multiple layers employing over-braiding with or without inserted plate on the rigid
or soluble or inflatable mandrels. Also, 2D polar triaxial braiding can be combined
with pultrusion, which was called braidtrusion process, to make various structural
preforms for the space/aerospace, transportation and offshore industries (Hamada
et al. 1995).
7.4.2 3D Braided Fabric

3D braided fabric has one set of longitudinal yarns arranged in columns and rows
in the required cross section. All these yarns are intertwined with each other by at
least four distinct motions in each machine cycle. All braider carriers move simul-
taneously in a defined predetermined path relative to each other within the matrix
to intertwine the braiding yarns to form a 3D braided preform. In this way, the yarn
passes the thickness (through-the-thickness) of the fabric and is biased such that the
width of the fabric is at an angle between 10° and 70°, as shown in Figure 7.2a, b
and d (Florentine 1982; Bilisik and Sahbaz 2012). Tsuzuki designed a 3D braider
consisting of star (horngear) rotors arranged in a matrix of multiple rows and col-
umns (Tsuzuki et al. 1991). Four yarn carriers can surround a rotor and move in four
diagonal directions defined by the rotation of the rotors, as shown in Figure 7.2c
and e. Langer et al. prototyped a machine called ‘3D rotary braiding’ to make a
3D axial braided fabric having multiple axial yarns and braider yarns (Langer et al.
2000). The machine consists of horn gears that have a flat row-column array, and
each horn gear is actuated by an individual servo control motor and equipped with a
FIGURE 7.2 (a) Unit cell of braided preform, schematic (Source: Bilisik and Sahbaz 2012),
(b) braider yarn path on the edge and inside of the 3D representative braided preform with
four and six layers, respectively (Source: Bilisik and Sahbaz 2012), (c) schematic views of 3D
braided I-beam preform, (Source: Bilisik 2013), (d) view of 3D Cartesian braiding machine
bed, schematic, (Source: Florentine 1982), (e) general view of 3D rotary braiding, schematic
(Source: Tsuzuki et al. 1991), (f) view of 3D braiding machine based on maypole, schematic
(Source: Langer et al. 2000).
clutch-brake mechanism to control the step or rotation of each single horn gear, axial
yarn guide and braider carrier, as shown schematically in Figure 7.2f.
A 3D circular braided preform can be formed using one set of braider at cir-
cular arrangements. The braider yarns are intertwined, and they were moved
backward and forward radially around the circumferential predetermined paths
in the machine bed. The 3D circular braided preform was shown schematically in
Figure 7.3a and b. Brown developed a 3D circular braided fabric (Brown 1988).
The fabric has one set of yarn sets. The process has concentric rings connected
FIGURE 7.3 (a) Perspective views of repeated unit cell of 3D circular braided preform,
schematic, (b) top views of repeated unit cell of 3D circular braided preform, schematic,
(c) perspective views of repeated unit cell of 3D circular axial braided preform, schematic,
(d) top views of repeated unit cell of 3D circular axial braided preform, schematic.
to a common axis. Braid carriers are circumferentially mounted to the inside

diameter of the ring. The ring is arranged side by side according to preform thick-
ness. The rings rotate according to a predetermined path at only one braid carrier
distance. Then, the braid carriers are shifted in the axial direction as shown in
Figure 7.4a. A 3D circular axial braided preform fabricated by the traditional
maypole in two sets of yarns is employed as warp (axial) and braid. The braider
yarns are intertwined with the fixed axial yarns moving backwards and forwards
radially around circumferential paths as shown in Figure 7.3c and d. Brookstein
developed a tubular fabric that consists of braiders (±bias yarns) and warp (axial)
yarns. Braiders intertwined around each axial yarn so that they lock each indi-
vidual axial yarn in its place. The braiders are actuated by a horn-gear mechanism
to move in a predetermined path around the axial yarn, as shown in Figure 7.4b
(Brookstein et al. 1994).
To make a Cartesian 3D axial braided flat preform in a 1 × 1 braid pattern, the
braider carrier and axial yarns are arranged in a matrix of rows and columns. The
first step is the sequential and reversal movement of braider carriers in the column.
The second step is sequential and the reversal movement of the braider carriers is in
the row. The third step is again sequential and reversal movement of the braider car-
riers is in the column. The fourth step is again sequential and the reversal movement
of the braider carriers is in the row. These steps are repeated depending on preform
length requirements. The unit cell of Cartesian 3D axial braided preform is shown
schematically in Figure 7.5a (Bilisik 2011). 3D flat axial braider preforms from the
two-step braiding process, and axial yarns are arranged in a matrix array based
on the sectional geometry of the braided structure. The braider yarns move along
alternating diagonals of the axial array and interlock the axial yarns and hold them
in the desired shape. The arrangement of yarns provides directional reinforcement
and structural shape with a relatively small number of braider yarns. McConnell and
Popper developed a 3D axial braided fabric in which the preform has layered and
axial yarns. They are arranged according to a cross-sectional shape, and braided
yarns pass through the opening of axial layers to the row and column of the arrange-
ment, as shown in Figure 7.5b and c (Popper and McConnell 1987; McConnell
and Popper 1988). Uozumi developed a 3D circular braided fabric that has ±bias
FIGURE 7.4 (a) 3D circular braiding machine based on Cartesian principle and (b) 3D
circular braiding machine based on maypole principle. (Source: Bilisik 2013.)
FIGURE 7.5 (a) 3D unit cell of axial braided preform, (b) 3D axial braided preform unit
cell by two-step braiding and (c) schematic view of 3D axial braiding. (Source: Bilisik 2011.)
(braider) and warp (axial) yarns (Uozumi 1995). Thick and various sectional fabrics,
especially structural joint, end-fitting and flange tube, were made by over-braiding
(Uozumi et al. 2001).
7.4.3 Multiaxis 3D Braided Fabric

A multiaxial 3D braided preform made by the six-step method has ±braider yarns,
warp (axial), filling and Z-yarns. The braider yarns are intertwined with the orthog-
onal yarn sets to form the multiaxis 3D braided preform. The properties of the
multiaxial 3D braided structure in the transverse direction are enhanced, and
the directional Poisson’s ratios of the structure become identical. In this process,
there are six distinct steps in each cycle. In steps 1 and 2, ±braider yarns are inter-
twined around the axial yarns as in the four-step method. In step 3, filling yarns are
inserted in the transverse direction. In steps 4 and 5, the ±braider yarns are inter-
twined around the axial yarns as in the four-step method, and in step 6, Z-yarns are
inserted in the thickness direction (Chen and El-Sheikh 1994). Recently, multiaxial
3D braided structure fabricated by the six-step method has ±bias yarns placed in the
in-plane direction of the structure, and warp (axial), radial (Z-yarns) and ±braider
yarns placed in the out-of-plane direction of the structure as shown in Figure 7.6a–c
(Bilisik 2013). The braider yarns are intertwined with the axial yarns, whereas ±bias
yarns are oriented at the surface of the structure and locked by the radial yarns to
FIGURE 7.6 (a) Cylindrical multiaxis 3D braided para-aramid Kevlar® preform, (b) conical
throat section of multiaxis 3D Kevlar® braided preform and (c) conical part of the Kevlar®
preform. (Source: Bilisik 2013.)
other yarn sets. The multiaxis 3D braided preforms were cylindrical, conical shapes,
and para-aramid (Kevlar 129 and 49) fibres were used with various ply numbers (1–4)
and linear densities (1,100–3,400 dtex). It was identified that their directional volume
fractions were highly dense, and further study will be required to define the unit
cell, analytical relations for fibre volume fraction as well as strength and modulus
characterizations of both preform and composites. The properties of the multiaxial
3D braided structure in the transverse direction could be enhanced and the non-
uniformity in the directional Poisson’s ratios of the structure could be improved. In
this process, there are six distinct steps in each cycle. In steps 1 and 2, ±braider yarns
are intertwined around the axial yarns. In step 3, ±bias yarns are laid down on the
surface of the structure. In step 4, the radial yarns move in the thickness direction of
the structure and lock the ±bias yarns to the ±braider and axial yarns. In steps 5 and
6, the ±braider yarns are intertwined around the axial yarns (Bilisik 1998). Kostar
and Chou developed a multistep braiding, aiming braider carrier moves defined in
the predetermined multiaxial direction using the computer algorithm (Kostar and
Chou 1994b). In this way, yarns make a large interlacement angle at the thickness
of the fabric, which results in a large-sized unit cell. Furthermore, the yarns may
change to more positions in the unit cells compared with other 3D braiding processes
(Kostar and Chou 1994a).
More recent developments on multiaxis 3D braiding were concentrated to make
large diameter and thick preform with complex shapes. For this reason, concept stud-
ies on 3D circular braiding were conducted by Bilisik and coworkers in Nano/Micro
Fibre Preform Design and Composite Laboratory in Erciyes University. 3D fully
interlaced braiding method was created using the Cartesian braiding principle called
‘axial ring braiding’ (Bilisik braiding). The principle of the axial ring braiding is
shown in Figure 7.7a and b, and prototyping on the axial ring braiding is continued
depending upon global funding sources. The primary applications of multiaxis 3D
braiding are unmanned aerial vehicle and offshore platforms for critical and extreme
thermo-mechanical load requirements.
FIGURE 7.7 (a) Concept study on multiaxis 3D braiding via developed axial ring method
(Bilisik braiding), (b) intertwinding zone of the axial ring method. (Source: Bilisik 2015.)
7.4.4 Comparison of Braided Fabrics and Methods

In 2D/3D braided fabrics/preforms and composites, the design of the composite
structural component depends generally on loading conditions in end uses (Ko and
Chou 1989). In textile structural composite materials, the basic parameters are the
properties of yarns, matrix properties, total and directional volume fraction, pre-
form architecture, yarn orientation in the architecture and preform shape. These
parameters together with end-use requirements determined preform fabrication
techniques. This required sophisticated computational techniques integrated with
computer aided design (CAD) and computer aided manufacturing (CAM) con-
trolled preform and composite processes. Many computational techniques were
found with the aid of computer-supported numerical methods to predict stiffness
and strength properties and to understand the complex failure mechanism of the
textile structural composites including 2D/3D braided composites (Kamiya et al.
2000; Ko and Chou 1989; Chou 1992). The properties of the 2D biaxial and triaxial
braided fabrics have good balance in off-axis directions, including good drape to
make easy moulding. 2D braiding is an automated textile process. However, 2D
biaxial and triaxial braided preforms have limited thickness and sizes, and low out-
of-plane properties. In 3D braiding, 3D braided preforms have high out-of-plane
properties including making near-net-shape preforms. The 3D braided process is a
semi-automated one. However, it is slow and has size limitations. In addition, it is
difficult to reproduce consistent preforms (Kamiya et al. 2000; Ko and Chou 1989;
Chou 1992). As seen in the discussion on 2D and 3D braided fabric structures, vari-
ous thin and thick braided fabrics were developed based on end-use requirements.
Table 7.2 outlines the braided fabric depending on their properties and possible
specific applications in various areas.
TABLE 7.2
Comparison of 2D/3D Braided Fabric/Preform Structures
Braided Applications
Fabric in Various
Structures Properties Areas Specific Section
2D biaxial Enhanced off-axis strength and Ropes; cables; Decorative ropes; marines;
braided stiffness; good in-plane shear strength hoses; belts climbing ropes; mooring
fabric and modulus; better under uniaxial line ropes; connector
and biaxial loading; good torsion; hoses in automobile
good internal pressure; fair bending
strength; good drapeability and
shapeability
2D triaxial Enhanced axial and off-axis strength Composite Interior component of
braided and stiffness; fair drapeability and components automobile; side panel;
fabric shapeability; restricted jamming due body structures; roof
to axial yarn and good dimensional panel
stability; adding holes and joint part or
connection during fabrication
(Continued)
TABLE 7.2 (Continued )

Comparison of 2D/3D Braided Fabric/Preform Structures
Braided Applications
Fabric in Various
Structures Properties Areas Specific Section
3D braided Enhanced in-plane and out-of-plane Composite Automotive pillar; rods;
fabric strength and stiffness; good in-plane components beams; racing car body;
(through-the- and out-of-plane shear strength and structural connector;
thickness) modulus; good torsion; good internal foam-filled parts; drive
pressure; good fracture toughness; no shafts; engine valve
delamination between layers;
integrated layered structures; good
drapeability and shapeability; adding
holes and joint part or connection
during fabrication
3D braided Enhanced in-plane and off-axis strength Composite Interior component of train,
fabric by and stiffness; poor out-of-plane components truck and automobile; side
over-braiding strength and stiffness; limited fracture panel; body structures;
toughness; delamination between layer; structural engine
suitable for complex part geometries components
3D axial Enhanced in-plane and out-of-plane Composite Automotive pillar; rods;
braided strength and stiffness; good in-plane components beams; racing car body;
fabric and out-of-plane axial tensile and shear structural connector; foam
(through-the- strength and modulus; good torsion; filled parts; drive shafts;
thickness) good internal pressure; good fracture engine valve; seats and
toughness; no delamination between chassis
layers; integrated layered structures;
fair drapeability and shapeability; good
bending and dimensional stability
3D triaxial Enhanced in-plane axial tensile and Composite Interior component of train,
braided off-axis strength and stiffness; poor components truck and automobile; side
fabric by out-of-plane strength and stiffness; panel; body structures;
over-braiding limited fracture toughness; structural engine
delamination between layer; suitable components; exhaust part;
for complex part geometries connector and joint parts
Multiaxis 3D Enhanced in-plane and out-of-plane Composite Shell component for
braided strength and stiffness; good in-plane components automotive; rods; beams;
fabric and out-of-plane multiaxial tensile and racing car body; structural
shear strength and modulus; good connector; drive shafts;
torsion; good internal pressure; good engine valve; seats and
fracture toughness; no delamination chassis; missile and rocket
between layers; integrated layered parts
structures; fair drapeability and
shapeability; good bending and
dimensional stability
Source: Bilisik et al. (2015).

7.5 APPLICATIONS
7.5.1 Deep Water Moorings
Chain mooring systems lose effectiveness between 100 and 200 m of depths due to
weight. It was claimed that a composite system consisting of a double braid polyes-
ter line connected to relatively short chains gives nearly equal performance at all
depths and is superior to wire rope or chain at over 200 m of depths (Mckenna et al.
2004). In offshore platforms, steel wire cables are successfully used at up to 500 m
of depths, but are unduly heavy for 1,000–3,000 m of depths (Mckenna et al. 2004).
Fibre ropes offer an alternative, as seen in Figure 7.8. The two principal design crite-
ria, off-set and peak load, are determined by the environmental forces, which include
oceanic surface waves as gravity pulling and capillary, the mooring geometry, the
line lengths and the rope tensile properties. The fundamental rope properties used
in deep-water moorings are rope stiffness, including post-installation and storm
stiffness, axial compression fatigue, rope braid angle, bending rigidity, UV light
and chemical resistance and internal‒external wear. Low-twist parallel strands and
wire-rope constructions have been used in offshore moorings. Depending on wave
heights, polyester and nylon ropes can be utilized at shallower depths. High-modulus
fibre ropes, which have lower weight, should be considered at greater depths, such as
for the mooring of air defence platforms (Mckenna et al. 2004).
7.5.2 Climbing Ropes
In rock climbing, nylon kernmantle ropes dominate the market for dynamic ropes,
because their moderately high strength combined with high breaking extension gives
high absorption of energy to arrest the fall of a climber. The comparatively low
modulus prevents the applied forces from being too large and ensures good elastic
recovery. A disadvantage of nylon is its low wet strength properties. Newly available
polyester fibre that does not absorb moisture may prove useful for climbing ropes
FIGURE 7.8 3D braided rope for oil offshore platform. (Source: www.bluewater.com/
fleet-operations/our-fpso-fleet/aoka-mizu/.)
(Mckenna et al. 2004). High-modulus grades of nylon 6.6 are used in fixed ropes
used in caving, where high strength and low extensibility are required. Also, canyon
rope uses a polypropylene core (Meriam and Kraige 1978).
7.5.3 Composite Structural Components

2D biaxial and triaxial braided fabrics and 3D braided structural composites used
diverse applications such as ground transportation, space/aerospace, marine vessels
such as ship and boats and industrial areas. In ground transportation applications, 3D
braided structures should meet some general requirements such as low cost, manufac-
turability, good mechanical performance, no corrosion, reparability and recyclability,
as well as high damping, fuel economy and low noise level. The energy absorption
and structural integrity of 2D/3D braided composite were better due to off-axis and
interlayer fibre orientations. In automobile manufacturing, the use of 2D triaxial/3D
braided composites in chassis, exhaust and structural applications allows a significant
reduction in component number and provides a substantial weight reduction compared
with metal (Drechsler 1999). Furthermore, braided preforms and rigid composite con-
nectors were made by 3D circular braiding, enabling to make the connector with mul-
tiple openings where connections are required. 2D and 3D triaxial braiding are more
developed and widely applied than 3D braiding. 2D/3D braided fabric composites have
been used in racing car bodies, structural members such as beams that are made of
foam cores over-braided with a carbon preform structure, aprons and spoilers, and con-
necting rods. Also, car noses, monocoques and bumpers are made from braided carbon
structures. They reduce weight and improve the crash behaviour (Gries et al. 2008).
On the other hand, 3D braided fabrics are used in aerospace applications such as space
shuttle components and aircraft seat cushions. 3D braided composites are currently
employed in civil and military aircraft in critical structures such as fuselage, wings and
the skin of the aircraft. Other areas of use are in the top and side tail units, fuselage
panelling, leading edges on side rudders and engine panelling (Hu 2008; Padaki et al.
2006). 2D triaxial braided carbon/epoxy landing gear structure for unmanned aerial
vehicles was prototyped, and its flexural properties were characterized via progres-
sive damage analysis supported by multiscale finite element analysis (FEA) model
in which appropriate failure criteria was selected and coded into the user subroutine
(Zhong et al. 2018). 3D braided composites can be used in minesweepers, sonar domes,
cargo ships, patrol and pleasure boats. In addition, composites are being increasingly
used for navigational aids such as buoys. Furthermore, all marine vessels use large
amounts of braided material for vibration, thermal and noise insulation, especially in
and around turbines and engine rooms (Summerscales 1987).
2D/3D braided composite exhibited high structural stability and excellent damage
tolerance with their specific high stiffness/strength due to intertwining. To enhance
2D or 3D braided material analysis and design for high performance requiring
areas such as space/aerospace and ballistic which are generally subjected to mul-
tidirectional static, impact and fatigue loadings were enhanced by new modelling
techniques. However, because of their unique interlacing geometric structure and
complicated failure modes, prediction of damage initiation and its evolution in com-
ponents is still a challenge (Wang et al. 2017). The representative volume element
model considering the periodic boundary condition of the 3D braided composite

was developed using the micromechanics to predict the anisotropic response of
the heterogeneous 3D braided material on the basis of the micro geometries and
the individual constituent properties of the fibres and matrix (Wang et al. 2017a; Shen
et al. 2018). The braiding angle and pitch length of the 3D braided composite pre-
form were measured automatically by using the curvature-scale space corner detec-
tor with adaptive threshold (Xiao et al. 2017). Elastic and elastic–plastic models were
developed to understand fibre breakages, interlayer fracture and matrix fractures of
the 3D braided composite structure. The elastic model could define the fibre bun-
dle failure mechanism that was elastic and brittle. The elastic–plastic model could
describe the matrix degradation which included non-linear progressive damage and
inelastic strains. The damage initiation and propagation criteria are based on the
Hashin criteria for the fibre bundle and the von Mises yield criterion for the matrix.
This damaged model was implemented in the non-linear FEA code ABAQUS using
a user-subroutine UMAT (Ge et al. 2018; Wang et al. 2017b). It was found that the
torsional strength of 3D circular axial braided glass/epoxy structure (±braider, axial)
was the highest and it was failed due to compression and shear showed brittle behav-
iour, while the torsional modulus of multiaxis 3D circular tube braided composite
(±braider, radial, axial and circumferential) was the highest, and its damaged mode
was mainly tensile and shear and showed ductile behaviour. Both 3D braided struc-
tures were influenced by braiding process (Wang et al. 2017).
7.5.4 Ballistic Applications
3D braided fabric and rigid ballistic plate could be used to protect the human and
goods under various threads as projectile, blast, fragment and high-energy explo-
sives. In addition, they can be utilized as protective products for vehicular crash
guards, composite helmet, interlinings, insulation and protective industrial work
wear and fire fighter suits (Hu 2008; Padaki et al. 2006).
7.5.5 Sailing and Yachting

Fibre ropes have always been used for ships and cargo vessels because of continuous
handling and comparatively low stretch, high strength and long service life. Surface
frictional and wear characteristics are important for lines used on winches. Melt-spun
liquid crystal polymer fibre (Vectran®) rope has 12 strands and is designed for excep-
tional abrasion resistance whilst maintaining flexibility and elongation that is equal to
steel wire rope (Belgrano and O’Connell 1992). Polyethylene rope coated with polyure-
thane exceeds the strength of other high-performance fibre ropes and it has a strength/
weight ratio eight times that of steel wire rope (Belgrano and O’Connell 1992).
7.5.6 Medical Applications
2D and 3D braid structures find more functional applications as in vascular pros-
thesis due to good mechanical properties and better ingrowth of tissue to seal the
prosthesis walls, grafts for inborn vessel anomaly or arteriosclerotic damage. Other
medical application fields of 2D braided fabric and 3D braided preforms are soft
tissue such as skin and cartilage, artificial tendons and ligaments, artificial muscle,
wound dressing, absorbable and non-absorbable sutures and stents. Some tissue
engineering end uses of 3D braided preforms are especially scaffolds so as to repair
or regenerate tissues through combinations of implanted cells-biomaterial scaffolds-
biologically active molecules, blood filters, plasters, compression bandages and
hospital bedding as well as surgical hosiery. It was also demonstrated that 2D/3D
braided fabrics are dimensionally stable, have similar mechanical properties with
human organs and are biocompatible (Bilisik 2009; Hu 2008).
7.5.7 Sports Applications
2D/3D braided composites are employed in various sportive goods. The specific
applications are roller blades, bike frames, golf stick, tennis rackets, baseball stick,
ski and surf equipment and footwear (Uozumi et al. 2001; Hu 2008).

2D biaxial and triaxial braided fabrics are extensively used as simple and complex-
shaped structural parts in various technical areas including civilian end uses as
medical, space and aerospace, marine, climbing, leisure and recreational as well
as offshore applications. 2D biaxial and triaxial braiding techniques are well
developed. 3D braided and 3D axial braided fabrics have multiple layers that were
integrally formed to resist delamination. However, 3D braided fabrics have low
transverse properties due to the absence of yarns. They also have size and thick-
ness limitations. The current trend in braiding technology includes the following:
to expand to large-diameter braiding; to develop more sophisticated techniques
for braiding over complex-shaped mandrels, multidirectional braiding with near-
net shapes and to extend the use of CAD and CAM. The projected market trends
will be on multiaxially reinforced 3D braided preform with large dimensions and
complex shapes to functionalize with recently developed nanocarbon fibre yarns
and nanoadditives such as CNTs and graphene nanoplatelets. The expected global
market size of the composites products including braided preform and composites
will be US$ 436 million in 2018 and are projected to reach US$ 876 million by 2023
(www.researchandmarkets.com).
2D biaxial and triaxial 2D braiding currently make the 2D biaxial/triaxial carbon and
E-glass/S-glass fabrics as complex-shaped structural composite parts, especially in
car industries, energy and medical areas. However, 2D braided fabrics have size and
thickness limitations, and technological developments on 2D braiding were concen-
trated to make large-size braided fabrics. Various methods and techniques from 3D
flat braiding based on Maypole to Cartesian principles and from 3D circular braiding
based on rotary braiding to radial braiding principles have been developed. These 3D
techniques are commercially available. Furthermore, various unit cell based models
on 3D braiding were developed to define the geometrical and mechanical properties

of 3D braided structures. Most of the unit cell based models include micromechan-
ics and numerical techniques. On the other hand, multiaxis 3D braiding technique
is at an early stage of development and needs to be fully automated. This will be a
future technological challenge in the area of multiaxis 3D braiding (Bilisik 2013).
The 2D/3D braiding technologies provide light and high-performance structures for
all transportation industries and protect the environment by reducing residual fuel
consumptions. Therefore, the 2D/3D braided structures replace heavier metals and
significantly reduce the weight of road vehicles. Thermoplastic fibre-based 2D/3D
braided preform present further opportunities for innovation in both products and
production techniques. A new generation of fibres produced by biological synthesis
is likely to appear in the future for better braided fabrics including higher standards
of cleanability, antimicrobial finishes/antimicrobial fibres, better thermal comfort,
anti-static properties and fewer odours (Fung and Hardcastle 2001). Textile tech-
nology based 2D/3D braiding prove to be the most cost-effective and efficient at
providing structural parts with flexibility and high performance to support future
development of various high-performance requiring industries. These developments
will result in lightweight, clean, safe and energy-efficient products.
The multiaxis 3D braiding techniques including Cartesian based ‘axial ring braid-
ing’ are almost concept or prototyping stages of development and need to be fully
automated. This will be a future technological challenge in the area of multiaxis 3D
braiding (Bilisik 2016).
7.8 SUMMARY
In this chapter, 2D and 3D braided fabrics and fabrication methods were reviewed.
2D braided fabric has single layer structure and its fiber sets are oriented at bias
directions, and 2D triaxial braided fabric has also a single layer oriented at bias and
axial directions. 3D braided preforms have integrally connected multiple layers in
which delamination was eliminated in the interlayers due to intertwine type out-
of-plane interlacement. Various methods and techniques on 3D braiding, 3D axial
braiding and multiaxis 3D braiding were developed, including Cartesian braiding,
rotary braiding, maypole braiding and axial ring braiding principles. Some of the 3D
braiding techniques are commercially available. On the other hand, various unit cell
base models on 3D braiding were developed to define the geometrical and mechani-
cal properties of 3D braided structures. Most of the unit cell base models include
micromechanics and numerical techniques. However, the multiaxis 3D braiding
technique is at an early stage of development and requiring advance analytical com-
putational technique for better modelling and analysis.
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8 Preparatory Chemical
Processes and Recent
Developments
Naveen V. Padaki, Brojeswari Das, Subhas
V. Naik, and Sanganna A. Hipparagi
Central Silk Technological Research Institute
CONTENTS
8.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................... 153
8.2 Preparatory Chemical Processes for Natural and Synthetic Fibres.............. 154
8.3 Singeing......................................................................................................... 157
8.4 Desizing......................................................................................................... 157
8.5 Scouring......................................................................................................... 158
8.6 Degumming................................................................................................... 159
8.6.1 Carbonization of Wool....................................................................... 160
8.6.2 Degreasing (Scouring) of Wool......................................................... 161
8.7 Bleaching....................................................................................................... 162
8.8 Mercerization................................................................................................. 163
8.8.1 Testing of Mercerized Material......................................................... 164
8.9 Present Trends............................................................................................... 164
8.10 Summary and Conclusion.............................................................................. 165
References............................................................................................................... 166
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Chemical processing of textiles is a vast subject dealing with application of vari-
ous chemicals and processes for both natural and synthetic textiles in fibre, yarn
and fabric forms encompassing preparatory processes, dyeing, printing and finishing
activities. Preparatory processes are carried out as initial set of activities before the
dyeing, printing and finishing processes to prepare the textile materials in order to
remove the impurities, improve its absorption, achieve uniformity and at the same
time retain the important properties. Effective preparatory process not only ensures
optimal dyeing, printing and finishing performance of textile materials but also
enhances the quality and durability of textile materials (Shenai 2000a). Preparatory
processes in chemical processing of textiles have been often a neglected stage as it
153
does not add value to the textiles directly, but nevertheless, it is gaining prominence
recently as this stage utilizes maximum chemicals, auxiliaries, energy and time in
chemical processing (Ali and Price 2015).
Popular preparatory processes embraced by the textile processing industry for
important textile fibres such as cotton, silk and wool among natural fibres along
with polyester and nylon among the synthetic fibres have been discussed in this
chapter. Majority of cotton textiles are chemically processed in fabric form, while
many of the preparatory processes for wool are carried out in the fibre stage and
silk is dominantly wet processed in the yarn stage. Accordingly, in this chapter,
cotton preparatory processes are covered for fabrics, wool in fibre form and silk
in the yarn form. Although processing principles are same for fibre, yarn and
fabric stage, machineries used along with recipe and processing parameters are
tweaked to obtain optimal results in different forms (Shenai 2000b). Synthetics
fibres, on the other hand, have least impurity and hence have minimal preparatory
processes but have a variety of applications through blending with natural fibres
and, accordingly, they are chemically processed in different forms as per their use
(Shenai 2000b).
8.2 PREPARATORY CHEMICAL PROCESSES FOR

NATURAL AND SYNTHETIC FIBRES
Singeing, desizing, scouring, bleaching and mercerizing are important preparatory
processes carried out during chemical processing of cotton textiles, as illustrated by
Figure 8.1, which outlines the flowchart of preparatory chemical processes for cotton
fabrics.
Desizing, scouring and bleaching are the main preparatory processes for cotton
fabrics, while singeing and mercerizing as preparatory process are carried out for
only selected cotton fabrics. Singeing is the process of removal of protruding fibres
from fabric surface, usually by burning-off process.
Desizing is the process of removal of added impurities (starch-based size) from
the fabrics. Scouring refers to the process of removal of naturally occurring impuri-
ties from the fibres. Scouring is the term commonly used for processing of cotton
fibres. Degumming is the term used for silk fibres, wherein natural gum occurring in
raw silk is removed during that process. Figure 8.2 represents the schematic pretreat-
ment processes carried out for silk yarn. Wool fibres obtained after shearing process
are subjected to preparatory chemical processes in fibre form. Degreasing (wool
scouring) and carbonization are the processes carried out on wool fibres to remove
natural impurities. Figure 8.3 provides the sequence of preparatory processes carried
out on wool fibres.
Man-made (synthetic and regenerated) fibres do not have any natural impurities in
them, but generally contain added impurities, which are basically chemical additives
such as spin finish, anti-static finish, lubricants and weaving sizes added to facilitate
subsequent processes (Shenai 2000b). Sequence of preparatory processes adopted
for man-made fibres is illustrated in Figure 8.4.
Chemical Processes and Recent Developments 155
FIGURE 8.1 Preparatory chemical processes for cotton fabrics.
FIGURE 8.2 Preparatory chemical processes for silk yarns.

FIGURE 8.3 Preparatory chemical processes for wool fibres.
FIGURE 8.4 Preparatory chemical processes for man-made fibres.

8.3 SINGEING
Singeing is the process of removal of surface-protruding fibres from the fabric. If
these protruding fibres from fabric are not removed in preparatory process, then they
interfere during further chemical processing activities through their fuzzy appear-
ance, which obscures the desired colour shade, thereby rendering the dyeing process.
These protruding fibres on the fabric surface easily attract dirt and soil and are also
responsible for pill formation in the fabric during continuous movement and abra-
sion of fabric during chemical processing. Such fabric pilling reduces durability and
appearance of processed fabrics. Singeing as a preparatory process is not carried out
for all cotton fabrics. Fabrics made from combed cotton yarns and fabrics that are
heavily sized are not subjected to singeing preparatory processes. Fabrics made from
carded yarns and open-end spun yarns are usually subjected to singeing preparatory
process. Also cotton fabrics to be used for printing are subjected to singeing process
to ensure sharp and clear print designs on the fabric.
One of the widely used singeing techniques in the textile industry is the gas singe-
ing process wherein a fast-moving fabric surface is exposed to controlled gas flame
to burn-off the protruding fibres without damaging the fabric. A schematic of gas
singeing process (Figure 8.5) is illustrated for reference. Apart from gas singeing,
plate singeing and roller singeing machines are also used for the singeing process,
although mechanisms are slightly different and the principle of working is same in
all of them (Shenai 2000a). Usually the cotton fabrics are subjected to singeing on
both sides. Singe face-side singeing process is carried out to only circular knit fab-
rics and select fabrics for printing which needs to retain hairiness on the back side for
enhanced fabric hand and softness. Fabric pilling tests and fabric abrasive resistance
tests are conducted to assess the effectiveness of singeing process.
8.4 DESIZING
Apart from natural impurities, added impurities such as starch size are present in cot-
ton fabrics, which have to be removed in preparatory processes. Desizing is the process
of removal of added impurities from cotton and cotton-blended fabrics. Starch-based
size is often applied to cotton and cotton-blended warp yarns before weaving to avoid
FIGURE 8.5 Schematic of gas singeing process.

FIGURE 8.6 Enzymatic desizing process chart.
yarn breakage, improve yarn strength and also to decrease friction during weaving.
This size has to be removed during preparatory process as a first step, before fur-
ther chemical processing. Although many methods of desizing process exist, textile
industries worldwide have adapted to enzymatic desizing process. α‐Amylase is a
hydrolytic type of enzyme that catalyzes the breakdown of starch size into short-chain
sugars, dextrin and maltose fractions, thereby aiding the removal of size from fab-
rics. Figure 8.6 illustrates the process chart for desizing using conventional amylase
enzymes. Generally, 1% of amylase enzyme on weight of fabric is dosed and treated
at 60°C for 1 h in the pH range of 5.5–6.5 for effective desizing (Cavaco-Paulo and
Gübitz 2003). Sometimes, apart from starch-based size, synthetic polyacrylate-based
sizes may also be present in some cotton fabric lots. Acidic desizing with 0.1N HCl is
carried out on those fabrics where enzymatic desizing is not effective. Cotton fabrics
after desizing process may lose up to 7%–10% weight due to removal of size.
Tegewa test is carried out on desized cotton fabrics to evaluate the effective
removal of starch-based size removal. Iodine standard solution (synthesized in the
laboratory or commercial preparations) is used to conduct the Tegewa iodine test.
Desized fabric impregnated with couple of drops of standard iodine solution pro-
duces a bluish-blackish colour in the presence of starch or else develops yellowish-
brownish colour in the absence of starch.
8.5 SCOURING
Scouring refers to the process of removal of naturally occurring impurities from
fibres. Cotton fibres contain about 90%–95% cellulose and 5%–10% impurities
which include waxes (0.5%–1%), pectins, (0.7%–1.2%), proteins (1%–2%), ash
(0.7%–1.6%), natural pigments and other materials (0.5%–1%) (Lewin and Pearce
1998; Hardin et al. 2004). These impurities and among that specifically wax and
pectin cover the cotton fibres on the outer surface rendering it hydrophobic and
inhibiting wetting, absorbency and absorption of dyes and chemical solutions during
chemical processing. Hence, scouring process is carried out to remove these natu-
rally occurring impurities from cotton.
Conventional process of cotton scouring is by alkali treatment, in which the strong
alkaline media reacts with waxy materials (oils and fatty acids) to saponify it, result-
ing in the removal of it. In alkali scouring method, cotton material is boiled with 2%
caustic soda (NaOH) and about 0.5% soda ash (Na2CO3) along with 1% wetting agent.
The dosage of alkali and duration of scouring treatment would vary depending on the
type of machine used. Kier boiling would take about 6–8 h for cotton fabric scouring,
souring process on Jigger machine would take about 4 h, while treatment in winch
could last for about 2–3 h. In continuous scouring-cum bleaching process, flash scour-
ing at 50 m/min speed is carried out with a strong alkaline bath. Fabric is first saturated
with alkaline solution in a saturator and steamed in J Box at controlled temperature
of 100°C for 3–5 min to achieve the desired scouring effect in a continuous manner.
Conventional scouring process on cotton is based on the saponification principle,
while the textile industry in earlier times has tried solvent scouring methods with-
out much commercial success. Solvent scouring is carried out using wax dissolving
principles with chlorine solutions and organic benzene and alcohol-based solvents.
Enzymatic scouring processes using pectinases, xylanases, cellulases, lipases and
proteases have been studied. It is reported that pectinases and cellulases can work
efficiently to remove the natural impurities and provide the desired absorbency to cot-
ton material (Cavaco-Paulo and Gübitz 2003). Pectin acts as glue in the primary wall
of cotton by keeping together the impurities intact. Pectinase enzymes hydrolyses the
pectin on the outer surface of cotton and thus effects removal of pectin. Disintegrating
the pectin-based impurity matrix results in lower amount of wax on the cotton sur-
face and subsequently in improved water absorbency of the fabric, which supports the
hypothesis of chemical linkage between pectin and waxes. The enzymatic scouring
treatment is also reported to enhance whiteness of the scoured cotton slightly com-
pared with conventional scouring process (Traore and Gisela 2000).
8.6 DEGUMMING
Raw silk fibre contains approximately 25%–30% sericin gum, which is considered as
natural impurity. Degumming is imparted to raw silk to remove the sericin gum and
impurities present to increase softness, whiteness, absorbency and lustre properties
(Padaki et al. 2015). Important degumming processes are the soaping method, alkali
boil, soap-soda method and enzymatic method; among which soap-soda boiling
method finds major commercial application in silk industries for its cost-effectiveness,
less time consumption and ease of application, but the load of these chemicals on the
effluent is rather high and also control on the process is difficult (Gowda et al. 2004).
The soap-soda method involves treating raw silk yarn in neutral soap (5 g/l) and soda
ash (Na2CO3 – 2 g/l) solution in near-boiling condition for about 1 h. Eco-friendly
alternative enzymatic degumming process is illustrated in Figure 8.7 (Gowda et al.
2007). The recipe for the enzymatic degumming process for silk yarn is as follows.
MLR (Material to liquor ratio) 1:10 (Arm dyeing machine)

Protease enzyme 2% on weight of silk
Wetting agent (non-ionic) 0.5% on weight of material
Temperature 55°C–60°C
pH 8.5–9 (using Na2CO3, Na2HCO3 pH buffer)
Duration 45–60 min
FIGURE 8.7 Enzymatic degumming process chart.
TABLE 8.1
Comparison of Degumming Performance
Soap-Soda Method Enzymatic Process
Weight loss (%) 25.0 23.2
Whiteness index 66.0 65.8
Breaking load (g) 336.2 345.2
Elongation (%) 17.0 16.9
Tenacity (g/denier) 4.98 5.18
The comparative performance of enzyme degummed silk with soap-soda boil

method silk is depicted in Table 8.1. The results show that the enzyme degummed
silk has lesser degum loss coupled with better tenacity and comparable whiteness.
Also, the effluent from the enzymatic degumming process is very eco-friendly com-
pared with the conventional processes.
Central Silk Technological Research Institute (CSTRI), Central Silk Board, India has
optimized an environment-friendly process of degumming silk in high temperature and
high pressure, which can effectively degum the silk yarn without using any chemicals.
8.6.1 Carbonization of Wool
Wool fibres sheared from sheep has approximately 64% wool fibres, 15% wool
grease, 15% dirt, 4% suint and 2% vegetable matters. Carbonization is the first step
of wool preparatory process, wherein vegetable matters (water-soluble impurities) are
removed. Wool fibres are subjected to acidic treatment to remove vegetable matters.
Vegetable impurities present in wool are usually dry leaves, seeds, twigs, burrs and
grass bits. Most of these vegetable impurities are cellulosic in nature. Wool fibres are
treated with 5% sulphuric acid and exposed to temperature of about 110°C–120°C
for 2 min to carbonize the cellulosic vegetable impurities into brittle mass, which is
further crushed between rollers and powdered, thus the vegetable impurities are then
separated from wool fibres easily.
8.6.2 Degreasing (Scouring) of Wool

Wool has approximately 15% greasy matter, 15% dirt and 4% suint as impurity,
which have to be removed during preparatory process to enhance absorbency and
dyeing performance of wool fibres. Wool degreasing, also known as wool scouring,
is carried out by treating wool in a series of soap-soda solution containing bowls as
shown in Figure 8.8. Treatment bowls used for scouring of wool usually have four
bowls, with the first bowl having mild alkali (0.25% Na2CO3 solution with 1% non-
ionic wetting agent), second and thirds bowls have soaping bowls (0.1% Na2CO3 with
0.5% non-ionic wetting agent) along with a fourth rinsing bowl with only water. The
wool fibres are worked in each of the bowls sequentially at 45°C–50°C with slight
agitation for 2 min each for effective degreasing.
FIGURE 8.8 Degreasing (Scouring) process for wool fibres.

Mild scouring is carried out for man-made fibres, as these fibres contain added
impurities, which are basically chemical additives such as spin finish, coning oil
stains, anti-static finish, lubricants, dirt, looming stains and weaving sizes. Weaving
sizes added onto the man-made fabrics are removed as mentioned in the desizing
section. Two per cent Na2CO3 with 1% non-ionic/anionic wetting agent treatment at
70°C–80°C for 30 min is sufficient to scour the man-made fibres.
8.7 BLEACHING
Bleaching is an important chemical preparatory process in textiles in which natural
colour occurring in textiles is removed to obtain uniform whiteness in the material.
Natural pigments such as flavonoids impart yellowish tinge to cotton, silk and wool
fibres and impair the shade achievable during dyeing (Shenai 2000b). Not only the
natural flavonoids but also soil, dirt, seed coat and weaving stains impart unwanted
colour to textiles. Dark colour shades such as jet black and navy blue may not require
complete bleaching, but medium and light shade colours and those needing printing
definitely require good bleaching with a common white base. Terminologies such
as full bleach and half bleach are used to denote the intensity of bleaching process,
wherein the textile goods needing light and medium shades during dyeing are fully
bleached and those needing dark shade colours are semi-bleached or half bleached.
There are two main types of bleaching processes carried out on textiles: oxida-
tive and reductive bleaching (Shenai 2000b). Oxidative bleaching agents are majorly
used in textiles with hydrogen peroxide, sodium perborate and peracetic acid being
the peroxy (oxidative) bleaching category and calcium hypochlorite (bleaching
powder), sodium hypochlorite and sodium chlorite being the chloro (oxidative)
bleaching agents. Sodium hydrosulphite or sodium diothinite (hydrose) is the most
common reductive-type bleaching agent used in textile industry. This reductive-
type bleaching is carried out in textiles to decolour the fabric after dyeing process
for discharge printing or for re-dyeing purposes. Oxidative bleaching is commonly
used for preparatory chemical processing of textiles before dyeing. Chloro-oxidative
bleaching agents were used predominantly in the earlier days, but ecological con-
cerns and many other advantages have propelled adoption of hydrogen peroxide
bleaching for almost all textiles, and hence hydrogen peroxide is now known as a
universal bleaching agent. Still, sodium hypochlorite and sodium chlorite bleaching
is adopted along with optical brightening treatment in some cases, where extra white
fabrics are required.
Bleaching with hydrogen peroxide:
Hydrogen peroxide has the best bleaching action in alkaline pH below 10.5 and
warm temperatures (below 85°C). In alkaline medium, H2O2 decomposes as per the
following reaction (Shenai 2000b):
H 2 O 2 + OH – → OOH – + H 2 O
The perhydroxy ions (OOH−) formed in the alkaline conditions decompose to pro-
vide nascent oxygen (O), which is the active bleaching component of H2O2, which
oxidizes the organic compounds including colouring matter. Above pH 10.8 and
temperature of 85°C, the formation of HO2− ions is so rapid that it decomposes to

liberate O2 gas which has no bleaching power. Stabilizers such as sodium silicate,
tetrasodium pyrophosphate and sodium tripolyphosphate form complexes with H2O2
and provide better thermal stability at higher temperatures up to 90°C–95°C.
Bleaching process using hydrogen peroxide is carried out on cotton, cotton blends
and man-made fibres at pH of 10–10.5 with 5%–10% H2O2 dosage on weight of
material, peroxide stabilizer (10% on weight of H2O2), sodium carbonate–sodium
bicarbonate pH buffer for 10.3, wetting agent (0.5% o.w.m) at a temperature of 80°C
for about 2 h. In continuous scouring-cum bleaching process, bleaching at about
50–60 m/min speed is carried out with saturation of fabric with peroxide recipe in a
saturator and steamed in J Box at a controlled temperature of 100°C for 10–15 min to
achieve desired bleaching effect in a continuous manner (Shenai 2000b). Combined
scouring-cum bleaching process at a temperature of 70°C–80°C is carried out with
5% caustic soda (NaOH), 3% H2O2, 0.5% peroxide stabilizer and 0.5% wetting agent
for 2–3 h. Protein fibres such as silk and wool are susceptible to damage in highly
alkaline conditions, hence silk bleaching is carried out at pH 8–9, while for wool,
mild alkaline pH of 8–9 and temperature of 50°C–60°C for 2 h is maintained for
bleaching.
After bleaching, bleaching efficiency is usually assessed by either one of the two
methods; i.e. evaluation of reflectance values or by assessment of whiteness index. A
reflectance value of above 80% and a whiteness index of above 75 indicate efficient
bleaching process (Shenai 2000b).
8.8 MERCERIZATION
Mercerization is a process carried out exclusively for cotton textiles, where a strong
alkali sodium hydroxide (NaOH) treatment is used to alter the fibre structure
(Vincent et al. 2006). Mercerization process of treating cotton fibre with highly alka-
line NaOH solution ensures internal modification in fibre structure due to hydrate
and soda-cellulose formations, which are capable of entering the crystalline regions,
cause fibre swelling, trigger modification in fibre structure, causes increase in amor-
phous regions and all these effects in turn increases cotton fibre moisture absorbency
and uniform distribution of dyes and chemicals. Mercerization effects fibre swell-
ing, which ensures removal of natural convolutions present in cotton fibres, better
orientation of fibrils and molecular chains along the fibre axis and reformation of
collapsed cotton fibre with bean-shaped cross section into cylindrical rod-shaped
fibre with circular cross section. This change in cotton fibre structure due to mer-
cerization results in increased fibre strength, improved lustre and better as well as
uniform absorbency (Vincent et al. 2006). Mercerization process is not only popular
as a preparatory for dyeing as it enhances absorption but also as a finishing process
as it has greater impact on final strength and appearance of the finished cotton goods.
Mercerization process is carried out by treating cotton yarns and fabric with
20%–25% caustic soda solution of 52°Tw (twaddle) concentration with the treat-
ment time ranging from 20 s to maximum 3 min (Shenai 2000b). Cold (15°C–20°C)
and hot (60°C–80°C) mercerization are the types of mercerization done under ten-
sion as well as slack conditions (Sameii et al. 2008). Higher the temperature, lower
would be the treatment time. Cotton treated under slack and cold conditions attains
improved elasticity, lower crystallinity and good absorption. High-temperature mer-
cerization bath ensures more uniform swelling and penetration, resulting in time
saving and labour and more intense and uniform colour absorption (Wakida et al.
2002). Cotton treated under tension acquires enhanced lustre coupled with improved
dimensional stability. Mercerization is carried out as preparatory chemical process
by slack and cold mercerization method to achieve better and uniform absorbency
of dyes, chemicals and auxiliaries coupled with 10%–15% savings in chemicals and
dye stuff usage during dyeing process. Some hindrances occur during cold mercer-
izing, for a given concentration, there will be more shrinkage due to swelling, which
will lead to improper penetration and non-uniform mercerizing. Mercerization bath
pH, temperature and duration of the treatment play an important role in deciding
the effect of mercerization on cotton. Mercerization is an independent prepara-
tory chemical process that could be carried out in any stage of preparatory process
sequence. Modifying the working conditions can also achieve combined merceriza-
tion and scouring effect.
8.8.1 Testing of Mercerized Material

Performance of mercerization is measured by determining the Barium number
(Shenai 2000b). Mercerized material is immersed in 0.25N barium hydroxide solu-
tion and titrated against 0.1N HCl solution to estimate barium activity number.
Barium number around 130–150 is an indication of full mercerization, between 115
and 130 indicates semi-mercerization and 100 indicated unmercerized cotton.
8.9 PRESENT TRENDS
Preparatory chemical process is the heart of textile processing that contributes sig-
nificantly for product quality and productivity. Textile industries have begun to focus
on the preparatory process as a very important stage in recent years. As many types
of methods are available to adopt for preparatory chemical processing of textiles,
textile industries now choose the best option with respect to economics, processing
sequence, time, energy and environmental concerns (Eyupoglu and Merdan 2018).
Textile materials’ pH also plays a significant role in determining the type of pre-
paratory process adopted for the given textile material. In singeing sector, loose
fibres in the yarns and fabric surface often gets held by the size, thereby singeing
process on such fabrics would become less effective. Beating and brushing devices
have been introduced in textile preparatory process sequence in the industries before
the singeing process for effective singeing, as the loose fibres embedded in the fabric
structure can be loosened and brought on fabric surface by a combined action of
beating and brushing. Singeing is not only a preparatory process but also has appli-
cation as finishing process. Knitted fabrics and cotton garments that have high ten-
dency to pilling are subjected to singeing process with cellulose enzymatic treatment
as finishing process rather than as preparatory process. Especially, cotton garments
such as chinos, cargo pants and semi-formal trousers can only be subjected to singe-
ing by enzyme treatment process (Jena et al. 2015).
In desizing sector, thermo-stable types of amylases have been introduced in

textile industry for desizing for sizes having high stickiness and which need near-
boiling temperature for effective desizing (Patel et al. 2003). Also low-temperature
activity amylases have found their application in desizing of cotton in garment form,
which have relatively easy soluble starch size.
Eco-scouring with a combination of pectinase, xylenes, cellulose and strong
sequestering agent such as ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid have now been adopted
in many textile processing houses in past decade as reduction in alkali usage is a
huge advantage from process economics, ecological consideration and effluent
load (Losonczi 2004). Enzymatic bleaching using glucose-oxidase and hexose-
oxidase enzymes liberating hydrogen peroxide during bleaching process have now
started penetrating the textile processing houses to achieve uniform whiteness in
bleaching for subsequent dyeing and other wet processing. Usually, 0.5% glucose-
oxidase enzyme along with solubilized glucose can effectively achieve bleaching at
50°C–60°C at pH of 8–8.5 in 2-h duration. Although the cost involved in such enzy-
matic bleaching is still on the higher side when compared with conventional hydro-
gen peroxide bleaching process, effective reutilization of glucanolactone from the
bleached liquor could possibly render the enzymatic bleaching to be cost-effective.
The traces of hydrogen peroxide remaining after the bleaching process in textile
processing has to be completely removed or else the oxidation effect makes the dye-
ing uneven. Conventionally, reducing agents such as sodium thiosulphate are being
used in the industry for effective removal of peroxide remaining in the bleached
goods. Again these, traces of reducing agents need to be nullified by repeated wash-
ing before dyeing; else, they reduce the dye bath, again influencing uneven dyeing
of the material. Peroxidases or catalases are now being effectively used on peroxide-
bleached goods during the acid scouring bath at a nominal dosage of 0.3% on weight
basis at pH 6 and temperature 50°C–60°C. This treatment not only eliminates the
residual peroxide on the bleached goods but also saves water, energy and chemicals
besides helping to achieve uniform dyeing (Cavaco-Paulo and Gübitz 2003). It is
one of the very common enzyme that is being used in most of the textile processing
industries.

In recent decades, many technological interventions have found their applications
in preparatory chemical processing of textiles. Concerns for environments and eco-
friendly approaches have significantly influenced the preparatory chemical pro-
cesses adopted in the textile processing industries in recent years (Kaur and Arora
2016). Textile industries have begun to focus on the preparatory process as a very
important stage in the recent years, prioritizing water consumption with a concen-
trated approach towards conservation and sustainability (Samanta et al. 2019). Many
products and extracts obtained from natural sources have found renewed interest
from the textile processing industries for shifting to eco-friendly processes and sus-
tainability (Saxena et al. 2016). An environment-friendly process of degumming silk
with high-temperature and high-pressure technique patented by CSTRI, Central Silk
Board, India can effectively degum the silk yarn without using any chemicals.
Research studies in the utilization of glucose-oxidase, hexose-oxidase and

such bleach-stable alkaline protease enzymes for textile bleaching process are
still in nascent stage and are very promising in the near future (Senthil kumar and
Gunasundari 2018).
Biotechnology is now hailed as the third technological revolution transform-
ing human lives after the industrial revolution and information technology (IT).
Biotechnology is also transforming the way textile processing activities are carried
out. The future of enzyme applications and biotechnological implementations is
bright with many new technological innovations influencing textile sector and pen-
etrating the commercial applications (Madhu and Chakraborty 2017). Eco-friendly
procedures and products have always been and will always create a niche edge in
the business and society, intensely influencing the consumer psychology (Choudhury
2017). Adoption of enzymatic processes in the textile industrial sector not only
reduces load on the effluents by avoiding chemical usage but also improves quality
and also provides a safe working atmosphere for workers.
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efficiency and pollution reduction in the textile industry. Journal of Cleaner Production
95: 30–44.
Cavaco-Paulo, A. and Gübitz, G. M. 2003. Textile Processing with Enzymes. Cambridge:
Choudhury, A. K. R. 2017. Sustainable chemical technologies for textile production. In
Sustainable Fibres and Textiles, ed. S. S. Muthu, 267–322. Cambridge: Woodhead
Publishing.
Eyupoglu, S. and Merdan, N. 2018. Eco-friendly production methods in textile wet processes.
In Sustainable Innovations in Textile Chemical Processes, ed. S. S. Muthu, 31–65.
Singapore: Springer.
Gowda, N. K. N., Padaki, N. V. and Sudhakar, R. 2004. Enzymes in textile industrial applica-
tions. Journal of the Textile Association 65(1):15–19.
Gowda, N. K. N., Padaki, N. V., Sudhakar, R. and Subramani, R. 2007. Eco-friendly prepara-
tory process for silk: Degumming by protease enzyme. Man-Made Textiles in India
50(1):28–31.
Hardin, I. R., Wilson, S. S., Lu, Y. and Lu, W. 2004. Biopreparation of cotton: Progress and
Challenges. 3rd Annual Workshop COST Action 847. Graz, Austria, 14–16 June.
Jena, B., Das, B. P., Khandual, A., Sahu, S. and Behera, L. 2015. Eco-friendly processing of
textiles. Materials Today: Proceedings 2(4–5):1776–1791.
Kaur, B. and Arora, C. R. 2016. An eco-friendly approach for wet processing of textiles.
International Journal of Science Technology and Management 5(11):99–105.
Lewin, M. and Pearce, E. M. 1998. Handbook of Fiber Chemistry. New York: Marcel Dekker Inc.
Losonczi, A. K. 2004. Bioscouring of cotton fabrics, PhD Thesis, Budapest University of
Technology and Economics.
Madhu, A. and Chakraborty, J. N. 2017. Developments in application of enzymes for textile
processing. Journal of Cleaner Production 145(1):114–133.
Padaki, N. V., Das, B. and Thirumalesh, R. M. 2015. Enzyme applications in silk process-
ing. In Advances in Silk Science and Technology, ed. A. Basu, 111–120. Cambridge:
Patel, K. J., Patel, B. H. and Patel, A. I. 2003. Eco-friendly wet processing of cotton. Asian
Textile Journal 13(8):89–93.
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cessing and sustainable approaches for its conservation. In Water in Textiles and
Fashion, Consumption, Footprint, and Life Cycle Assessment, ed. S. S. Muthu, 41–59.
Sameii, N., Mortazavi, S. M., Rashidi, A. S. and Sheikhzadah-Najar, S. 2008. An investiga-
tion on the effect of hot mercerization on cotton fabrics made up of open-end yarns.
Journal of Applied Sciences 8(22):4204–4209.
Saxena, S., Raja, A. S. M. and Arputharaj, A. 2016. Challenges in sustainable wet processing
of textiles. In Textiles and Clothing Sustainability, ed. S. S. Muthu, 43–79. Singapore:
Springer.
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Chemist and Colorist and American Dyestuff Reporter 32(12):40–43.
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Raton, FL: CRC Press.
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58:304–307.
9 Dyeing and Recent
Developments
Prithwiraj Mal
National Institute of Fashion Technology Hyderabad
Debojyoti Ganguly
National Institute of Fashion Technology Bhopal
CONTENTS
9.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................... 170
9.2 Dyes and Pigments........................................................................................ 170
9.3 Classification.................................................................................................. 171
9.3.1 Acid Dyes.......................................................................................... 172
9.3.2 Basic Dyes......................................................................................... 172
9.3.3 Direct Dyes........................................................................................ 172
9.3.4 Disperse Dyes.................................................................................... 173
9.3.5 Vat Dyes............................................................................................. 173
9.3.6 Reactive Dyes.................................................................................... 174
9.3.7 Azo Dyes........................................................................................... 174
9.3.8 Mordant Dyes.................................................................................... 174
9.3.9 Metal Complex Dyes......................................................................... 175
9.3.10 Sulphur Dyes..................................................................................... 175
9.4 Methods of Dyeing........................................................................................ 175
9.4.1 Fibre Dyeing...................................................................................... 175
9.4.1.1 Mass Coloration.................................................................. 176
9.4.1.2 Stock Dyeing....................................................................... 176
9.4.1.3 Top Dyeing.......................................................................... 176
9.4.2 Yarn Dyeing....................................................................................... 176
9.4.2.1 Hank or Skein Dyeing......................................................... 176
9.4.2.2 Cone Dyeing....................................................................... 177
9.4.2.3 Warp Dyeing....................................................................... 178
9.4.3 Fabric Dyeing.................................................................................... 178
9.4.3.1 Jigger................................................................................... 178
9.4.3.2 Winch.................................................................................. 179
9.4.3.3 Jet Dyeing Machine............................................................ 179
9.4.3.4 Beam Dyeing Machine....................................................... 179
9.4.4 Garment or Product Dyeing............................................................... 180
9.5 Recent Development in the Dyeing Process.................................................. 181
169
9.5.1 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Dyeing Technique................... 182

9.5.2 U ltrasonic Dyeing Technique............................................................ 183
9.5.3 E lectrochemical dyeing..................................................................... 183
9.5.4 A irflow Dyeing Process..................................................................... 184
9.5.5 E -Control Dyeing Process................................................................. 184
9.6 S
ummary and Conclusion.............................................................................. 185
Acknowledgement.................................................................................................. 185
References............................................................................................................... 185
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Dyeing is an important phenomenon for value addition of textile products. The cus-
tomers are attracted towards the textile materials due to colours. From the prehis-
toric times the art of dyeing was developed. At that time, different types of natural
dyes were used abundantly for the coloration of available natural fibres like linen,
cotton, wool, and silk. These dyes were extracted from different plants, insects, min-
erals, etc. Fabric was dyed by soaking it in the aqueous extraction and then dried.
After the advent of synthetic dyes, they accounted 90% of the total uses of dyestuff.
Presently, most of the industries use synthetic dyes due to their great availability,
higher reproducibility of the shade, better fastness properties, wide colour gamut and
more colour values with high affinity for the colour. Now, natural dyes are mainly
used by craft persons for small-scale production. Application of dyestuff on textile
materials is a complicated phenomenon, where visual aesthetics of the products are
improved with the application of creativity, science and technology. Chemistry of
the dyes and the application of dyestuffs are very complex processes, but with the
invention of different sophisticated machines, computer colour matching systems,
good qualities of synthetic dyes and other chemical auxiliaries, the process of dyeing
has become universal.
9.2 DYES AND PIGMENTS

Colours can be added to textiles either using dye or pigments. Pigments are those
colouring materials that are insoluble in water and do not possess attraction towards
any fibres. They are comparatively bigger in size and adhere to the surface of
textiles by binders. Dyes are water-soluble colouring materials and contain two
portions – ‘chromophores’ or colour bearing groups and ‘auxochrome’ or colour
helping groups (Gohl and Vilensky 2005). The chromophore decides the colour
of the dye molecule, whereas auxochrome intensifies the hue of the colour, fast-
ness property, solubility, etc. Certain dyes are attracted to certain fibres. They are
absorbed by the fibres and can be fixed either by chemical or physical bonds (ionic
bond, hydrogen bond and van der Waals forces of attraction) with the polymers. The
affinity of different dyes towards different fibres and the type of dye–fibre bonds
are shown in Table 9.1.
Dyeing and Recent Developments 171
TABLE 9.1
Fibres, Dyes and Types of Dye–Fibre Bonding
Fibres Dye Class Having Affinity Types of Dye–Fibre Bonds
Cellulosic (Ex: Cotton, linen, • Direct, vat, sulphur • Van der Waals force
jute, viscose rayon) • Reactive • Covalent bond
Protein and polyamide • Acid, metal complex, direct • Ionic or electrostatic bonds
(Ex: Wool, silk, nylon) • Reactive • Covalent bond
Polyester • Disperse • Van der Waals force and
Hydrogen bonding
Acrylic • Basic • Electrostatic bond
9.3 CLASSIFICATION
Dyes can be classified according to the chemical composition of the dye molecules or
according to the method of application. The classification with respect to the method
of applications of dye staff is shown in Figure 9.1 (Shenai 2000).
Natural dyes are extracted from plants and animals and are usually used for dye-
ing cotton, silk and wool. The synthetic dyes are available in ready-made form and
are either soluble or insoluble in water. Soluble synthetic dyes are directly soluble in
water, whereas insoluble synthetic dyes are not soluble in water in their parent form
but soluble after certain treatments. For example, vat and sulphur dyes are insolu-
ble in their parent form but soluble once they are reduced; disperse dyes are spar-
ingly soluble in water and solubilize completely in hot water. Ingrain dyes are not
FIGURE 9.1 Classification of dyes.

ready-made dyes, and colours are formed in the fibre by a combination of two dif-
ferent components. Azo dye is an example of ingrain dye, and its colour is formed in
the fibre by a combination of two different components, namely napthol and base. A
brief of various dyes is given later.
9.3.1 Acid Dyes
Acid dyes are usually applied to natural protein fibres like wool and silk and polyam-
ide fibres like nylon. These dyes are applicable for those fibres that have amino groups
(-NH2-) (Gohl and Vilensky 2005; Roy Choudhury 2011; Lewis 1992). The colour
gamut of acid dyes is complete, including greens and blacks. The dyes are available as
powders, grains and liquids for continuous dyeing, and as fine dispersions of soluble
types. Chemically, these dyes are sodium salt of sulphonic acids (D-SO3Na). Some
dyes have carboxylic acid groups in their structure. Due to the presence of sulphonic
acid groups, acid dyes have very good solubility in water. These sulphonic acid groups
attach with the basic group of protein fibres through ionic bond. Depending upon the
concentration of acid used in the dye bath, acid dyes can be classified into four classes,
namely levelling acid dyes (pH 2–4), fast acid dyes (pH 4–5), milling acid dyes (pH
5–7) and super milling acid dyes (pH 6–7) (Roy Choudhury 2011).
9.3.2 Basic Dyes
Basic dyes are also known as cationic dyes due to the formation of cations after
dissolution in water (Trotman 1985; Roy Choudhury 2011). These dyes are soluble
in alcohol and methylated spirit but insoluble in water. However, they are better
solubilized in hot and cold water along with little acetic acid and methylated spirit,
respectively. The main characteristics of basic dyes are their brilliance in shade and
intensity of colour. Wool and silk fibres dyed with basic dyes have poor light fastness
and poor to moderate washing fastness. It is found that these dyes are best suitable
for acrylic fibres and give very bright shade with good light fastness. Basic dyes do
not have any affinity towards cotton fibres, but can be applied in the presence of tan-
nic acid, which acts as a mordant.
9.3.3 Direct Dyes
The chemical structure of direct dyes is same as that of acid dyes. The first direct
dye, Congo Red, was developed in 1884. Due to the presence of sulphonic acid
group, direct dyes are soluble in water and show good affinity towards cellulosic
fibres. Many of the direct dyes can also dye protein fibres. These dyes get attached
to cellulosic fibres by physical bonds. The dyeing is carried out in the presence of
common salt (exhausting agent) and soda ash. The fastness properties of direct dyes
are poor; hence, these dyes are used in low-priced viscose or blended curtain fab-
rics, cheap cotton apparel, casual wear and bedspread, low-quality discharge print
material, etc. After treatment of the dyed materials are required to improve fast-
ness. Normally, diazotization of the dyes with coupling component and treatment
of formaldehyde, metal salt, and cationic fixing agent are done for better fastness.
9.3.4 Disperse Dyes
Disperse dyes are water-insoluble or sparingly soluble dyes, but the solubility
increases with the increase in temperature of the dye solution (Shenai 2000; Roy
Choudhury 2011). These dyes have affinity towards hydrophobic fibres like polyes-
ter and cellulose triacetate applied in aqueous dispersion form. Disperse dyes are
non-ionic and sublime in nature. The sublimation property of disperse dye is used
to dye polyester fabric using thermosol dyeing process and heat transfer printing
process. In both processes, the dye dissolves in polyester in vapour state at higher
temperatures (195°C–205°C). Molecular weight of the disperse dyes are low and
mainly derived from azo, anthraquinone and diphenylamine. During dyeing pro-
cess, these dyes are mixed with dispersing agent (like Setamol WS) for the forma-
tion of stable dispersion in the dye bath. The washing fastness of disperse dyes are
good, but the fastness to ironing is poor due to their sublimation property; usually
the colour of disperse dyed fabrics fade while ironing. Some disperse dyed textiles
show a tendency to fade when they are stored in an atmosphere having fumes from
gas heaters.
9.3.5 Vat Dyes
Vat dyes are among the oldest natural colouring matter used for textile materials.
Indigo is one of the natural vat dyes used in India since prehistoric time. Vat dyes
(parent vat dye) are insoluble in water but become soluble after treatment with reduc-
ing agent and alkali. Further to the chemical reduction process, these dyes can also
be reduced by fermentation process. Vat dyes in the soluble form are known as ‘leuco
vat dye’, which have good affinity towards textile materials. After completion of
dyeing of textile with leuco form of vat dye, it is re-oxidized in presence of aerial
oxygen or other oxidizing agents into the insoluble parent vat dye. Dyeing with vat
dyes involve the following four different steps (Trotman 1985; Roy Choudhury 2011).
• Vatting – Dissolution of vat dyes takes place under alkaline reducing condi-
tion with the help of sodium hydrosulphite and sodium hydroxide.
• Dyeing – Material is impregnated into dissolved vat dyes to absorb.
• Oxidation – The reduced absorbed dyes are oxidized in the presence of
aerial oxygen or some oxidizing agents like hydrogen peroxide and convert
it into its insoluble state.
• After treatment – The dyed fabric is washed thoroughly in the presence of
detergent and soda ash to remove any unfixed dyes from the fabric surface.
Chemically, vat dyes are classified into two classes, anthraquinoid vat dyes and indi-
goid vat dyes. According to the way of application, vat dyes are categorized into four
classes, namely IK (application temperature is 45°C), IW (application temperature
is 50°C), IN (application temperature is 60°C) and INS (application temperature is
60°C) (Shenai 2000). The overall fastness properties of vat dyes are superior and
cost is on the higher side. Normally, these dyes are used to create pale to medium
shades.
9.3.6 Reactive Dyes
These dyes are the youngest class of dyestuff for cellulosic material. Other classes
of dyes are attached with the textile material either by ionic bond or physical attrac-
tion. Reactive dyes attach with the cellulosic material by covalent bond formation.
The reactive dyes have a wide range of shades, good fastness properties, high bril-
liancy, easy application method and high reproducibility (Shore 1995; Shenai 2000).
The structure of reactive dyes has a reactive group and a chromophore, which con-
tains the colour. The reactive group of the dyes reacts and forms covalent bond
with the fibre. During dyeing process, soda ash is required to maintain alkaline pH
to fix the dyestuff with fibre. Reactive dyes are divided into two main categories,
namely cold brand and hot brand. Cold brand reactive dyes are applied in cold tem-
perature (45°C–50°C), whereas hot brand reactive dyes require high temperature
(95°C–100°C) for dyeing. Reactive dyes can also be applied on wool, silk and nylon
fibres. Although these dyes have very high fixation ratio, proper soaping and washing
are required after dyeing to remove all unfixed and hydrolyzed dyes from the fibre
surface. Perspiration fastness of reactive dyes is very poor.
9.3.7 Azo Dyes
Azo dyes are an example of ingrain dyes. These dyes are not ready-made dyes but are
produced within the fibre using two different components, i.e. ‘napthol’ and ‘base’
by an irreversible chemical reaction called ‘coupling’. The colour compound thus
formed by coupling reaction is insoluble in water and thereby exhibits an extremely
good fastness to wet treatments. Azo dyes are also called ‘ice-colours’ as the dyeing
is carried out in cold temperature (0°C–5°C). Along with excellent colour fastness
to washing, these dyes have excellent colour fastness to light. However, these dyes
suffer a poor colour fastness to rubbing, which can be improved by proper soaping
treatment. Azo dyes give very bright shade over the cotton fabric. Dyeing cotton with
azo dye involves the following steps.
• Naptholation – impregnation of cotton into napthol.

• Diazotization – development of chromophore.
• Coupling – development of colour compound within fibre.
• Soaping – removal of surface colour from the dyed fibre.
9.3.8 Mordant Dyes
Chrome dyes or acid mordant dyes have additional groups that allow the dye to form
a stable coordination compound with chromium or with the fibre to improve the
light and washing fastness of dyestuffs. The dyeing is carried out in the presence of
sodium dichromate as mordant. Chromium mordant can be applied in three different
stages, namely chrome mordant process (chroming is done before dyeing), after-
chrome process (chroming is done after dyeing) and meta-chrome process (chrom-
ing and dyeing is carried out simultaneously). Due to their cost-effectiveness, high
fastness values and intensity of shade, chrome dyes are used widely in industries.
However, effluent discharge has become a big problem for these dyes (Gohl and
Vilensky 2005).
9.3.9 Metal Complex Dyes

As the name of the dyes implies, one metal atom, commonly chromium, has been
introduced in the dye molecule during its manufacture. These dyes are used for pro-
tein fibres like silk, wool and synthetic fibres like nylon. The metal can be complexed
with either one (1:1) or two (1:2) molecules of a typically monoazo dyes (Trotman
1985). Fastness of these dyes is superior to conventional acid dyes. Dyeing proce-
dure with metal complex dyes are almost same as acid dyes, but the amount of acid
required is less. For 1:1 metal complex dyes, more acid is required than 1:2 metal
complex dyes, which results in less damaging condition.
9.3.10 Sulphur Dyes
Sulphur dyes are the most economically used dye class. Most of the dye structure of
these dye class are still unknown. Similar to vat dyes, parent sulphur dyes are also
insoluble in water but are soluble in the presence of sodium sulphide, which acts as
a reducing agent. The fabric dyed with these dyes acquires good washing fastness
and moderate light fastness (Shore 1995). However, the colour fastness to chlorine
is poor. Usually these dyes are used to create dark shades like black, olive, and
navy over the cellulosic material. Exhaustion of these dyestuffs is moderate to poor;
hence, reuse of the dye bath is done to reduce effluent pollution. These dyes are also
used widely for denim fabrics. Sulphur dyes have a tendency to give metallic shine
or ‘bronziness’ when over dyeing on fabric surface or aerial exposure of the dyes
takes place. Some of the sulphur dyes, when stored in high temperature and moisture
condition, cause degradation of cellulosic material due to the formation of sulphuric
acid owing to oxidation of the dyestuff. This problem can be minimized by thorough
cleaning and alkaline rinsing of the material before final stage of washing.
9.4 METHODS OF DYEING
Colours can be added to textiles either in fibre or yarn or fabric or product form
depending on the quality of end use and colour effect. Better dye penetration is pos-
sible in fibre stage than yarn, fabric and product. During dyeing in the fibre stage,
dye liquor is free to move between adjacent fibres, resulting in better dyeing effect.
Various stages of dyeing textiles have been discussed in this section.
9.4.1 Fibre Dyeing
In this stage of dyeing, loose fibres are dyed before they are spun into yarn. Fibres
can be dyed either during fibre spinning or when they are in loose stock form or in
sliver/top form (Trotman 1985; Shore 1995; Shenai 2000). The various stages of fibre
dyeing are explained.
9.4.1.1 Mass Coloration
‘Mass coloration’ or ‘dope dyeing’ or ‘solution dyeing’ is dyeing of fibres during fibre
spinning stage. In this process, the dye is dispersed uniformly in the spinning solu-
tion before the fibre is formed. The spinning solution is then extracted through the
spinneret and then solidified to filaments/fibres. The fibre formed is therefore dyed.
Since dope dyeing does not require a separate process and chemicals for dyeing, the
cost of dyeing is less and effluent treatment is not required.
9.4.1.2 Stock Dyeing
Dyeing of fibres before spinning into yarn is known as stock dyeing (Figure 9.2).
Loose fibres are dyed by putting them in a closed perforated casing in a closed ves-
sel. The vessel contains dye liquor, and the perforated cage is immersed completely
in the dye liquor. The dye liquor is made to circulate through the casing and fibres
are dyed. Circulation of dye liquor is reversed to ensure even dyeing (Trotman 1985;
Shore 1995; Shenai 2000).
9.4.1.3 Top Dyeing
Top dyeing is dyeing of fibres in top form before they are spun into yarn. Tops are
loose ropes or slivers of combed wool. The loose wool ropes are wound into balls and
are placed on perforated spindles and then enclosed in a tank. The dye is pumped in
and out through the wool till the fibres are dyed completely.
9.4.2 Yarn Dyeing
In this stage of dyeing, yarns are dyed before they are converted into fabrics. Plaids,
check pattern, stripe patterns, colour jacquards, silk shot, etc. are few examples of
yarn-dyed fabrics. Yarns may be dyed in different forms like hank, cone, warp, etc.
9.4.2.1 Hank or Skein Dyeing
Loosely wound hanks or skeins are immersed into a tank containing dye liquor
(Trotman 1985; Shore 1995; Shenai 2000). The hanks are usually suspended into the
dye liquor from a flat shaft and hanks are rotated manually (Figure 9.3).
FIGURE 9.2 Loose stock dyeing machine.

FIGURE 9.3 Hank dyeing machine.
9.4.2.2 Cone Dyeing
Yarns are loosely wound on small perforated spools to form soft packages. These
spools are fit into a carrier. The carrier consists of several perforated spindles, and
the soft packages are put one above the other on these perforated spindles. The car-
rier is then loaded in a closed vessel, and dye liquor is circulated from outside vessel
through the package to inside the spindle (outside-in) and then outwardly through
the yarn package to the outer liquor vessel (inside-out). The flow of dye liquor is
controlled by a pump (Figure 9.4).
FIGURE 9.4 Cone dyeing machine.

9.4.2.3 Warp Dyeing
It is similar to cone or package dyeing, where an entire warp beam is dyed instead
of cones/packages. The warp sheet is wound on a perforated warp beam. The warp
beam is then placed in a closed dyeing vessel, and the dye liquor is circulated from
outside-in and inside-in with the help of a reversible pump. This is usually used for
woven fabrics.
9.4.3 Fabric Dyeing
Fabric dyeing is also known as ‘piece dyeing’ in which woven or knitted fabrics
are dyed in piece. Piece dyeing is the most common method of dyeing textiles and
produces solid colour fabrics (Trotman 1985; Shore 1995; Shenai 2000). However,
colour patterns are possible using resist dyeing techniques. For heavy and dense
fabrics or for fabrics made from highly twisted yarns, either yarn dyeing or fibre
dyeing is preferred over piece dyeing as colour may not exhaust properly and result
in uneven dyeing. Piece dyeing is comparatively cheaper than fibre and yarn dyeing.
Fabrics can be dyed using several methods like jigger, winch, jet, beam, etc.
9.4.3.1 Jigger
A jigger is a V-shaped vessel containing dye liquor in which fabric is dyed in open
width form (Figure 9.5). The liquor is heated with a help of a steam pipe located at
the bottom of the jigger. Jigger has a pair of guide roll, an immersion roll and two
rolls to hold the fabric. The fabric is drawn from one roll to another roll for several
cycles until sufficient dyeing takes place. After completion of dyeing, the dye liquor
is drained from the vessel and filled with soap liquor followed by water for soaping
and rinsing, respectively. The fabric is under tension during dyeing, which may dam-
age or degrade the hand of the material, especially materials like lightweight delicate
fabrics, knitted fabrics and stretched woven fabrics. The fabrics that are prone to
FIGURE 9.5 Jigger dyeing machine.

crease in rope form are dyed in jigger. Level dyeing is a challenge in this process as
there is a chance of shade variation from the centre to the selvedge or from end to
end of the fabric piece.
9.4.3.2 Winch
A winch consists of a vessel with curved back and an elliptical winch at the top,
rotated individually by an electrical motor. The vessel is filled with dye liquor, which
is heated with a steam pipe located at the bottom of the vessel (Figure 9.6). Fabric in
a loose rope form is dyed in a winch machine. The rotating winch is the prime mover
of the fabric, which is piled inside dye liquor for adequate dyeing. As the winch
machine has a curved back, the piled fabric slides along it and acquires a wavy shape
and move towards the front side of the machine. Unlike jigger, most of the fabric is
immersed in dye solution in winch dyeing machine and the exhaustion of dye into
the textile is obtained by continuous immersion rather than undue tension on the
fabric (Trotman 1985; Shore 1995; Shenai 2000). This method is thus used to dye
lightweight delicate fabrics, knitted fabrics and stretchable woven fabrics.
9.4.3.3 Jet Dyeing Machine

Jet dyeing machine consists of a dyeing vessel, a jet and a circular pump. The fabric
is circulated in a rope form by the dye liquor, which is forced through a narrow jet
that moves the fabric with the jet at great speed. As both the fabric as well the dye
liquor is made to move, the fabric remains in contact with the dye liquor for a longer
period of time and results in rapid dyeing (Figure 9.7). A low liquor ratio is required
that contributes to economizing the process. However, dyeing of fabric with low-
dimensional stability should be avoided using a jet dyeing machine.
9.4.3.4 Beam Dyeing Machine

Beam dyeing is similar to cone dyeing machine, where the fabric is dyed instead of
yarns in cone form. It consists of a large-diameter perforated beam on which the
fabric is wound and then moved into an autoclave or pressure vessel (Figure 9.8).
FIGURE 9.6 Winch dyeing machine.

FIGURE 9.7 Jet dyeing machine.
FIGURE 9.8 Beam dyeing machine.
The machine has a reversible flow system similar to cone dyeing machine, i.e. inside-
out and outside-in. The dye liquor is then forced through the fabric wound on the
beam using an effective pump. An option of high temperature and high pressure
enhances the rate of dyeing. Lightweight and open constructed fabrics are usually
dyed effectively in a beam dyeing machine. Heavyweight and close constructed fab-
rics cannot be dyed in a beam dyeing machine owing to poor penetration. Moreover,
the fabric is not subjected to stress during dyeing and can be dyed in open width form
(Trotman 1985; Shore 1995; Shenai 2000).
9.4.4 Garment or Product Dyeing

Garments or products are dyed usually in paddle machine or rotary drum. The paddle
machine or rotary drum bath is filled with dye liquor, and garments or products are
FIGURE 9.9 Paddle dyeing machine.
FIGURE 9.10 Rotary drum dyeing machine.
circulated in the bath by a paddle or by rotation of the drum. Rotary drum is more
preferred for garments or products that require gentler treatment. A schematic dia-
gram of a paddle machine and rotary drum dyer are shown in Figures 9.9 and 9.10,
respectively.
9.5 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN THE DYEING PROCESS

Textile wet processing requires a large amount of energy and water. During dye-
ing of textiles, along with the dyes, other chemicals are required, which are used
as auxiliaries either for accelerating or retarding the dyeing rate at high tempera-
ture to transfer the dyes from the dyeing liquor across the surface of the textile
material uniformly in a reasonable time. Recent developments in the textile chemi-
cal processing emphasizes on the conservation of energy, usage of less amount of
water and reduced chemical content in the water to control water pollution. Various
new technologies of non-aqueous dyeing process like use of radio frequency, elec-
trochemical dyeing, microwaves, infrared heating, supercritical carbon dioxide,
vapour phase dyeing process, E-control dyeing process, etc. are developed to over-
come these problems.
9.5.1 Supercritical Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Dyeing Technique

During dyeing process, huge amount of water is used as a solvent for dyes and chemi-
cals. Therefore, a lot of effluents are generated, and a large amount of energy is
required to dry the fabric. To eliminate this problem, certain gases can be used,
which can replace water as a solvating medium. Dyeing requires high tempera-
ture and gases cannot be liquefied at that temperature. However, high pressure can
increase the density of gas and can liquefy it. This highly compressed gas is called
‘supercritical fluid’. At high pressure and temperature, the supercritical fluids can
dissolve the dyes (Kraan et al. 2007; Schmidt et al. 2003; Saus et al. 1993). These
fluids also have very good penetration properties. Some examples of existing sub-
stances, which exhibit supercritical phases, are carbon dioxide, ethane, propane and
ammonia. Among these, carbon dioxide is most popular due to its convenient super-
critical temperature, low cost, non-toxicity, chemical stability, non-flammability,
relatively higher density, easy recovery and reuse and chemically inert nature.
Moreover, it offers environmental advantages, as it is not considered as a volatile
organic compound like other traditional solvents. Most of the dyeing has been car-
ried out on polyester, nylon, wool and silk. Polyester can be dyed by supercritical
dyeing technique in the available industrial dyeing machines that are used to dye
polyester fibre. In the present available machine, polyester is dyed in a package form.
After setting the dye bath using disperse dyes, the temperature should be raised to
125°C–130°C with 30 MPa pressure. The time requirement of the dyeing process is
30–45 min. Finally, the pressure should be gradually reduced to recover carbon diox-
ide. The dye uptake is reported as 100%, and after the dyeing process, no reduction
clearing is required. The solubility of the dyes increases with increased pressure. At
high temperature, the diffusion rate of the dye in the polymer is increased, thus the
dyeing time is less. It is observed that the diffusion coefficient of the dyes dissolved
in the supercritical carbon dioxide is higher than in water (Saus et al. 1993). If dye-
ing of supercritical carbon dioxide is compared with conventional dyeing process,
then it is observed that the cost of waste treatment and converting the water into
acceptable quality for conventional dyeing process is a serious concern. On the other
hand, supercritical fluid dyeing process completely eliminates the usage of water and
other chemical auxiliaries. The problem of effluent treatment is nil here. Further, the
energy consumption is 80% less than the conventional process, and the dyeing time
is only 1.5–2 h when compared with 3–4 h for conventional process.
Although this dyeing process gives best result on polyester fibre, it is less suitable
for polar fibres like cotton. Cotton displays less solubility in supercritical carbon
dioxide, and the fluid imparts little or no swelling and is unable to break the hydro-
gen bonds present in the cotton fibres. Further, the polar dyes used for this dyeing
process show less solubility in supercritical fluid. A lot of research has been car-
ried out to overcome this problem, such as chemical modification of the polar fibre
(Ozcan et al. 1998), use of reactive disperse dyes (Kraan et al. 2007; Schmidt et al.
2003), modification of existing polar dyes (Sawada et al. 2006), etc. The possibility
of dyeing polyacrylonitrile (Jun et al. 2005), polylactic acid, polyamide fibres (Bach
et al. 2006), polypropylene (Miyazaki et al. 2012), wool and cotton using disperse
dyes have also been investigated.
9.5.2 Ultrasonic Dyeing Technique

Ultrasound is the sound with wave frequencies higher than the upper audible limit of
human hearing of about 20,000 Hz. In textile chemical processing, various accelerat-
ing and retarding chemicals are used, which at high temperature activates the rate
of dyeing. Similarly, ultrasound helps to increase the acceleration of dye molecules
towards fibre structure (Saligram et al. 1993). Ultrasound reduces the dyeing time
by increasing the diffusion coefficient and chemical consumption and improves the
product quality, thereby reducing thermal energy consumption. Ultrasound creates
cavitation at the time when the waves are absorbed inside the dye liquor. These
cavitation releases entrapped gases from the liquid and the fibre pores. The use of
ultrasound can create three-way effects in dyeing, namely dispersion, degassing
and diffusion (Kamel et al. 2002). During dispersion, micelles and high-molecular-
weight aggregates breaks up into uniform dispersion in the dye bath. During degas-
sing, dissolved and entrapped gasses or air molecules from the fibre cavities and
interstices are removed, and during diffusion, the rate of diffusion of the dyestuff
inside the fibre structures are accelerated due to mobilization of the dye molecules.
Ultrasound can be generated from whistles, hooters, sirens or by piezoelectric and
magnatostrictive transducers. The efficiency of the ultrasound waves depends on the
intensity of waves, temperature and vapour pressure of the liquid and particle size of
the dyestuff. Ultrasound dyeing process can be carried out for cotton, nylon, wool,
flax, polyester and angora in woven as well as knitted form. The dyeing can also be
done in continuous as well as exhaust process.
9.5.3 Electrochemical dyeing
This process is developed and patented by DyStar with technical collaboration with
Institute for Textile Chemistry and Textile Physics of Innsbruck University, Austria
and the machinery manufacturer Thies (Anon 2004) and suitable for vat, indigo sul-
phur and reactive dyes. DyStar developed Indanthren Blue EBC, the first vat dye for
electrochemical dyeing process.
In this process of dyeing with vat dye, instead of sodium hydrosulphite (reducing
agent), electron from an electric current is used. The electrochemical techniques
are of two types – indirect and direct electrochemical dyeing. In indirect electro-
chemical dyeing, only one reducing agent is added alike conventional dyeing pro-
cess, which is oxidized after the dyes are reduced. The oxidized reducing agent is
then reduced at cathode surface and becomes ready for dye reduction. Dispersed
vat dyestuffs can be electrochemically reduced by indirect electrolysis using iron–
triethanolamine complex as a reducing agent (Kulandainathan et al. 2007). In
direct electrochemical dyeing, organic dyestuffs are directly reduced when it is in
contact with an electrode surface. This technique is used for both vat and sulphur
dyes. To start the reaction, some amount of reducing agent is required initially to
start the solubility of vat dyes. After the reaction starts, the process itself becomes
self-sustaining. The dyestuff particles become contacted with the electrical cathode
to get reduced. The atmospheric oxygen present in the dye solution re-oxidizes the
dyestuff molecule. Graphite granules are used as an electrode material so that the
surface area of the reactor increases. The dye bath is circulated continuously to reach
the threshold conversion rate (Roessler and Jin 2003). A lot of research is carried out
on the electrochemical process application on reactive dyes (Fan et al. 2017) and the
use of electrochemistry on effluent treatment (Lopez-Grimau et al. 2012).
9.5.4 Airflow Dyeing Process

In airflow dyeing process, air is used as a transporting medium instead of water. The
process was invented by Wilhelm Christ and subsequently patented in 1978. Later,
according to the requirement of the industry, the process was modified (Adrion
2008).
The airflow is used as an ideal transport medium for the fabric in the machine. In
this process, the nozzle pressure is minimally lower than that of the jet nozzle, due
to which optimum protection of the delicate surface of the fabric is achieved. Owing
to moisture-saturated airflow inside the machine, uniform temperature throughout
the surface of the fabric is achieved. Hence, evenness and the reproducibility of the
dyeing process are improved. Exhaustion and absorption of dyestuff take place in a
single dyeing process. Two tanks are used, one for the salt solution that is injected
into the dyeing autoclave and is dissolved automatically. The second tank is used
for the chemicals and dyestuff. Both are prepared simultaneously while the salt is
retained in the saline solution tank.
The newly developed THEN AIRFLOW® SYNERGY shows a number of advan-
tages and technical possibilities. This method is suitable for all types of fabrics
(except 100% wool) in a weight range of 50–800 g/square metre as well as for all
standard dyestuffs. The liquor ratio is very low, i.e. 1:2 for synthetic fibres and 1:3 to
1:4 for natural fibres. Total energy saving is 40% and the process is faster (25% less
time required when compared with the conventional dyeing process). Lowest water
consumption and less effluent generation give sound solution on environmental pol-
lution by this dyeing technique (Then Airflow 2018).
9.5.5 E-Control Dyeing Process

E-Control dyeing process was developed jointly by DyStar and Monforts for dyeing
of cellulosic fabric with reactive dyes. This process is one of the recent develop-
ments for continuous dyeing process with minimal salt usage (Dhobi et al. 2018).
The advantages of using this process are full gamut of shade range, excellent repro-
ducibility of the shade (due to high lab to bulk co-relation), no salt is used resulting
in low cost, less migration due to rapid fixation of humidity control, lower energy
cost, less water consumption (Anon 2003). In this process, the fabric is first padded
with the solution of dyestuff, wetting agent, anti-migrating agent, hygroscopic agent
(urea) and soda ash. Soda ash is mixed with the dye solution just before dyeing.
After padding, the fabric is entered inside a hot-flue drier at a temperature range of
120°C–130°C with a controlled humidity of 25%–30% volume to obtain fixation in
2–3 min. It is observed that in case of conventional dyeing process the temperature
on the goods can drop at 50°C–55°C. At this moment the exact temperature of the
fabric depends on the humidity of the drying chamber. In case of E-Control system,
saturated steam is injected into the drying chamber. Due to the saturated steam, the
humidity inside the chamber rises up to 25%–30%. Humidity inside the chamber is
controlled by Pleva humidity sensor. Due to rise of humidity inside the drying cham-
ber, the resulting temperature on the surface of the fabric becomes 69°C–71°C. It is
observed that the fabric must be inside the hot-flue for 2–3 min. All the Levafix and
the Ramazol dyes by Dystar are suitable for E-Control dyeing process. These dyes
are suitable due to high rate of fixation, excellent robustness to dyeing parameters,
able to generate non-phototropic recipes, good pad liquor stability with soda ash,
better reproducibility of the shade and low tailing tendency.

Dyeing is an important phenomenon for aesthetic upgradation of textile products.
Different types of natural dyes and synthetic dyes are used for textile coloration.
However, synthetic dyes are more preferred by the industry due to their great avail-
ability, higher reproducibility of the shade, better fastness properties, wide colour
gamut and more colour values. Dyeing textile materials is a complex phenomenon
and requires the application of creativity, science and technology. Therefore, under-
standing dyes, their methods and recent developments is of utmost importance. This
chapter presents an overview of dyes and pigments, their classification, various meth-
ods of dyeing of textiles in various forms and recent developments in dyeing. A brief
of various dyes, their properties and advantages and disadvantages was discussed.
Various methods of dyeing of textiles in different forms (fibre, yarn, fabric and gar-
ment) have been discussed. Finally, recent developments in dyeing techniques like
supercritical carbon dioxide dyeing, ultrasonic dyeing, electrochemical dyeing, air-
flow dyeing and E-control dyeing were also discussed. These latest developments
are in the view to increase utilization of dyeing, energy saving and minimization of
effluent.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
A special thanks to Aheriya Mal (daughter of Dr Prithwiraj Mal) for contributing her
creativity, skill and hard work towards drawing all the figures in this chapter, without
which the chapter may not have been complete.
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10 Printing and Recent
Developments
Rasiah Ladchumananandasivam
UFRN, Postgraduate Programme in Mechanical
Engineering, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte
Iris Oliveira Da Silva and Luciani

Paola Rocha Cruz Barros
UFRN, Department of Textile Engineering,
Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte
Elisângela Bezerra das Neves Holanda

SENAC, National Trade Learning Service
of Rio Grande do Norte
CONTENTS
10.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................... 188
10.2 Traditional Techniques.................................................................................. 188
10.2.1 Block Printing.................................................................................... 189
10.2.2 Screen Printing.................................................................................. 189
10.2.3 Localized Screen Printing................................................................. 189
10.2.4 Rotary Screen Printing...................................................................... 189
10.2.5 Corrosion Printing............................................................................. 190
10.2.6 Resist Printing................................................................................... 190
10.2.7 Devoré Printing................................................................................. 191
10.3 Inkjet Printing................................................................................................ 191
10.3.1 Transfer by Sublimation.................................................................... 192
10.3.2 Digital Printing.................................................................................. 192
10.3.3 Inkjet Technology.............................................................................. 192
10.4 Developments of Modern Technologies in Printing...................................... 194
10.4.1 Dip Coating........................................................................................ 195
10.4.2 3D Printing........................................................................................ 195
10.4.3 Hydrographic or Immersion Printing................................................ 196
10.4.3.1 Substrate Requirements to Be Used.................................... 197
10.4.3.2 Productivity of the Process................................................. 197
10.4.3.3 Environmental Considerations............................................ 198
10.4.4 Smart Textiles.................................................................................... 198
10.5 Summary....................................................................................................... 198
References............................................................................................................... 199
187
10.1 INTRODUCTION
The textile printing process is a very old finishing process that has gradually
evolved over time. It has been the subject of research and innovation covering the
concept of machinery, processes and products, giving rise to multiple effects and
properties associated with the printed product. At present, printing is considered
as an important factor that adds quality to the final product, with a high value-
added potential.
The earliest prints emerged before the Christian era and were made in India
and Indonesia. The Egyptians created the prints in the ‘Eoptic’ period in the 5th
and 6th century BC. The Phoenicians produced the first printed textiles using the
wooden block method. Another method used was the stencil in different printing
forms, besides embroidery in rich and vibrant colours (Anvil Graphic Design, Inc.
2005).
Europe’s modern printing method was derived from Indian printing in the mid-
17th century by land across Persia, reaching Germany, France and England. In 1690,
Richmond-on-Thames in France started the first printing production based on a large
quantity of cotton cloth imported from India (Tyler 2005).
In 1801, Joseph-Marie Jacquard developed the first digitized textile process. His
idea consisted of a system in which each coloured warp yarn could be indepen-
dently driven on the loom. In this way, it became possible to form more complex
designs (Tyler 2005). In 1951, Siemens introduced the first commercial inkjet printer
(INKJET) called Elema Oscilomink (Yamane 2008).
In the 1970s emerged the first technology of digital textile printing in the United
States named the Milliken’s Millitron system, and in Austria named the Zimmer’s
Chromojet system, and both became the standard method of modern production.
The Millitron system, equipped with 10–20 jets/inch, utilized the computer injec-
tion dyeing system, in which continuous streams of colourants are controlled with
deflection by air jets. This process is known as atomization, and the resolution
was not good. In the following decades, Millitron technology has been perfected
and uses solenoid valve activated inkjets, with over 13,000 micro-injectors, which
allow a detailed presentation of the design in large formats. The Chromojet sys-
tem is based on the drop-on-demand solenoid valve principle, and the computer-
controlled valves eject the colourants directly to the substrates. These printers are
designed specifically for printing broadloom carpet and tiles, and printing qual-
ity is as good as 10–20 mesh of conventional printing technology (Dawson and
Hawkyard 2000).
10.2 TRADITIONAL TECHNIQUES
Among the production stages of clothing, the printing process is one of the most
ancient techniques, precise and demanding, being the most that resembles with
the art. The textile printing is the process, which consists of applying one or more
colours to the textile substrate, most often in the form of drawing, through specific
techniques giving beauty and adding value to the end product (Araújo and Melo e
Castro 1984).
Printing and Recent Developments 189
10.2.1 Block Printing
The first prints were created in India and Indonesia, where they were carried out by
wooden blocks carved in raised surfaces, which received colours and then marked
on the fabric as a clear print. Even in Asia, around the 16th century, prints were pro-
duced by batik technique. This technique consists of applying drawings with wax on
the textile substrate and then the dyeing is performed. The part covered by wax does
not absorb the natural dyes (Pezzolo 2009).
10.2.2 Screen Printing
The printing process was progressing, and at the end of the 19th century, a tech-
nique of printing was created with the screens, also known as silk screen printing.
This process is based on the application of a printing paste (means of transport and
fixation of pigments and dyes on the fabric), which contains a mixture of various
substances on targeted areas of the textile substrate by flat screens. These screens
(frames) are assembled by combining a frame that can be made of metal or wood
associated with the synthetic fabrics with nylon or polyester fibres (Kasikovic et al.
2016).
10.2.3 Localized Screen Printing

When the prints are localized or in relatively small production batches, screens are
used to adapt the print, while for larger batches of production, use of automatic
screens facilitate continuous prints with a limited extension. The basic difference
between these processes are that the use of manual screens is characterized by the
textile substrate being fixed, where in the automatic frames, the textile substrate
moves through a blanket to the extent of the pattern (Kasikovic et al. 2016). The
principle of these processes is forcing the exit of the printing paste through the holes
in the screen. It is possible through the pressure applied by the squeegee (a device
that distributes the printing paste along the extension of the screen), thus printing the
design by absorption on the textile substrate. For each, the colour to be printed will
depend on the type of fibres or pigments. It is widely used as the process is simple
and at the same time affordable (Kasikovic et al. 2016).
10.2.4 Rotary Screen Printing

Due to the higher demand for printed products, there was a need to increase the pro-
duction rate. Thus, in the 1960s, the first rotary screen-printing machine was cre-
ated, which is still being the most widely used machine (Miles 2003). This process
operated at high speeds, around 30–70 m/min, and the speed depends on the type
of squeegee, fabric design and fabric quality, and it is an automated system. It has
the same principle of screen printing, where it uses rotary metal screen (cylinders)
engraved in low relief. The printing paste and the doctor blade are incorporated on
the machine cylinders. The printing machine features a blanket that moves the fab-
ric and, where the cylinders are mounted, the fabric is in contact with the substrate.
With the actuation of this machine, the blanket moves and the cylinder acquires
rotational movement. The speed of rotation interferes with the contact time between
the cylinder and the textile substrate, which can affect the rate of shear and pres-
sure hydrodynamics. Printing by rotating cylinders is performed from systems of
metallic blades or magnetic bars where, through pressure forces the output of the
printing paste, so that the design is transferred to the textile substrate (Rodrigues
et al. 2006). The engraving of the cylindrical screens can also be performed with
the use of a device or through a wax inkjet or laser. The choice of mesh (holes) of
the cylinders will depend on the degree of absorption of the substrate and the level
of detail of the print. The repeat of the pattern is limited by the circumference of
the cylinder.
In this process, it is also important to check the properties of the print paste that is
deposited on the textile substrate. Among the properties, pH and viscosity are impor-
tant variables. The thickener is responsible for the viscosity of the paste; therefore,
it is necessary to know its rheology, to know what conditions it should be used to
obtain best performance of the printing process, avoiding the phenomenon of migra-
tion and better distribution of the paste around the contour regions. Therefore, print-
ing with rotating screens, despite achieving high production speeds, features many
variables (rotation speed, diameter of the mesh, viscosity, etc.) requiring a specific
control of the process (Rodrigues et al. 2006).
10.2.5 Corrosion Printing
Corrosion printing is carried out on previously printed articles. This technique con-
sists of applying a localized form of a print paste on the textile substrate. In places
printed with this paste, there will be the destruction/removal of the dye on the previ-
ously printed fabric. After the subsequent processes, these areas reveal themselves
without any dye. This method allows for countless combinations with other stamping
effects (Maluf and Kolbe 2003).
10.2.6 Resist Printing
Resist printing is performed to preserve parts of the textile substrate that can be
reserved chemically or mechanically. This technique occurs by applying a paste of
localized form, composed of chemical products, mainly a tannin based on a textile
substrate with white background. Here the fabric is first printed with a resist agent
and then dyed. Ground colours can be obtained with non-dischargeable dyes, with
the maximum effectiveness being ensured using a mixture of both types of resist
agents. Coloured resists requiring the addition of the print paste of dyes or pigments
that are satisfactorily fixed in the presence of the resist agent, either before or after
the fixation of ground colour or during the process. The objective of this technique
is to prevent subsequent dyeing on the areas covered by this paste. As a result,
the parts that are coverd by the tannin paste remain without any colour (chemical
reserve). In the case of mechanical resist (flannelling), the areas of the textile sub-
strate that receive protection, through printing with resin-based pastes, combined
or without pigments, followed by flannelling. As a result, only the areas without the
print paste will be flannelled, while in the printed parts, the substrate remains clear
without the fibers standing out on the surface of the same (Maluf and Kolbe 2003;
Miles 1994).
10.2.7 Devoré Printing
Devoré printing is carried out on fabrics that have a mixture of different fibers, usu-
ally polyester cotton. This technique consists of applying chemicals as print paste on
the surface of a mixture of fibers, where one of the fibers is preserved while the other
is destroyed around the printed areas. This technique is based on the application of
a print paste containing chemicals on the surface of the fibers that are being printed
already, destruction of specific areas of the parts of prints that are being applied, thus
leaving the rest of the print intact. These results offer an effect like embroidered or
transparent fabric (Maluf and Kolbe 2003).
10.3 INKJET PRINTING
The following textile printing process is an art that arose from the millennia as a
process of colouring fabrics only on one of its sides (Bezerra et al. 2014). Due to
the evolution of new technologies and improvement in techniques, digital printing
process was invented for better definition and quality of print on the textile substrates
(Laranjeira and Moura 2013).
The manufacture of digital printing is composed of two distinct stages. The first
being the artistic creation of pattern through a program of computer aided design.
The second stage comprises the following printing processes (Laranjeira and Moura
2013; Bezerra et al. 2014):
• Direct: Direct type emerged in 1990, which can be applied to fabrics made
with plant, animal or manufactured fibers. This type is performed by inkjet
applied to the previously treated fabrics, and at the end of the process, it
receives a special treatment.
• Indirect: Despite its creation dating back well before the inkjet, it gained
the commercial market between the decades of 1960/1970. This type
has a major restriction, since it can only be applied to woven fabrics of
synthetic origin, because the application process consists of a thermal
transfer process, i.e., by sublimation with the use of a considerable tem-
perature on the transfer of the image that was on a paper to the textile
substrate.
Despite direct digital printing not being a relatively new technology, its application
is not yet acquainted with in the commercial market. This is being used only in large
clothing/textile industries, being used at the expense of conventional printing for
medium and small entrepreneurs. This happens due to the high cost generated with
the purchase of machinery and acquisition of specialized labour, and these cannot
be transferred to their clients, because they would lose their competitiveness in the
market (FESPA 2017).
10.3.1 Transfer by Sublimation
Parallel to the development of the chemical industry, the printing process was under
development and emerging in the decade of 1980 in France, the transfer printing
process. Among the processes by transfer, transfer printing by sublimation occupies
special mention. It has been characterized to print a drawing on a specific flexible
intermediary (paper), which will be subsequently transferred to the textile substrate.
This technique depends on the use of a specific dye (sublimation) to print the paper,
being its proper application in textile substrates, whose composition has more than
60% of polyester or polyamide fibers, thereby giving greater colour fastness to rub-
bing. During the transfer process, the paper printed with sublimation dyes is posi-
tioned in contact with the textile substrate and subjected to pressure and heat through
heated steel cylinders. When the paper is heated, the dye passes from the solid to
the gaseous state, being preferentially adsorbed in the vapour phase by the textile
substrate (Kasikovic et al. 2016).
To attend to the demands of the fashion market in the 20th century, the digital
printing was created, which requires a greater variety of designs and colours and
smaller quantities of production and technological advances in the 90s. This process
brings environmental benefits, flexibility, speed and reproducibility to the fast fash-
ion market. In 2018, the company Mimaki launched the TS55–1800, a sublimation
printer with high productivity, reaching a maximum speed of up to 140 m2/h. The
equipment was developed for the textile industry, with new functions and optional
units, guaranteeing low cost of production and continuous operation (Mimaki 2018).
10.3.2 Digital Printing
Digital printing represents the future of textile printing. It is transforming the sup-
ply chain, making a wider variety of designs possible, shortening delivery times,
yielding major cost savings and eliminating waste (Cahill 2018). Today the textile
industry is driven by time, having to meet the constant demands of the customers
for new products, resulting in short lead times. The industry needs to be adjustable
to change, as the customer may want to make style alterations and have shorter print
run productions. Inkjet printing for textiles is moving the scope of what’s possible
to manufacture. It can produce photographic imagery and it is flexible to changes.
Inkjet printing is currently restricted for use in bulk production due to the fact that
the printing speed is at a slower side for such process, and at the same time, the range
of ink is limited. Inkjet is being used for some small production printing, but it is still
under development (Annable et al. 2003). There is the need for more original designs
and shorter fashion cycles in response to retail demands and seasonal trends. Inkjet
printing can cover these needs (Ervine et al. 2000).
10.3.3 Inkjet Technology
The inkjet system has a technology capable of delivering liquid paint to the sub-
strate (Future Prints 2018). However, only one drop of ink comes in contact with
the surface of the ink. The system is composed of three elements: the print head,
the ink and the substrate. For the product to be of quality, it is necessary that there
is perfect interaction between the components of the inkjet system. The hole diam-
eter of the textile print head ranges from 5 to 15 μm. The ink volume is measured
in picolitres (1 pl = 10–12 l). Although the print head is the common technological
core between them, textile inkjet printing machines vary in shape and structure and
can be adapted to any type of media. The types of inkjet printers in the market are
(Future Prints 2018) as follows:
Large format scanning: This type of printer has a roller system that loads, dis-
charges and moves the fabric so that they receive the paint shot through the heads.
The heads, in turn, are located within the printing system, which moves over the
fabric, thereby performing a ‘scanning motion’;
• Single Pass: It is a more robust printer, suitable for large-scale industrial

applications. It is an inkjet platform that employs stationary print head sta-
tions that stamp when the fabric passes underneath. It is significantly faster
than inkjet printers with scanning technology, where the heads move back
and forth.
• Rotating: The machine features print towers, each one dedicated to a
colour. The towers are equipped with fixed print heads (they do not move
like that of the large scanning format).
• Hybrid: It is a type recently introduced in the market, and it is a hybrid by
merge of digital printing and rotating screen printing.
• Direct to garment: It features a dedicated structure to directly print
T-shirts and apparel. The printer has brackets (‘boards’) on which the parts
are attached to be printed by the heads.
Inkjet printing offers great flexibility and freedom in repeating patterns. The larg-
est rotating screen printing has a circumference of approximately 40 inches (1 m).
Therefore, the maximum size of the pattern to be repeated is 40 inches. The same
is true for flat serigraphs: the size of the image is limited to the size of the frame.
None of these factors are at stake in digital printing. So far, this technology has man-
aged to draw little attention and adoption from the high-volume fabric industries.
However, this has changed, because some machines are designed to receive more
than one type of paint and can work with different compositions or types of fabrics
(Info Sign 2018).
Lário manufactured by MS Printing Solutions was designed for textile applica-
tions and can be stamped at a speed of 75 m/min at 600 × 600 dpi in cyan (aqua),
where M stands for magenta (pink), Y for yellow and K for key (CMYK). When
printing on sublimation paper, Lario can produce at speeds greater than 100 m/min.
The maximum print width is 3,200 mm. Lario also has an open ink system. This
means that virtually any ink (acid, reactive, dispersed or pigmented) can be used if
it is compatible with the printer components. Lario employs variable dot technology
(from 4 to 72 pl) (LaRio 2018; ATP 2009).
Textile fingerprint, popularly known as digital printing or inkjet printing, is gradu-
ally replacing conventional stamping with great advantages, from the creation of sam-
ples and pilot parts, for its versatility, speed and flexibility (LaRio 2018; ATP 2009).
Historically, the first printing machine turned to the textile sector, which came
from large-format digital printers and emerged in the mid-1970s, was developed by
Milliken and became known as Millitron. This system used compressed air to force
the dye solution through the spray nozzles, a process known as atomization (Lopes
2009). In the 1990s, this digital system for textile printing was highlighted, due to
the need to meet the great demand of the market for increasingly customized and
differentiated products. The technique of printing in textiles uses inkjet technology,
similar to printing on paper, in a specialized or modified way. In the beginning,
water-based paint was used to print directly onto polyester fabric, by techniques
such as sublimation or direct dispersion on the fabric. Due to the development of new
techniques, it is possible to print directly on nylon and silk using dye-based ink and
on cellulose fibers, such as cotton and linen, with ink containing reactive dyes. There
are also pigment inks, which can be applied directly to any type of textile fibre, as
they are insoluble, do not have any kind of chemical bonding to the fibre, and to fix,
they depend on binders in the stamping solution (Moltchanova 2011).
Mimaki, a manufacturer of textile, industrial and solvent printing equipment,
launched in 2013 the Tx500–1800B fabric printer (Mimaki 2013). In addition, the
Tx500–1800B shoots paint drops with variable volumes (from 7 to 21 pl) and can
work at a maximum speed of 140 m2/h (4 colour mode) and 85 m2/h (6 and 8 colour
modes). The printer employs a substrate feed belt system that secures the fabric during
the process so that it does not stretch out of the place. This generates stability, espe-
cially in the printing of materials with elasticity. The ink supply of the Tx500–1800B
is carried out by bottles. The machine also employs a degassing system to increase
the accuracy of printing and reduce the cost of the process. It is a function that elimi-
nates air and bubbles in the ink (Mimaki 2013). For the digital printing process on the
Tx500–1800B, Mimaki has developed a high-strength reactive ink for natural fibers.
Mimaki’s reactive ink enables printing on cotton, linen, silk, rayon and other
natural fibers. This ink is capable of producing a wide range of colours, and due to
the fixing of the dye in the fibres, offer higher fastness to light and water (Mimaki
2017). From what is perceived is the technological innovations of digital textile print-
ers, where the current trend involves the increase in printing speed associated with
a high resolution, offering the best cost/benefit. Msitaly recently launched MS-JP6,
which can be configured to print 8 colours and allows a maximum production speed
of 180 m/h (Textile printers/JP6 2018).
10.4 DEVELOPMENTS OF MODERN TECHNOLOGIES IN PRINTING

Technological development has provided great innovations in the textile industry,
and at the same time, it seeks to respond to the expectations of consumers through
the creation of new products with new functions, improved quality and comfort and
durability. These products are designed for various functional applications. In the
face of all current circumstances, comfort and product performance, ecological,
health and safety issues are increasingly considered by consumers in their choices.
For companies, in addition to these issues, there are also factors such as cost in
obtaining these requirements and meeting the requirements of government and soci-
ety as a whole (Textile printers/JP6 2018).
10.4.1 Dip Coating
Dip coating is a technique used to apply layers or films (usually polymeric) on the
materials (Oliveira and Zarbin 2005; Nassar et al. 2003). In this process, the substrate
to be coated is submerged perpendicularly within the solution containing the mate-
rial of interest and then withdrawn at a well-defined rate under controlled tempera-
ture. The insertion and removal of the substrate in the solution must be performed
in a constant manner and without any type of vibration or external interference,
in order to guarantee the homogeneous deposition of the material of interest. The
residence time of the substrate in the solution before its removal is also an important
control factor. This means that in order to obtain quality layers, in addition to the
characteristics of the substrate and the precursor solution (solvent, concentration,
viscosity, type of precursor), it is necessary to use equipment that promotes the inser-
tion and removal of the substrate with high stability, with fine speed control and free
from vibration (Oliveira and Zarbin 2005). The thickness of the coating is mainly
defined by the withdrawal rate, the solid content and the viscosity of the liquid.
10.4.2 3D Printing
3D printing has been used in many areas with different applications, such as bio-
medical implants, aircraft and engineering, just as fashion is beginning to be used.
The technology has among its advantages to give the designer greater freedom to
create complex designs that would be difficult to produce using traditional methods,
a very desirable feature in the fashion industry, where design and creativity are fun-
damentals for the industry (Haute Couture Escapism 2018).
Today, more than 100 different types of 3D printers are available in the market;
many of these are desktop printers, presenting relatively low and affordable prices.
There are also industrial-scale 3D printers, with higher prices but capable of process-
ing a wide range of materials on a larger scale. In the same way, several techniques
are used by these printers, and Table 10.1 shows a summary of the three main tech-
niques that are being used for the textile applications (Yap and Yeong 2014).
Commercially, when we think of textiles, especially those in common use, 3D
printing materials still require a lot of developments in order to improve the comfort
and flexibility of the fabrics for daily use. Despite the improvements in recent years,
today, 3D printing materials are expensive and limited, which prevents many design-
ers from entering this new market (Yap and Yeong 2014).
New 3D printers and modern materials are currently developed, and it is an ongo-
ing process (Tamicare 2018). Companies such as TamiCare™ recently developed the
textile printing technology Cosyflex™ in order to produce custom fabrics using liquid
polymers such as natural latex, silicone, polyurethane and Teflon and textile fibers
such as viscose and polyamide.
Cosyflex™ is an innovative process for 3D fabric printing, mainly (Tamicare 2018)
• Instant creation of finished products from raw materials without waste.

• Manufacturing with multi-stage 3D printing processes with many control-
lable variables, allowing unlimited fabric variations.
TABLE 10.1
Main 3D Printing Techniques Used for Textiles and Clothing Industry
Additive Manufacturing Technique Mechanism Materials
Material Deposition Fusion (MDF). A thermoplastic filament is introduced into Acrylonitrile
It is an additive manufacturing an extrusion head and is heated to a butadiene
process in which a material is semi-liquid state before being extruded styrene (ABS)
selectively extruded by an extruder and deposited in thin layers from the Polylactic acid
head. nozzle. (PLA)
Selective Laser Sintering (SLS). It is A CO2 laser beam melts or selectively melts Polyamide
a process of additive manufacturing a thin layer of dust particles. The
in which a powdered material is non-molten powder serves as a support
stiffened by thermal energy. structure.
PolyJet (Inkjet). It is an additive A thin layer of liquid photopolymer is Multi-materials
manufacturing process in which jets deposited from blasting heads and with different
of material are selectively immediately passes through the drying hardness
deposited. processes with ultraviolet (UV) light. values
Source: Yap and Yeong (2014).
• Various types of liquid polymers, such as natural latex, silicon, polyure-

thane and Teflon, as well as a variety of textile fibers, such as cotton, vis-
cose and polyamide, allow fabrics tailored for any need.
• Patterns, perforations, embossing and decorations can be created by print-
ing on a 3D structured base plate.
• Innovations in equipment components, the production process and the char-
acteristics of the fabric are protected by patents.
According to TamiCare™, the advantages of technology include (Tamicare 2018) the

following:
• Industrial-scale mass production, 3D fabric printing.

• A fully automated process.
• Instant creation of finished products from raw materials.
• Mass production or on-demand production meeting immediate local needs.
• No cutting and no waste.
Cosyflex™ technology as shown in Figure 10.1 delivers excellent elongation, recovery

and coverage, allowing enormous flexibility and variety.
10.4.3 Hydrographic or Immersion Printing

Water transfer printing (also known as hydrography, dip printing, camouflage diving,
hydro printing and cubic printing) is a process of surface decoration with elaborate
graphics – such as wood grain, camouflage, geometric designs, 3D product surface,
etc. (Rojas 2018). The water transfer printing process is widely used to decorate
FIGURE 10.1 Cosyflex™ developed textile products finished with 3D printing. (Source:
Tamicare 2018.)
items ranging from vehicle parts and car dashboards to small items such as bicycle
helmets or other automotive accessories. The process uses a water-soluble film con-
taining the printed standards. The film dissolves in water and leaves the paint on the
surface. In the typical process, the item to be printed is first coated with a primer
or an adhesion promoter. Thereafter, a base coat paint is applied to control the hue
of the pattern. For example, wood grain prints often use a brown layer, and many
camouflage patterns use a neutral base. Once the base layer is applied, the item is
ready for decoration. The film is activated using a chemical activator. The item is
then dipped in water, and the paint envelops the object (Rojas 2018).
After the decoration, the piece should be thoroughly washed and dried. This can
be done with a drying room that is heated and has air circulation, heat or infrared
heat drying, instant drying with heating or blow-drying lamps. It is important to
make sure that the part is completely dry before proceeding. The final step is to paint
the piece with a clear finish.
10.4.3.1 Substrate Requirements to Be Used

One of the best features of the water transfer process is that films can be applied
to all types of substrates, including plastic, glass fibre, wood, ceramic and metal.
For the most part, if the item can be submerged in water and can be painted using
traditional techniques, the hydrographic printing process can be used. However, as
the paint acts as a sizing agent to which the paints adhere, all substrates except ABS
plastic, which will require the paint to be applied before the immersion process.
Depending on the type of substrate, the modification of the surface tension may be
necessary to achieve adhesion of the base paint to the substrate (Rojas 2018).
10.4.3.2 Productivity of the Process

Several variables will affect productivity of the hydrographic printing process. Some
operations are focused on custom post-sales processing, and others require a produc-
tion of millions of pieces/annum. An operation can be configured to process purely
custom jobs such as internal components of automobiles, wheels, etc., and manual
operations or a fully automated line can be established using conveyors and robots to
apply the inks and perform the hydrographic printing process.
Even in the aftermarket custom shop operation, automating certain aspects of a
production line will increase overall efficiency. For example, incorporating prod-
ucts such as a robotic arm to submerge the part into the processing system or an
automated spraying system to apply the chemical activator would reduce the total
production time and increase the volume.
10.4.3.3 Environmental Considerations
As ink films are printed on polyvinyl alcohol film, it is very sensitive to humidity and
temperature, requiring adequate storage to ensure long life and proper decoration.
The film should be stored in an environment controlled by humidity and tempera-
ture, preferably with relative humidity below 60% and the temperature ranging from
20°C to 25°C.
By most standards, the water transfer printing process is relatively environmen-
tally friendly. However, several aspects need to be addressed with the regulatory
agencies of the environment. If the decoration company can obtain a license to apply
the base layer and the top layer paint, it should have no problem implementing the
process (Rojas 2018).
10.4.4 Smart Textiles
A new era of smart textiles and wearable electronics has been developed for fashion-
able application (Smart textiles 2013). Several fashion designers and material scien-
tists have created soft circuits’ integrated clothing that responds to the gesture and
movement of the wearer. The collaboration of fashion and technology has given birth
to a new line of clothing in the world of fashion, and the latest development in this
sector is 3D printing technology with smart textile. It is a form of additive manufac-
turing technology where a 3D object is created by laying down successive layers of
material. An example of 3D printing clothing is the new fashion collection created
by Bitonti and Gallagher. They digitalized the patterns of model and created 3D
models, which allowed them to use algorithms to develop patterns that transform as
they move across the body. The dress patterns are used as an input that informs the
propagation of the branching pattern. The result was a dynamic responsive pattern
that responds to the shape and curvature of the garment where no two parts are ever
exactly alike (Smart textiles 2013).
10.5 SUMMARY
In this chapter, a brief history of the origin of the printing process, the conventional
techniques and discussion on different types of printing processes including recent
developments are discussed. The traditional techniques include the block, screen,
localized and rotary screen-printing methods. Later developments include the corro-
sion, resist devoré and inkjet printing. By 1970, some 24 million metres of transfer
papers have been produced, which went to up to 1–2 billion metres by the 1980s.
Textile fingerprint, popularly known as inkjet printing, is gradually replacing the con-
ventional printing with great advantages, from the creation of samples to pilot parts
for its versatility, speed and flexibility. Mimaki, a manufacturer of textile, industrial
and solvent printing equipments, was launched in 2013. It is versatile in printing
natural fibers. On the other hand, Msitaly launched a machine capable of using eight
colours and allows a maximum speed of 180 m/h. The latest developments include
the dip coating and 3D printing, even though the developments depend on the cost of
the materials used. Company like Cosyflex™ is using liquid polymers for 3D fabric
printing with many controllable variables, allowing unlimited fabric diversifications.
The latest development is the hydrographic or immersion printing, also known as
hydrography, dip coating, camouflage diving and cubic printing. Finally, smart tex-
tiles and wearable electronics were discussed for fashionable applications.
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11 Finishing Processes and
Recent Developments
Andrew D. Hewitt and Andrew J. Hebden
University of Huddersfield
CONTENTS
11.1 Introduction...................................................................................................202
11.2 Mechanical Finishing....................................................................................202
11.2.1 Calendering.....................................................................................202
11.2.2 Friction Calendering....................................................................... 203
11.2.3 Embossing.......................................................................................203
11.2.4 Sanforising......................................................................................204
11.2.5 Decatising.......................................................................................204
11.2.6 Crabbing..........................................................................................204
11.2.7 Emerising........................................................................................205
11.2.8 Raising............................................................................................205
11.2.9 Shearing..........................................................................................205
11.2.10 Singeing.......................................................................................... 205
11.3 C hemical Finishes.........................................................................................206
11.3.1 Application Methods.......................................................................206
11.3.2 Foam Application............................................................................207
11.3.3 Spray Application...........................................................................208
11.3.4 Softeners.........................................................................................208
11.3.5 Cationic Softeners...........................................................................208
11.3.6 Anionic Softeners...........................................................................209
11.3.7 Nonionic Softeners..........................................................................209
11.3.8 Silicone Softeners........................................................................... 210
11.3.9 Amphoteric Softeners..................................................................... 210
11.3.10 Easy-Care Finishes......................................................................... 210
11.3.11 Antimicrobial Finishes................................................................... 211
11.3.12 UV Protection................................................................................. 212
11.3.13 Flame/Fire Retardants.................................................................... 213
11.3.14 Halogenated FRs............................................................................. 213
11.3.15 Non-Halogenated FRs..................................................................... 213
11.3.16 Repellent Finishes........................................................................... 214
11.4.1 Microencapsulation......................................................................... 215
11.4.2 Medical Applications...................................................................... 215
11.4.3 Cosmetics and Fragrances.............................................................. 215
201
11.4.4 Coloration........................................................................................ 216

11.4.5 Heating and Cooling....................................................................... 216
11.4.6 Plasma Treatment............................................................................ 216
11.4.7 Nanotechnologies............................................................................ 217
11.5 Summary....................................................................................................... 217
References............................................................................................................... 218
11.1 INTRODUCTION
In textile processing, ‘finishing’ refers to an extensive array of mechanical and chem-
ical processes that can enhance the properties of a textile. As the name suggests, it
is most often used to describe treatments to a fabric in the final stages of production,
though finishing processes are also used to alter the properties and processability of
yarns, filaments and fibres.
Finishing can alter many attributes, including appearance, softness, hydropho-
bicity, hydrophilicity, antimicrobial and antifungal performance, flame retardancy,
ultraviolet (UV) protection, shrink resistance, crease resistance, stain resistance,
friction, strength and drape. Finishing usually involves the application of chemicals,
mechanical modification, thermal treatment or a combination of these. There is a
near infinite range of finishing processes, many based on tried and tested applica-
tion methods developed many years ago. However, these continue to be modified
and optimised, and new chemical finishes are continually researched and launched
commercially. Legislative changes have had a profound impact on textile finishing
as previously widespread treatments have been replaced due to environmental and
health concerns. This chapter covers the most prevalent finishing methods and types,
and explores some of the new developments that are set to revolutionise certain areas
of textile finishing.
11.2 MECHANICAL FINISHING
11.2.1 Calendering
Calendering is a finishing process where a fabric passes between two or more roll-
ers (sometimes referred to as ‘bowls’) under set temperature and pressure conditions
in order to alter its properties such as handle, surface texture and appearance. The
number of rollers, roller design, roller speed, moisture, temperature and pressure can
be varied to suit various fabrics and desired finishes. Calendering a fabric tends to
reduce the thickness and air permeability, and increase the opacity, smoothness and
lustre.
There are numerous types of calendering. Swissing (or swizzing) uses a seven-
roller calender to give the fabric a smooth appearance. Chasing also uses a seven-
roller calender, but the fabric is threaded through the rollers in such a way that
multiple layers pass through the nips and are pressed together, giving the fabric a
linen-like appearance and a soft handle.
In nonwovens, calendering is mainly used as a bonding method using
heated – rollers – typically melting or softening thermoplastic polymers in a web to
fuse and bond fibres together. Smooth rollers bond the entire web, whereas localised
Finishing Processes and Recent Developments 203
FIGURE 11.1 Friction calendering.
point bonding is achieved when a smooth roller and an engraved patterned roller is
used (Russell 2006). Combinations of webs and/or fabrics can be calendered to form
a laminated product.
11.2.2 Friction Calendering
In friction calendering, friction is applied by use of a speed differential between the
rollers, ranging from 5% to 100% (Gulrajani 2013). Highly polished metal rollers
travel at a higher surface speed than the fabric itself, so that one face of the fabric
is effectively polished and results in anything from a slight lustre to a glossy, shiny
effect, depending on the fabric and settings. This appearance is due to the forces
closing the woven structure and is more readily achieved in finer woven fabrics. The
process is outlined in Figure 11.1.
The lustrous appearance can be further enhanced by impregnating the fabric with
a waxy or starchy additive before calendering, which then fills the gaps in the fabric
and results in an even smoother finish.
Glazing is a type of friction calendering that gives the highly polished surface
associated with chintz fabrics. This effect is achieved by use of a heated top roller
rotating at up to three times the speed of the fabric (Horrocks and Anand 2000).
When a particularly high gloss is required, the fabric is pretreated with a wax
emulsion.
11.2.3 Embossing
For embossing, the heated top roller of a two-roller calender is engraved with a pat-
tern that is then transferred to the fabric (Paul 2013). The smooth roller is typically
composed of a softer material, such as compressed paper or cotton on a metal core.
The required pressure depends on the fabric and the embossing pattern, due to the
different pressing areas for different designs. The effect can be made permanent if
the fabric contains thermoplastic fibres or a chemical binder. There are numerous
techniques based on the embossing principle.
Schreinering is a specific form of embossing, using a roller engraved with a regu-
lar pattern of fine lines (ca. 10–20 per mm) that are embossed into the fabric and
reflect light, giving the fabric surface a silk-like lustre. The process is mostly used
on cotton fabrics and is not washfast as the wetting of the fabric causes the fibres to
swell, destroying the effect. It is therefore mainly used in specific applications such
as linings.
The moire (or moiré) effect is produced by a variation of embossing, producing
fabric with surface patterns of matt and glossy finishes. This effect is used on fine
woven fabrics with readily deformable fibres.
Crêpe calendering is used for fabrics made with highly twisted yarns that distort
on swelling. Ordinarily, this swelling causes the fabric to exhibit a random, broken
effect, but using a combination of moisture, heat, pressure and a lightly embossed
roller, this effect can be controlled through crêpe calendering to produce a regular
pattern.
11.2.4 Sanforising
Sanforising was developed by the New York inventor Sanford Lockwood Cluett in
1928, and is a mechanical shrinkage and setting process for cellulosic (or cellulosic-
rich) fabrics that minimises shrinkage from subsequent wet processing during a
fabric’s life, such as washing (Cluett 1928).
The manufacturing and processing of woven fabrics tend to apply tension to
the threads in the warp direction, and the amount of crimp in the warp threads is
greatly reduced. Subsequent wet processing relaxes the warp, with resultant shrink-
age in the warp direction. Sanforising relaxes the warp in the fabric in a controlled
manner. The fabric is dampened with water or steam, passed between a series of
tensioned rubber belts and cylinders under elevated temperature and pressure, and
then dried. The fabric is then set in this controlled shrunken state, so that when it is
subsequently washed, any further shrinkage is minimised (though not completely
eliminated).
11.2.5 Decatising
Decatising is a technique used to impart improved fabric handle and appearance,
and minimise shrinkage (Eryuruk et al. 2014). It was traditionally used on wool-
len or wool-rich fabrics, but is now used with fabrics containing cellulosic and/or
synthetic fibres. Like sanforising, it works on the principle of controlled relaxation
of tension in a fabric. The fabric runs continuously between a perforated drum and a
belt under controlled pressure. Superheated steam is blown through the perforations
in the drum into the fabric. The fabric is maintained under controlled tension until it
is cooled to minimise shrinkage.
11.2.6 Crabbing
Crabbing is a variant of decatising, where the fabric is wound onto a beam under set
tension and is saturated with either boiling water or steam. The process is repeated
several times to permanently set the dimensional stability.
11.2.7 Emerising
Emerising (also known as sueding) is an abrasive finishing treatment that gives fab-
rics a soft ‘peach skin’ effect (Majumdar et al. 2012). The fabric is passed over mul-
tiple rotating rollers covered in emery, pumice or other abrasive which breaks the
fibres on the surface, resulting in a velvet-like short pile or nap. The abrasive finish
of the rollers and processing conditions (number of rollers, direction and speed of
rotation, fabric tension, fabric speed, fabric contact area) must be tailored to the fibre
and fabric type to give the desired effect.
11.2.8 Raising
Raising (also known as napping) is another finishing method for creating a pile (nap)
on the surface of a fabric, and can be used on woven and knitted fabrics (Bueno et al.
1999). The fabric travels over a large drum covered with rollers with hooked wires
protruding from their surfaces. Some rotate the same direction as the fabric moves
(pile) and some in the opposite direction (counter pile). The nap produced is longer
than that produced by emerising and is controlled by changing the ratio of pile to
counter pile rollers. Lubricants are often applied to fabrics before raising to ease the
relocation of the fibres, reducing fibre breakage and preserving and reducing losses
in tensile strength. When fabrics made with continuous filaments are raised, the
action tends to pull loops of fibre from the body of the fabric rather than the fibres
and fibre bundles of a fabric made of staple yarn.
Raising can be performed on a single side or both sides of the fabric, and increases
the softness and thickness, and therefore the insulative properties. The effect can
mask the weave of the fabric and cover up defects. However, they can be more prone
to abrasion and pilling.
11.2.9 Shearing
Shearing often follows the raising process. The action of shearing cuts the fibres
protruding from the fabric surface to a set length, giving a smooth, even appearance
(Behery 2005). The mechanism works in the same way as a lawn mower, with a cut-
ting edge parallel to the fabric surface and rotating spiral blades spinning up against
the cutting edge. The process produces a great deal of short fibres that are removed
by suction. Shearing can produce pile fabrics from a looped terry fabric, as the tops
of the loops are cut off and a velvet-like pile effect is produced.
11.2.10 Singeing
Singeing is another method used to remove protruding staple fibres (Mellor and
Olpin 1950). The fabric is lightly brushed so that any loose fibres are raised from the
surface. The fabric is then passed over a flame or heated metal surface to burn off the
protruding fibres, but not damage the main fabric. Singeing produces smooth fabrics
with a reduced propensity for pilling and soiling.
The singeing process is also used on staple yarns to reduce hairiness, by burning
off protruding fibres.
11.3 CHEMICAL FINISHES
Chemical finishes are typically available as an aqueous solution or emulsion, so
the application of these agents is generally referred to as ‘wet finishing’. There are
numerous means of applying chemical finishes to fabrics, and finishes with a high
affinity to the fibres in the fabric can be applied by similar means to dyeing, typically
in an exhaustive batchwise process. Those with lower affinity tend to be applied in
a continuous process, of which there is a multitude of methods. The method used
depends on the fabric, the finish and the desired application level. Care must be taken
to ensure the finish is distributed as required, below a certain level of pickup the dis-
tribution of the finishing liquor within the fabric will not be uniform. The minimum
level required must allow sufficient penetration into the fabric and is dependent on
the fibre type and fabric construction. It is also important to ensure that the fabric has
a uniform moisture content to avoid uneven application of the finishing chemicals.
If the fabric to be finished is wet (due to a previous treatment), then there are added
complications as existing water on the fabric dilutes the finishing solution, reducing
the application level of the finish. To compensate, the concentration of the finish
liquor must be increased, and the required level can be calculated based on experi-
mentation and analysis (Yang and Hensley 2001).
11.3.1 Application Methods
One of the most common methods for the application of chemical finishes is the
use of a pad mangle (Figure 11.2a), known as the padding process. The fabric is
submerged in a liquor containing chemicals, the saturated fabric is then passed into
a nip to squeeze out excess liquor and the finished fabric is then cured and/or dried.
FIGURE 11.2 Methods for application of finishes.

TABLE 11.1
Water Imbibition for Common Fibres
Fibres Approximate Water Imbibition (%)
Viscose 90–100
Lyocell 65–70
Cotton 30–50
Cellulose acetate 25
Polyamide 11–13
Polyester 3
Polypropylene 0
In order to obtain consistent application levels, the nip pressure should be uniform
across the width of the rollers, the line speed should be constant, and the level and
temperature of the liquor bath should remain the same.
The wet pickup from padding is normally between 60% and 100%, and is depen-
dent on the fibre, fabric and properties of the liquor. When the fabric is immersed,
the liquor is distributed within the fibres, between the fibres, in the spaces between
the yarns and on the fabric surface. The action of the roller nip removes the majority
of liquor on the surface and between the yarns, but it does not remove all the remain-
ing liquor within and between the individual fibres, even if elevated nip pressures
are used (van der Walt and van Rensburg 1986). The amount of liquor that can be
removed by rollers depends on the nip pressure, the physical properties of the rubber
coating on the rollers, roller diameter and the processing speed. The lowest achiev-
able wet pickup values are, in part, governed by the water imbibition values of the
fibres in the fabric (Table 11.1), so for pickup lower than these values, alternative
methods to padding should be used.
Loop transfer application (Figure 11.2b) applies liquor at a much lower rate than
padding. A continuous loop of fabric is submersed in the liquor bath and then squeezed
with the fabric to be treated between two or more rollers (Schindler and Hauser 2004).
A single application using this method concentrates the finish on one face of the fabric,
which can be an advantage or disadvantage, depending on the end use.
Kiss roller application (Figure 11.2c) uses a rotating roller that has the finish
liquor applied to its surface, either by immersion or dosing. The pickup depends on
the composition of the fabric, the surface finish of the roller, how well the liquor wets
the roller surface, the liquor viscosity, the contact area and the speed of the fabric
and roller. The kiss roller can be set to rotate in the direction of the fabric movement
or against the fabric direction. When the fabric and kiss roller move in the same
direction, the liquor tends to penetrate more deeply into the substrate (Russell 2006).
11.3.2 Foam Application
The active chemicals in a liquor can be diluted using air to form a foam. By replac-
ing part of the water in the liquor with air, the quantity of water applied to the fabric
can be reduced significantly. For foam application, surfactants tend to be used in
the liquor to stabilise the foam, and the ultimate collapse of the foam distributes the
finish on the fabric.
There are many ways of applying foam to fabric, including knife application
(Figure 11.2d), dosing using slotted applicators and feeding foam into a roller nip
with the fabric. Certain methods apply foam to only one face of the fabric, so it is
possible to apply two different finishes on the two faces.
Using less water through foam application has several other potential advantages,
where less energy is needed to dry the fabric and higher production speeds are pos-
sible for the same drying capacity. Foam application also causes less flattening of
pile on certain fabrics.
11.3.3 Spray Application
In certain circumstances, spraying can be used to apply finish to a fabric. Multiple
spray units can be used to ensure even coverage on both sides of the fabric. Spray
systems must be engineered to avoid overlapping spray patterns that can lead to
an uneven distribution. Spraying can present health and safety concerns as sprayed
chemicals represent a far greater risk of inhalation than liquor baths or foam.
Extraction systems or closed chambers can be employed to counter these increased
risks.
11.3.4 Softeners
Softeners are commonly used to improve the handle of a fabric and can benefit prop-
erties such as anti-static, water repellency, sewability and drape. Almost all apparel
and furnishing textiles are finished with softeners, as the feel of a textile is such
an important quality for most consumers. Most softeners used are not permanently
bound to the fibres and can be removed by laundering and/or general use, so to
refresh these properties, softeners are frequently found in domestic laundry products.
Many softeners are of molecules with a long-chain hydrocarbon (hydrophobic)
region and a charged (hydrophilic) region. The hydrophilic chain limits the solubil-
ity in water, so most are manufactured as aqueous emulsions with a solid content of
15%–30%. Emulsifiers and dispersing agents are often included in these formula-
tions to stabilise the emulsion.
Most textile softeners are classed by their charged (ionic) character, and different
types are suitable for different fibres and applications (Wei 2009).
11.3.5 Cationic Softeners
Cationic softeners (as their name suggests) have a positively charged, cationic site
on their molecular structure. The positively charged part is attracted to a negatively
charged fibre surface, and the hydrophilic hydrocarbon chains project out from the
fibre, which results in the soft feel and increased hydrophobicity. They are a widely
adopted class of softeners, with a pronounced softening effect for a given add-on,
high affinity to many fibres, good durability to laundering, excellent anti-static prop-
erties and are easy to apply. Application of these softeners can be by exhaustive
FIGURE 11.3 Examples of cationic softeners.
means (much like dyeing). Uptake usually increases with temperature, though care
must be taken not to destabilise the emulsion at higher temperatures. Cationic soft-
eners do have some negatives: they increase the soiling propensity of fibres, are
incompatible with anionic auxiliaries (such as optical brighteners) and can cause
yellowing of white fabrics.
Quaternary ammonium compounds are commonly used as cationic softeners,
an example is shown in Figure 11.3a. Whilst effective, this type, with long alkyl
chains, has limited biodegradability and has largely been phased out and replaced
by variants with ester linkages, such as that shown in Figure 11.3b. The ester link-
ages significantly improve the rate of biodegradation of the molecule, reducing the
environmental impact (Mishra and Tyagi 2007).
11.3.6 Anionic Softeners
Anionic softeners possess a negative charge, and so the molecules orient themselves
with the negatively charged region repelled away from the negatively charged fibre
surface, and the long-chain hydrocarbon towards the fibre. As a result, the soften-
ing effect is less than for cationic softeners, the substantivity is reduced and the
hydrophilicity is increased. They are therefore not widely used as softeners but are
frequently used as surfactants. Typical anionic softeners include long-chain alkyl
sulphonates, alcohol sulphates, ether sulphates, sulphosuccinates, phosphate esters
and soaps (Rapp 2017).
11.3.7 Nonionic Softeners
Nonionic softeners do not possess an overall electrical charge, and therefore their
substantivity tends to be low, but they have fewer compatibility issues with other
auxiliaries. The orientation of the softener molecule depends on the fibre surface,
where the hydrophilic region is attracted to hydrophilic surfaces and the hydrophobic
region to hydrophobic surfaces. Softness is average and yellowing is less prevalent
than with cationic softeners.
Examples include paraffin waxes, ethoxylated fatty acids and fatty alcohols, eth-
oxylated fatty amides and amines and triglycerol esters (Schindler and Hauser 2004).
FIGURE 11.4 Examples of silicone softeners.
11.3.8 Silicone Softeners
Silicone softeners have become increasingly popular in recent years. They provide
high softness, good sewability, and good crease recovery. Silicone softeners are
long-chain molecules with a backbone of alternating silicon and oxygen atoms. They
are mostly non-polar and hydrophobic and can be used to increase water repellency.
The simplest silicone softener structure is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), as shown
in Figure 11.4a. The addition of amino functional groups (Figure 11.4b) increases
durability to laundering by introducing potential positively charged sites on the
molecule, which enables them to bond more strongly to negatively charged fibres
such as cellulosic fibres, but increase the propensity for yellowing (Habereder and
Bereck 2002).
11.3.9 Amphoteric Softeners
Amphoteric softeners are used in specific applications, mostly hygiene products,
due to their low levels of skin irritation. They contain potentially cationic and
anionic groups within the same molecule, depending on the pH of the environment.
Amphoteric products are often biodegradable, give average softness, have good
resistance to yellowing and offer good anti-static properties (Yuan et al. 2014).
11.3.10 Easy-Care Finishes
Easy-care finishes are mostly used for fabrics with high cellulose content. They
endow resistance to shrinkage, improved wet and dry wrinkle recovery and retention
of intentional creases and pleats. Cellulosic fibres readily absorb moisture, which
facilitates the movement of the cellulose chains by lubrication. Hydrogen bonds can
reform between the polymer chains in their new positions, resulting in shrinkage
or creasing. Easy-care finishes work by restricting the movement by use of cross-
linking agents between hydroxyl groups of adjacent cellulose chains. Traditionally,
easy-care finishes used a formaldehyde-based cross-linking agent with a catalyst.
Environmental and health and safety concerns have led to the development of
formaldehyde-free finishes. These include 1, 2, 3, 4-butanetetracarboxylic acid,
N,N'-dimethyl-4,5-dihydroxyethylene urea and polyacrylic acid derivatives (Lam
et al. 2010).
11.3.11 Antimicrobial Finishes
Microorganisms can cause disease, infection, odours, stains and/or allergic reac-
tions. They can also damage textile fibres. Antimicrobial finishes are used on tex-
tiles to either suppress the growth of such microorganisms or kill them. The most
troublesome targets are fungi and bacteria, and the severity of the negative effects
depends on the fibre and ambient conditions. Cotton is more prone to fungal attack
and wool to bacteria. Synthetic fibres are also susceptible to damage by microorgan-
isms. The use of antimicrobials is particularly important in clothing, bedding and
seating fabrics; bacteria feed on sweat and other bodily fluids producing unpleasant
odours (Gupta 2007). Medical textiles are also an important area. Microorganisms
can proliferate at an astounding rate; a few bacteria can increase to millions in mere
hours. Therefore, antimicrobial finishes must be fast acting to successfully combat
microbial activity, whilst also being cost-effective, easy to apply, durable and not
hazardous to the consumer or the environment.
In recent years, silver-containing materials have been prevalent, widely used in
many products, from socks to wound dressings. Silver acts as a bactericide against
a wide range of species, reacting with moisture, releasing silver ions that damage
bacterial RNA and DNA. Other common antimicrobial finishes include copper, tin,
zinc and cobalt compounds.
Triclosan is a cationic biocide. Unlike most cationic biocides, it is compara-
tively durable to laundering. It is effective against many types of bacteria, fungi and
viruses. It works by affecting the integrity of cell membranes. Triclosan is widely
used in healthcare products, including polyester, polyamide, polypropylene, cellu-
lose acetate and acrylic fabrics.
Poly(hexamethylenebiguanide) (PHMB) is one of a family of antimicrobial chem-
icals called polybiguanides. The PHMB molecule has both cationic and hydrophobic
features that disrupt cell membranes through multiple mechanisms (Zanoaga and
Tanasa 2014). As a result, bacterial resistance to PHMB is rare. The cationic groups
allow it to bond to negatively charged cellulosic fibres. PHMB has low toxicity, so
is frequently used in wound dressings and other healthcare applications, as well as
clothing and household textiles.
N-halamines are heterocyclic organic compounds with one or more nitrogen–
halogen bonds. They are effective against a wide range of bacteria, fungi and viruses,
function by the release of halogen (such as chlorine) and are suitable for cellulosics,
polyamides and polyester. During interaction with a microbe, the N-halamine bond
is reversibly converted into a N–H bond (with no antimicrobial activity) and so has
to be exposed to hypochlorite ions during laundering to regenerate the antimicrobial
functionality (Goddard and Hotchkiss 2008).
Quaternary ammonium compounds are cationic surfactants that are used as
softeners. They work well against many bacteria and fungi and can also inhibit
some viruses. The effectiveness is influenced by the length of the hydrocar-
bon chains and the number of cationic ammonium groups present. The cationic
ammonium group interacts with a microbe’s negatively charged cell membrane
disrupting all essential functions and also damages the microbe’s DNA (Hasan
et al. 2013).
There is much research ongoing into the natural antimicrobial compounds nat-
urally present in numerous plants and animals (Kyung and Lee 2001). Numerous
examples of these peptides are already used in medicine, and their compatibility
with textiles is being investigated (Vastrad and Byadgi 2018).
For surface-treated antimicrobial textiles, durability is questionable due to poor
binding strength between the antimicrobial agent and the textile. The traditional way
to improve the affinity is to build chemical bonds between active agents and fibres
through suitable reactive groups.
The durability of antimicrobial finishes is effected by laundering. One innova-
tive new controlled-release method for applying antimicrobials to fabrics involves
the application of microcapsules containing antimicrobial compounds (Yip and Luk
2016). The microcapsules slowly release the active chemicals, allowing a treated
fabric to retain its antimicrobial properties for a longer period.
11.3.12 UV Protection
UV radiation is part of the electromagnetic spectrum emanating from the sun. A
limited amount of UV exposure to skin is essential for the production of vitamin D
and certain endorphins, but overexposure may result in health issues. UV is associ-
ated with three commonest skin cancers, such as basal cell carcinoma, squamous
cell carcinoma and malignant melanoma, as well as skin ageing, acne, skin redden-
ing, sunburn, DNA damage and eye damage. The International Agency for Research
on Cancer has classed UV radiation of wavelengths of 100–400 nm as carcinogenic
to humans.
Ultraviolet A (UVA) (315–400 nm) penetrates the skin most deeply. It has long
been known to cause skin ageing, but until recently was not thought be a major
cause of cancer. However, more recent studies have shown that UVA contributes
to and may even initiate the development of skin cancers. (Besaratinia et al. 2005)
Ultraviolet B (UVB) (280–315 nm) is the main cause of skin cancer, skin reddening
and sunburn, and contributes to DNA damage, tanning and photoageing. Ultraviolet
C (UVC) (100–280 nm) is not naturally encountered on Earth’s surface as it is
absorbed by ozone in the atmosphere. However, individuals working with welding
torches or mercury lamps may be exposed to UVC.
When a fabric is exposed to UV radiation, some radiation can pass through the
spaces between the fibres. Therefore, micro-fibre fabrics offer better UV protec-
tion than those made from normal fibres, given the same basic fabric structure and
weight (Dulę-ba-Majek 2009). The UV radiation that hits the fibres can be reflected,
absorbed or transmitted through the fibre. This is dependent on fibre type, roughness
of the fibre surface and the presence of finishes and additives. Wool and p olyester
absorb more UV radiation than nylon, with cotton absorbing very little. TiO2
absorbs UV radiation, so can be added to synthetic polymers in spinning to reduce
transmission.
Recently, nanoscale UV blocking agents have become increasingly popular as a
potential solution. Research has shown that the application of nanoscale metal oxide
particles to fibres can offer a washfast and effective means of increasing UV protec-
tion (Vihodceva and Kukle 2013).
11.3.13 Flame/Fire Retardants
Flame retardant (FR) finishes are usually applied to combustible fabrics used in
apparel, furnishings, construction materials and other specific applications. FR fi nishes
are usually applied to textiles by impregnation of the textile material with a solution of
FR or by applying FR solution to one face of the fabric (Song et al. 2016; Kilinc 2013).
A textile fire is fuelled by combustible pyrolysis products escaping from the surface
of the fibres due to the heat conducted and radiated from the flame. The volatiles formed
escape into the flame whilst the heavier molecules remain and undergo f urther reactions,
and possibly degrade to form a char. The oxygen needed to sustain the flame comes from
the surrounding air, given sufficient temperature and an ignition source, the volatiles
will ignite. The subsequent heat causes further degradation of fibres, resulting in a com-
bustion cycle. Removing the heat or fuel or oxygen breaks the cycle and stops the fire.
FRs can function in several ways. Intumescents form a foamed char on the
surface, sealing off the fuel and insulating it from the flame. Others reduce tempera-
ture due to methods such as endothermic decomposition or heat absorption by water
formed. Another mechanism is chemical action, where species released from the FR
react with and therefore eliminate the free radicals that are required for the propaga-
tion of a flame (Green 1996).
11.3.14 Halogenated FRs
Traditionally, the most prevalent group of FRs was halogenated FRs, which largely
act by chemical action. However, this group is largely being phased out as research
has found many to be persistent, bioaccumalative and/or toxic. A 2018 study of
stranded sperm whales on the Italian coastline revealed concentrations of haloge-
nated FRs in the whales’ tissue in sufficient concentrations to cause dysfunctional
effects (Zaccaroni et al. 2018).
In 2001, the Stockholm Convention drafted a treaty for the regulation of persistent
organic pollutants, including a number of halogenated FRs. As of September 2018,
152 countries have signed to ratify the treaty, with the United States of America,
Israel, Malaysia and Italy being notable exceptions. However, the USA has imple-
mented measures that correspond to many of the treaty’s regulations. As a result
of these global regulatory changes, manufacturers have launched an array of FR
products based on other chemicals.
11.3.15 Non-Halogenated FRs
Modern FR chemistry is largely based on compounds containing phosphorus, nitro-
gen and/or silicone, as well as intumescents such as expandable graphite (Hull and
Kandola, 2009).
Phosphorus-based FRs can display both a char type and/or a chemical action.
They tend not to generate toxic gases during combustion as phosphorus is retained in
the char. Phosphorus-based FRs are frequently used on cellulosic fabrics.
Nitrogen FRs are often based on melamine and guanidine (Figure 11.5). They have
low toxicity and low smoke emission. FRs based on nitrogen and phosphorous are typi-
cally ‘environmentally friendly’ and contain the same elements present in fertilisers.
FIGURE 11.5 Examples of nitrogen-based FRs.
FRs containing silicon are also claimed to be ‘environmentally friendly’, and

mostly combine silicon with other elements such as phosphorus. These compounds
can improve char formation in intumescent formulae and reduce free radical concen-
tration through chemical reaction (Lishui et al. 2012).
Mineral-based FRs include calcium carbonate, aluminium trihydroxide, huntite,
magnesium hydroxide and borates. Most work by endothermic degradation, reduc-
ing the temperature at the site of the flame. They require high application levels to be
effective, so their practicality is limited in many markets.
11.3.16 Repellent Finishes
A waterproof fabric prevents the penetration and absorption of water, thus providing
a barrier to water under reasonable conditions. This is often achieved by coating with
a continuous layer of polymer that is impermeable to water and air. The polymers
used include polyvinyl chloride, neoprene and polyurethane (Williams 2017). This
type of treatment is not suitable for all textile applications, where alternative repel-
lent finishes are used.
The wetting behaviour of a textile is dependent on its surface energy and the
surface tension of the liquid. When the surface energy is higher than the liquid’s
surface tension, then good wetting behaviour and a low contact angle is observed.
When the surface energy is lower than the liquid’s surface tension, then the textile
exhibits poor wetting behaviour and a large contact angle is observed (Figure 11.6).
Water has a higher surface tension than many oils, so a fabric that is proven to be
hydrophobic may not be oleophobic. Finishes that are hydrophobic and oleophobic
are often referred to as stain-resistant or soil-resistant finishes, as they prevent a wide
range of potentially staining liquids from wetting the fabric.
FIGURE 11.6 Schematic of contact angle and wettability.

There are many water-repellent finishes that can be applied to textiles. The appli-
cation of soaps and waxes were traditionally used, but their effect is reduced with
laundering. Silicones are frequently used, but do not give sufficiently low surface
energy to repel oils. Fluorocarbon-based finishes endow lower surface energy and
have been used for decades as stain-resistant finishes. However, these finishes are
currently under scrutiny due to their poor biodegradability and bioaccumulation
potential. Studies show that these chemicals are present globally in drinking water
and in the tissues of fish, birds and marine mammals (Suja et al. 2009). Some studies
have linked these chemicals to early-onset menopause, thyroid disease and cancer,
immune system problems and heart disease (Knox et al. 2011).
11.4.1 Microencapsulation
Microencapsulation is a rapidly growing area, both in terms of research and
adoption. (Podgornik and Starešinič 2015). The microencapsulation market is fore-
cast to grow to $19.34 billion by 2025, at a compound annual growth rate of 13.6%
(Research 2018).
Microencapsulation involves surrounding minute beads of a liquid or particles of a
solid with a continuous thin polymer shell. In textile applications, microcapsules have
a typical diameter between 10 and 40 µm, though diameters below 1 µm are possible.
Normally, the core material makes up ca. 80% of the microcapsule’s mass; however,
up to 95% is achievable (Nelson 2013). The shell forms a protective barrier to retain
the core material and is designed to maintain intact during textile functionalisation.
The core material can then be released under controlled conditions (such as moisture,
heat or physical force) to suit a particular application. The release depends on the
thickness and composition of the shell and the microencapsulation process used.
Commercial adoption of microencapsulation technology in the textile industry
began in the 1990s. Since then, the scale and scope of commercial applications has
continued to increase.
Encapsulation has allowed moisturisers, therapeutic oils and insecticides to be
incorporated into fabrics.
11.4.2 Medical Applications
Medical applications have focused on two main areas: the delivery of pharmaceuti-
cals to patients (Abdelakder et al. 2018) and the delivery of antimicrobials (Arshad
et al. 2018). This has spread to use in apparel, due to the difficulty of eradicating
bacteria from socks and other garments.
11.4.3 Cosmetics and Fragrances

Microencapsulation is used increasingly in cosmetics and personal care applications.
Many products of this type utilise compounds that require encapsulation to preserve
them. The encapsulated agent can be released by numerous means, such as mechani-
cal force, heat, pH, degradation, diffusion and solvation (Bastos and Santos 2015).
11.4.4 Coloration
Photochromic and thermochromic dyes (which change colour with light and
temperature, respectively) are frequently microencapsulated and applied to fabrics.
These are used both in fashion and as warning markers in applications such as UV
exposure screening (Di Credico et al. 2013).
11.4.5 Heating and Cooling

Microencapsulation of phase change materials (PCM) uses shells designed to
retain the contents permanently. Once the ambient temperature reduces to a cer-
tain value, the PCM core solidifies or crystallises (depending on the composition)
releasing thermal energy. Studies have shown that this heating effect can last over
3 h in apparel applications (Gao et al. 2008). Similarly, if the ambient temperature
increases, then the PCM will absorb energy and turn from solid to liquid, causing
a cooling effect.
11.4.6 Plasma Treatment
Plasma is considered to be ‘the fourth state of matter’, predominantly composed of
ions, electrons and radicals. It is produced by heating a gas and/or exposing it to a
strong electromagnetic field to yield a cloud of charged ions. The most well-known
representation is lightning, where the strong electric field causes molecules in the
air to break down into ions and electrons, propagating a conductive plasma chan-
nel allowing current to flow in order to reduce charge separation (Rakov and Uman
2003).
In textile applications, plasma technology allows the textile surface to be modi-
fied without changing the bulk properties of the material, such as tensile strength.
This can be caused by surface functionalisation through bonding chemical groups
to the textile surface or removing material from the textile surface or by modifying
the topography of the textile surface. The effects depend on the technique used, the
gas, pressure, field strength, substrate, treatment time and other process parameters
(Cassidy and Goswami 2017).
In contrast to most ‘traditional’ wet finishing treatments, plasma is a ‘dry’ pro-
cess, so does not require energy-intensive drying and uses less water and chemi-
cals and produces no effluent. The removal of material from the surface by certain
plasma treatments can result in a cleaning effect. Therefore, lubricants and other
finishing chemicals can be removed without scouring and subsequent drying.
Plasma treatment in textiles is generally divided into two main categories –
low-pressure plasma and atmospheric plasma (Bárdos and Baránková 2008). As the
name suggests, in low-pressure plasma treatment, the gas pressure is reduced using
vacuum. It is therefore a batch or semi-continuous process, as the reaction chamber
must be closed to enable this reduction in pressure – typically in the range of 0.1–1 Pa.
Atmospheric plasma was introduced more recently and has greater production
flexibility as the pressure allows continuous treatment. The main atmospheric types
include corona treatment, dielectric barrier discharge or glow discharge.
The European Union-funded project – ‘Leapfrog CA’ – conducted an extensive

literature review of plasma treatment in textiles (Nema and Jhala 2015). The main
applications were identified as follows:
• Anti-felting/shrink resist of woollen fabrics.

• Hydrophilic enhancement for improving wetting and dyeing.
• Hydrophilic enhancement for improving adhesive bonding.
• Hydrophobic enhancement of water and oil-repellent textiles.
• Facilitating the removal of sizing agents.
• Scouring of fabrics.
• Reduction in yarn or fabric hairiness.
• Antibacterial fabrics.
• Durable anti-static properties.
• Electro-conductivity of textile yarns.
• Enhanced flame retardancy.
• Material sterilisation.
Combination of high-frequency electrical discharge plasma with a high-power pulsed

UV laser has also proven to be highly effective at functionalising textiles (Mistry
2011). Multiplexed Laser Surface Enhancement ‘MLSE®’ treatment is c arried out
at atmospheric pressure, and was launched commercially into the textile industry
in 2018. Many scientists predict that plasma (and related) technologies are set to
revolutionise the textile industry in the coming years due to the potential perfor-
mance, environmental and economic advantages.
11.4.7 Nanotechnologies
Nanotechnology refers to the use of materials with diameters between 1 and 100 nm.
Nanotechnology is the subject of a great deal of research in textile applications
(Harafi and Montazer 2015). The application of chemicals to textiles as nanoparticu-
lates can result in marked performance improvements due to the larger surface area
of the active chemicals, but as yet, the full potential of this new technology area is
yet to be fully explored. The use of nanotechnology has shown performance benefits
in numerous textile applications, including anti-static properties, filtration, oil and
water repellency, flame retardancy and abrasion resistance. Nanotechnology is still
in its infancy commercially, but continued research and developments are increas-
ingly pushing new boundaries with this technology.
11.5 SUMMARY
Textile finishing is a hugely important aspect of the textile industry. However, the
industry is facing growing challenges – an estimated 20% of water pollution is pur-
ported to be from textile processing. New finishing technologies are being continu-
ally developed, engineered for improved product performance, greater production
efficiency, reduced environmental impact and lower risk to health. However, the fun-
damentals of many traditional finishing technologies are also just as commercially
relevant as they have ever been, though they continue to be optimised. New develop-
ments such as plasma treatment are set to potentially revolutionise textile finishing,
reducing the need for wet processing and subsequently reducing energy consumption
and effluent production. The future of textile finishing has the potential to change
dramatically if these novel technologies are introduced commercially on a wide scale.
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12 Testing of Fibres, Yarns
and Fabrics and Their
Recent Developments
Anindya Ghosh
Government College of Engineering and
Textile Technology Berhampore
Prithwiraj Mal
National Institute of Fashion Technology Hyderabad
CONTENTS
12.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................... 222
12.2 Testing of Fibres............................................................................................ 223
12.2.1 Identification of Fibres....................................................................... 223
12.2.2 Fibre Fineness Testing....................................................................... 223
12.2.2.1 Terms and Definitions (With Reference to Cotton Fibre)...... 223
12.2.2.2 Measuring Principle............................................................224
12.2.3 Fibre Length Testing.......................................................................... 226
12.2.3.1 Terms and Definitions......................................................... 226
12.2.3.2 Measuring Principle............................................................ 226
12.2.4 Fibre Strength Testing........................................................................ 227
12.3 Testing of Yarns............................................................................................. 228
12.3.1 Testing of Yarn Count and Twist....................................................... 228
12.3.2 Tensile Testing of Yarn...................................................................... 230
12.3.2.3 Effect of Extension Rate..................................................... 232
12.3.2.4 Effect of Gauge Length....................................................... 232
12.3.3 Evenness Testing of Yarn.................................................................. 233
12.3.3.3 Diagram and Spectrogram.................................................. 234
12.3.4 Hairiness Testing of Yarn.................................................................. 235
221

12.4 Testing of Fabrics........................................................................................... 236
12.4.1 Structural Properties.......................................................................... 236
12.4.1.1 Fabric Count........................................................................ 236
12.4.1.2 Crimp.................................................................................. 237
12.4.2 Dimensional Properties..................................................................... 237
12.4.2.1 Length and Width............................................................... 237
12.4.2.2 Thickness............................................................................ 237
12.4.2.3 Shrinkage............................................................................ 238
12.4.3 Areal Density..................................................................................... 239
12.4.4 Fabric Strength.................................................................................. 239
12.4.4.1 Tensile Strength.................................................................. 239
12.4.4.2 Tearing Strength.................................................................240
12.4.4.3 Bursting Strength................................................................ 241
12.4.5 Abrasion Resistance........................................................................... 242
12.4.6 Serviceability Tests............................................................................ 243
12.4.6.1 Snagging............................................................................. 243
12.4.6.2 Pilling.................................................................................. 243
12.4.7 Comfort.............................................................................................. 245
12.4.7.1 Air Permeability................................................................. 245
12.4.7.2 Thermal Conductivity, Resistance and Absorptivity.......... 245
12.4.7.3 Absorbency.........................................................................246
12.4.7.4 Moisture Vapour Transmission Rate.................................. 247
12.4.7.5 Wicking...............................................................................248
12.4.8 Colour Fastness Testing.....................................................................248
12.4.8.1 Colour Fastness to Rubbing/Crocking................................ 251
12.4.8.2 Colour Fastness to Washing................................................ 251
12.4.8.3 Colour Fastness to Dry Cleaning........................................ 252
12.4.8.4 Colour Fastness to Perspiration.......................................... 252
12.4.8.5 Colour Fastness to Water.................................................... 253
12.4.8.6 Colour Fastness to Chlorine Water..................................... 254
12.4.8.7 Colour Fastness to Seawater............................................... 254
12.4.8.8 Colour Fastness to Light..................................................... 254
12.5 Summary and Conclusion.............................................................................. 255
References............................................................................................................... 255
12.1 INTRODUCTION
Testing of textile materials refers to the methodical assessment of fibre, yarn and fab-
ric characteristics such as fibre length, fineness, strength, yarn count, twist, strength,
evenness and hairiness, fabric thickness, weight, strength, durability, serviceability,
comfort, colour fastness, aesthetic and low stress mechanical properties. The basic
objectives of textile testing are the checking of raw materials, monitoring of produc-
tion, assessment of final product, investigation of faulty materials, product devel-
opment and research. In a textile industry, testing has occupied a very important
Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics 223
position nowadays. It has become a routine practice for every textile industry to
subject its products for systematic testing before being released to the market. The
saleability of a textile product is primarily assessed by means of testing. Process and
quality control turn out to be meaningless without testing. A sound testing system
ensures the prevention of excessive amount of faulty materials from passing through
before detection. Thus, testing of textiles is analogous to the fact that prevention is
better than cure. With the increasing globalization and overgrowing competition,
there is a high demand for rapid, automatic and accurate testing of products using
high-tech instruments in the textile industries worldwide.
12.2 TESTING OF FIBRES
12.2.1 Identification of Fibres
The identification of textile fibres may be done by means of solubility test or burning
test. However, solubility of fibres in some specific solvents provides a confirmative
means of identification (Kothari 1999). A step-by-step procedure for identification of
an unknown fibre is mentioned later.
• Step 1: Put the fibre sample in water. If it floats, it is polypropylene. If it

sinks, go to the next step.
• Step 2: Treat the fibre with 18% sodium hydroxide. If soluble, it may be silk
or wool. To distinguish between the two, treat it with lead acetate. If a black
precipitate of lead sulphide is observed, it is wool, otherwise silk. If the
fibre is insoluble in sodium hydroxide solution, go to the next step.
• Step 3: Treat the fibre with dimethyl formamide. If soluble, it is acrylic,
otherwise go to the next step.
• Step 4: Treat the fibre with formic acid. If soluble, it is nylon, otherwise
follow the next step.
• Step 5: Treat the fibre with m-cresol. If soluble, it is polyester, otherwise go
to the next step.
• Step 6: Treat the fibre with glacial acetic acid. If soluble, it is cellulose diace-
tate or cellulose triacetate. To distinguish between the two, treat it with
methylene chloride. If soluble, it is cellulose triacetate, otherwise cellulose
diacetate. If the fibre is insoluble in glacial acetic acid, go to the next step.
• Step 7: Treat the fibre with 70% sulphuric acid. If soluble, it is either cotton
or viscose rayon. To distinguish between the two, treat it with sodium zinc-
ate. If soluble, it is viscose rayon, otherwise cotton.
12.2.2 Fibre Fineness Testing

12.2.2.1 Terms and Definitions (With Reference to Cotton Fibre)
• Degree of cell wall thickening (θ) – ratio of the actual cross-sectional
area of the fibre wall to the area of the circle with the same perimeter. It
describes the amount of cellulose that has been deposited inside the fibre
during development stage of its wall (Gupta and Kothari 1997).
• Maturity – depends on the degree of cell wall thickness. Mature fibre has
a thick and well-developed fibre wall, whereas immature fibre has thin and
poorly developed fibre wall.
• Mature fibre content (N) – percentage of all fibres within cotton samples
that have θ > 0.5.
• Immature fibre content (D) – percentage of all fibres within a cotton sample
that have θ < 0.25.
• Maturity ratio (M) – ratio of the actual degree of thickening to a stan-
dard degree of thickening equal to 0.577. According to Lord (1961),
N−D
M= + 0.7.
200
• Specific surface (S) – surface area/unit volume of fibres. Specific surface is
greater for finer fibres.
• Micronaire value (µg/inch) – product of fibre fineness in µg/inch and matu-
rity ratio, M.
12.2.2.2 Measuring Principle
USTER High Volume Instrument (USTER® HVI 1000) determines the cotton fibre
micronaire value using the airflow method that is based on the principle that the
viscous drag of any surface in a moving air stream is a function of the amount of
surface exposed. The resistance to the airflow through a plug, R, is expressed by the
following equation (Lord 1961):
∆P kηρ m 2l 2 S 2
R= = (12.1)
Q ( ρ Al − m )3
where ΔP = pressure difference developed across the mass of cotton fibres con-
strained in a perforated cylindrical plug, Q = volume rate of airflow through the
plug, k = shape factor, η  = viscosity of air, ρ  = overall density of fibre, m = mass
of fibre, A = cross-sectional area of the plug, l = length of the plug, S  = specific
surface of the fibres constituting the plug. It thus turns out from Equation (12.1)
that the resistance to airflow is directly proportional to the square of the spe-
cific surface of the fibres, provided that all other parameters remain constant.
Therefore, for a fixed pressure drop (ΔP), the rate of airflow through the plug,
Q, is inversely proportional to the square of the specific surface, S . Further, the
fibre micronaire value is also inversely proportional to the square of the specific
surface (Anderson 1983). Thus, the rate of airflow through the plug gives an esti-
mation of fibre micronaire value. A schematic representation of airflow method is
depicted in Figure 12.1.
Lenzing Vibroskop 500 determines the linear density by means of vibration
method for synthetic fibres. Figure 12.2 shows a schematic diagram of a vibrating
fibre. Before a test, an appropriate pretension weight (W) has to be selected and
set on the instrument. Thereafter, a fibre with the corresponding pretension weight
is loaded into the instrument. Then the fibre is set into its natural vibration by an
FIGURE 12.1 Schematic diagram of airflow method.
FIGURE 12.2 Schematic diagram of a vibrating fibre.

electronic delta impulse. The linear density is derived from the fibre’s vibration fre-
quency as follows (Booth 1986):
t
Fibre denier = × 9 × 10 5 (12.2)
4 L2 f 2
where t = fibre tension (dyn), L = effective fibre length (cm), f = natural frequency of
vibration (Hz).
12.2.3 Fibre Length Testing

12.2.3.1 Terms and Definitions
• Mean length (mm) – mean fibre length (Kothari, 1999).
• Upper half means length (mm) – mean length of the longer 50% of the
fibres.
• 50% span length (mm) – the distance spanned by 50% of fibres in the speci-
men being tested from their catch point. If the 50% span length is 16 mm,
then the 50% fibres in the specimen have length ≥16 mm.
• 2.5% span length (mm) – the distance spanned by 2.5% of fibres in the
specimen being tested from their catch point. If the 2.5% span length is
30 mm, then the 2.5% fibres in the specimen have length ≥30 mm.
• Uniformity ratio – ratio of 50% span length and 2.5% span length, expressed
as percentage.
• Uniformity index – ratio of mean length and upper half mean length,
expressed as percentage.
• Short fibre index – percentage of fibres shorter than 12.7 mm.
USTER® HVI 1000 determines the aforementioned fibre length parameters using
the optical principle of measuring the density along the length of a tuft of parallel
fibres. At first, the samples are prepared by a fibro-sampler having a rotating clamp
that catches cotton fibres from a perforated drum. The clamp catches all fibres at
random along their length to form a specimen beard. The beard is then brushed and
combed to remove loose fibres. A narrow rectangular beam of light is allowed to
pass through the beard from the tip of the longest fibre to the baseline of the clamp.
The number of fibres that extend to a distance from the baseline of the clamp is
estimated by means of the intensity of light that passes through the beard at that
position. The relative number of fibres is then plotted against distance from the
clamp to produce a fibrogram as shown in Figure 12.3 (Morton and Hearle 1975;
Kothari 1999).
USTER Advanced Fibre Information System (USTER® AFIS PRO 2) is based
on the individual testing of all fibres in a sample. In this instrument, a sample of
cotton fibre is inserted between the feed roller and the feed plate. The opening
rollers open the fibre assembly and separate off the fibres, trash and dust. The trash
particles and dust are suctioned off to extraction. On their way through the trans-
portation and acceleration channels, the individual fibre passes through the optical
FIGURE 12.3 A fibrogram showing mean length, upper half mean length, 2.5% and 50%
span lengths.
FIGURE 12.4 Electric signals of (a) normal fibre and (b) short fibre.
sensor. The corresponding impulses are converted into electrical signals for the
analysis of fibre length, nep and maturity. Figure 12.4 shows typical electric sig-
nals for normal and short fibres. A wide range of fibre length parameters such as
average length (mm), length distribution, short fibre content (%), length coefficient
of variation (CV) (%), etc. by weight as well as by number can be obtained from
this instrument.
12.2.4 Fibre Strength Testing

• Fibre bundle tenacity (cN/tex) – the breaking load/unit linear density of
fibre bundle (Gupta and Kothari 1997).
• Fibre bundle breaking elongation (%) – elongation of the fibre bundle at its
breaking load expressed as a percentage of testing length.
Fibre bundle strength is usually measured for cotton. Conventionally, fibre bundle
strength is measured using a Stelometer that works with the constant rate of loading
principle. This instrument uses the pendulum lever principle of loading the specimen
FIGURE 12.5 Measurement of fibre bundle strength.
to estimate the fibre bundle strength. A random sample of cotton fibres is prepared,
short fibres being removed by combing so that all the fibres in the test specimen
extend all the way through the jaws.
USTER® HVI 1000 uses a constant rate of extension principle for tensile testing
of cotton fibre bundle. A fibre beard is formed, the mass of which is measured at
a number of points along the fibre length from the fibrogram (Saville 1999). Based
on the results from the fibrogram, a point is selected at a certain distance from
the clamp to perform a strength test using jaws with 3 mm separation as shown in
Figure 12.5.
12.3 TESTING OF YARNS
12.3.1 Testing of Yarn Count and Twist
• Yarn count – a numeric expression that represents yarn fineness. In direct
system, it is defined as weight/unit length, whereas in indirect system it is
defined as length/unit weight.
• Tex – weight in grams of 1 km of yarn.
• Denier – weight in grams of 9 km of yarn.
• Metric count – length in km per 1 kg of yarn.
• English count (Ne) – length in hank (840 yards) per 1 lb of yarn.
• Twist – spiral turns given to a yarn in order to hold the constituent fibres
together. Twist direction is either S or Z depending on the direction of fibre
inclination. Amount of twist is denoted by the number of turns/unit length
of yarn (cm, m and inch).
• Twist angle (α) – angle between a tangent to the helix formed by the fibre
and the yarn axis.
• Twist factor (K) – for direct system, = twist/cm × tex ; for indirect sys-
twist per inch
tem, K = , which is also termed as twist multiplier.
Ne
The weighing method is generally used to determine yarn count. Yarn specimen is
first wound to a number of leas (120 yards or 109.73 m) by means of wrap reels. The
specimen is allowed for conditioning in standard testing atmosphere (65% ± 2%
relative humidity and 20°C ± 2°C temperature) over a considerable time to reach
equilibrium and then weigh in the same atmosphere. The count in tex of each speci-
men is estimated using the following expressions:
1,000M
tex = (12.3)
L
where M  = weight of the specimen (g) and L = length of the specimen (m).
USTER® ZWEIGLE TWIST TESTER 5 uses untwist–retwist method for mea-
suring the yarn twist/unit length. In this method, the yarn is untwisted and retwisted
back to its original length. The operating principle of this instrument is depicted in
Figure 12.6 (USTER® ZWEIGLE 2009). In a first step, the yarn is untwisted until it
reaches a state where all the fibres become parallel to yarn axis. At this stage, yarn
reaches the largest extension. In a second step, the yarn is retwisted in the same
direction until the yarn reaches its original length. This makes a change of yarn
twist from Z-direction to S-direction and vice versa. Total number of turns is then
converted to twist/unit length.
FIGURE 12.6 Measuring principle of yarn twist using untwist–retwist method.

12.3.2 Tensile Testing of Yarn

• Breaking force (cN) – the maximum force required to break the specimen
(Gupta and Kothari 1997).
• Breaking elongation (%) – elongation of the specimen at breaking load
expressed as a percentage of original length.
• Pre-tensional force (cN/tex) – the force acting on the specimen before the
start of tensile testing.
• Tenacity (cN/tex) – the breaking force per unit linear density of the
unstrained specimen.
• Work done to break (cN cm) – energy required to break the specimen that
is obtained from the area under force–elongation (FE) characteristic curve.
• Breaking length (km) – the theoretical length in km of a specimen of yarn
whose weight would exert a force sufficient to break it.
A typical FE characteristic curve of a yarn is illustrated in Figure 12.7.
There are three principles of operation for tensile testers, viz., constant rate of exten-
sion (CRE), constant rate of loading (CRL) and constant rate of traverse(CRT). Most
of the modern tensile testers are based on the CRE principle. The standard measure-
ment of yarn strength is executed at 500 mm gauge length and 20 ± 3 s time to break.
However, the standard time to break was set out at a time when there was only slow-
speed tensile tester.
Strain-gauge principle is generally employed on a CRE-based tester (Booth
1986). A metallic wire is used as a strain gauge that changes its resistance under
loading due to the change in its length and cross-sectional area. If the length of
the wire increases from l to l + ∆l under loading, its resistance increases from R to
R + ∆R. The resistance changes linearly with strain. The sensitivity of a strain gauge
FIGURE 12.7 A typical force–elongation (FE) characteristic curve of a yarn.

is expressed as gauge factor (G), which is defined as the unit change in resistance per
unit change in length, hence
∆R /R
G= (12.4)
∆l /l
The strain gauges are bonded to a cantilever metallic beam as shown in Figure 12.8.
The yarn specimen is clamped between two jaws. The upper jaw is attached to the
free end of the cantilever beam and the lower jaw is lowered at a constant velocity,
which develops tensile loading in the specimen. Under this loading, the cantilever
beam bends such that outer strain gauges are subjected to tension while the inner
gauges undergo compression. Thus, the applied load in the specimen causes changes
in dimensions of the strain gauge, which in turn causes changes in resistances. The
magnitude of the load applied can be obtained by measuring the changes in resis-
tances of the strain gauges. Basically, the strain gauges are connected to form a
Whetstone bridge as shown in Figure 12.9. Before the application of load, the bridge
is balanced, thus the voltage output becomes zero. The bridge is balanced if
R1 R2
= (12.5)
R3 R4
FIGURE 12.8 Strain-gauge principle.
FIGURE 12.9 Four resistances are connected in the form of a Whetstone bridge.
An application of load causes the changes in resistances of the strain gauges; there-
fore, the bridge becomes unbalanced. The unbalancing of the bridge causes an out-
put voltage V0 that is proportional to the applied load. The output voltage is amplified
with a suitable electric circuit and converted into a digital signal.
With the advent of high-speed tensile testing such as USTER® TENSOJET 4, it
is now possible to achieve a clamp speed of 400 m/min, which requires only 3 ms
time to break a specimen. Such a high clamp speed enables around 30,000 tests per
hour; hence, a spinning mill can predict the weaveability of the yarn (Kothari 1999).
12.3.2.3 Effect of Extension Rate

Time to break a yarn specimen decreases with the increase of extension rate (Further
1985). Between the time to break and extension rate, there is a following relationship:
0.6lE
t= (12.6)
V
where E = % breaking elongation of yarn, l = test length in mm, t = time to break the
specimen in second, V = extension rate in mm/min.
The rate of extension during tensile testing influences yarn tenacity. Rapid strain-
ing of yarn results in a higher breaking load. Midgley and Peirce (1926) were the first
to study the effect of extension rate on yarn tenacity and showed that the breaking
load of a cotton yarn was inversely proportional to the logarithm of the time to break
the yarn. This relationship was approximately valid over a range of times from 1/50 s
to a month. Meridith (1950) established the following empirical equation for break-
ing times ranging between a second and an hour:
t 
F1 − F2 = kF1 log10  2  (12.7)
 t1 
where F1 is breaking load at time t1, F2 is breaking load in time t2 and k is the
strength-time coefficient. The strength-time coefficient is the gradient of the average
slope of the lines obtained when the breaking loads are plotted against the logarithm
of the time to break. It was observed that the strength of cotton yarn decreases by
approximately 9% for a tenfold increase in time to break and the value of k is close
to 0.09 (Meridith 1950).
12.3.2.4 Effect of Gauge Length

Many researchers attributed that the presence of flaw in the yarn lead to localization of
stress, whereby the rupture process is initiated. It thus follows that the fall in strength
of a material with increasing test length is due to the presence of a distribution of flaw
of wide-ranging magnitude, since the probability of encountering a large fatal flaw
increases with test length. Peirce (1926), after studying strength variability of yarns,
proposed the ‘chain weak link’ theory and obtained the following relationships:
 − 
1
Sl 0 − Sl = 4.2  1 − m 5  σ l 0 (12.8)
 
1
σl −
= m 5 (12.9)
σ l0
where Sl 0 and σ l 0 are the mean and standard deviation of strength of the specimen
at a gauge length l0 ; Sl and σ l are the mean and standard deviation of strength of the
specimen at a gauge length l; and m = l /l0.
12.3.3 Evenness Testing of Yarn

• Um (%) – percentage mean deviation of mass per unit length of the yarn. It
has now become obsolete (Kothari 1999).
• CVm (%) – CV of the mass/unit length of yarn. Nowadays, CVm is com-
monly used to express yarn irregularity.
• CVm (L) (%) – CV of the mass of yarn at cut lengths of 1, 3, 10, 50 and
100 m.
• Uniformity index – ratio between the actual CVm and ideal CVm of yarn.
• Imperfections – total number of thin places (−50%), thick places (+50%)
and neps (+200%) present/1,000 m length of yarn. A thin place (−50%)
means the cross section of the yarn at the thin place is only 50% of its mean
cross section or less. A thick place of (+50%) means the cross section of the
yarn at the thick place is 150% of its mean cross section or more. A nep
(+200%) indicates that the cross section of nep is 300% of the mean cross
section of the yarn or more.
The capacitance principle is commonly used for measuring yarn evenness (Further
1982). If a dielectric material such as yarn is introduced into the space between the
parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance of the capacitor changes that is proportional
to the mass of the material present. Thus, if a yarn is drawn at constant speed through
the parallel plate capacitor, as shown in Figure 12.10, the changes in c apacitance will
follow the variation in weight/unit length of the yarn. The unit length is the length
of the capacitor. For USTER evenness tester, it is 8 mm. The capacitance signal is
amplified with a suitable electronic circuit, and the amplified signal is stored digi-
tally. The USTER® TESTER 6 can operate with a testing speed of 800 m/min. This
FIGURE 12.10 The capacitance principle of measuring yarn evenness.

instrument is capable of measuring the imperfections with 12 sensitivity levels of

thin and thick places plus neps of different yarn types.
12.3.3.3 Diagram and Spectrogram

A diagram shows the variations in mass/unit length along the length of yarn as
depicted in Figure 12.11. The nature of variability present in the material is illus-
trated in the diagram. However, a diagram cannot recognize and analyze a periodic
mass variation present in the yarn. The defective card clothing, eccentric drafting
rollers, defective aprons, etc. produce periodic mass variation in yarn. A spectrogram
is extremely useful in detecting such kind of variation. The diagram is a depiction of
the mass variation in the time domain, whereas the spectrogram is a representation
of mass variation in the frequency domain. As frequency and wavelengths are inter-
related, the spectrogram is generally represented with reference to the wavelength,
as shown in Figure 12.12 (USTER News Bulletin 2010). In a spectrogram, the pres-
ence of a peak at a particular wavelength indicates the distance at which the periodic
faults repeat. Hence, a spectrogram can locate the generating point of a periodic fault
(Further 1982).
FIGURE 12.11 A diagram indicating variations in mass/unit length along the length of
yarn.
FIGURE 12.12 Spectrograms of yarns for ten-ring frame cops.

12.3.4 Hairiness Testing of Yarn

• Hairiness index – total length of protruding fibre/cm length of yarn. It is
also termed as H-value (Saville 1999).
• Hairiness – number of protruding fibres at a defined length from the yarn
edge. The number of protruding fibres is measured over seven length zones
in the range of 1–10 mm. Individual count of protruding fibres in each
length zone is normalized to 100 m yarn length.
• S3 – cumulative sum of all protruding fibres having length ≥3 mm, normal-
ized to 100 m yarn length. It describes the amount of long protruding fibres.
• S1 + 2 – cumulative sum of all protruding fibres with the length of 1 and
2 mm, normalized to 100 m. It describes the amount of short protruding
fibres.
USTER® TESTER 6 with the hairiness metre attachment measures the hairiness
index. A parallel beam of infrared light is illuminated on the yarn as it runs past the
measuring device as depicted in Figure 12.13. Only the light that is scattered by the
FIGURE 12.13 Measurement of yarn hairiness using USTER® TESTER with hairiness
attachment.
FIGURE 12.14 Measurement of yarn hairiness using USTER® ZWEIGLE HL 400.
protruding fibres from the main body of the yarn reaches the detector. The hairiness
measurement is done by the amount of scattered light that is converted to an electric
signal by the apparatus. Therefore, this instrument monitors only the total hairiness.
The testing speed of this instrument is 800 m/min.
USTER® ZWEIGLE HL 400 hairiness tester counts the number of hairs simultane-
ously by a set of photocells that are located at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8 and 10 mm distances from
the yarn edge as shown in Figure 12.14. The yarn is illuminated by a light source from
the opposite side of the photocells. While the yarn runs past the measuring device, the
presence of a hair between the light and photocell momentarily interrupts the light
beam, and an electronic circuit counts the interruption as one hair (Saville 1999). The
instrument measures the total number of hairs in each length category, including S3
and S1 + 2. The speed at which the yarn is fed to the instrument is 400 m/min.
12.4 TESTING OF FABRICS
12.4.1 Structural Properties
12.4.1.1 Fabric Count
Fabric count is the ends/inch and picks/inch for woven fabrics; wales/inch and
courses/inch for knitted fabric. It is expressed by A × B (example 100 × 100), where
A and B are ends/inch and picks/inch, respectively, for woven fabrics and wales/inch
and courses/inch for knitted fabrics. Fabric count measurement is done with the help
of a pick glass. The fabric is placed flat and relaxed on a table. Then, the number of
yarns/loops is counted individually in one inch using pick glass in both the direc-
tions of the fabrics and reported.
12.4.1.2 Crimp
Crimp is the waviness of the warp and weft yarns in a fabric due to their interlace-
ments (Booth 1986). Crimp is expressed in percentage (%) and is defined as the ratio
of difference between the straightened thread length and the distance between the
ends of the threads while in cloth to the distance between the ends of the threads
while in cloth, expressed as a percentage. To check the crimp % of warp, a fabric of
specific dimension is cut (say l0 × l0). The length of the fabric is the length of warp
in the cloth. Now, a warp thread is removed from the fabric. The yarn is straightened
with specific tension and the length is measured (say l1). The crimp can be calculated
using the following formula:
l1 − l0
Crimp = × 100% (12.10)
l0
Crimp of weft yarns can be measured using the same principle by taking the thread
along the width of the fabric.
12.4.2 Dimensional Properties
The testing of dimensional properties of a fabric is very important and is usually
checked by the customers before they are bought. Usually length, width, thickness
and shrinkage of the fabrics are checked. Their measurement principles are dis-
cussed later.
12.4.2.1 Length and Width

The length and width of a fabric can be measured using a measuring tape/scale. The
fabric length is the distance between one end to the other end of the fabric and is
measured keeping the fabric flat and without any undue tension. The length of the
fabric is expressed either in yards or metre. The fabric width is the distance between
one edge to the other edge of the fabric and is measured at several places keeping the
fabric flat and under no tension. The width of the fabric is the average of the readings
taken.
12.4.2.2 Thickness
Fabric thickness is the distance between the upper and lower surface of the fabric
and can be measured by a precision thickness gauge known as fabric thickness tester
as shown in Figure 12.15 (ASTM D1777-07 2007). The fabric is kept on a flat anvil
and a circular pressure foot is pressed on the fabric from top with a standard load.
The thickness can be noted directly from the dial indicator in millimetre.
FIGURE 12.15 Fabric thickness tester.
12.4.2.3 Shrinkage
The dimensional stability of a fabric is a measure of the extent to which it keeps its
original dimensions (length and width). A higher dimensional stability of textiles is
always desirable. A decrease in dimension is known as shrinkage, while an increase
in dimension is known as growth. Usually fabrics shrink during garment manu-
facturing and washing due to relaxation of the fibres/yarns, swelling of fibres and
felting. To calculate the shrinkage of a fabric, a specimen of size 50 cm × 50 cm is
taken and marks are placed at a distance of minimum 25 cm in both directions of the
fabric (along the length and width of the fabric). After marking, the fabric specimen
is washed in a washing machine with suitable specifications. Washing is followed by
rinsing and drying. Dried specimen is conditioned in standard testing atmosphere
and the markings are re-measured. The percentage shrinkage of the fabric can be
calculated using the following formula:
Original length − Final length

Percentage shrinkage = × 100% (12.11)
Original length
12.4.3 Areal Density
Areal density of a fabric is its mass/unit area (ASTM D3776-13 2013). Areal density
can be expressed in ounces/square yard or grams/square metre (GSM). GSM is the
metric system of expressing areal density of a fabric and is widely used in the textile
industry. A GSM cutter, cutting pad and an electric balance can be used to find the
GSM of the fabric. The fabric specimen is placed on the cutting pad and is cut using
a GSM cutter (Figure 12.16). The area of the specimen is calculated, and the mass of
the cut specimen is measured using an electronic balance. Using the mass and area
of the fabric the, areal density can be calculated in GSM.
12.4.4 Fabric Strength
Strength of a fabric is an important property that decides its durability.
Fabric strengths are of three different types – tensile strength, tearing strength and
bursting strength (Kothari 1999). The testing principles and methods of these three
types of strength are discussed later.
12.4.4.1 Tensile Strength
Tensile strength test is used to determine the breaking strength and elonga-
tion of textile fabrics when the load is applied along the length or width of the
fabric. Tensile strength of a fabric is defined by its ‘breaking load’ and ‘breaking
elongation’. The maximum load that ruptures the fabric is known as ‘breaking
load’, and the ratio of extension of the fabric at break to the original length,
expressed in percentage, is known as ‘breaking elongation’. Tensile strength of
fabric can be of two types – strip test and grab test – and is measured in a tensile
strength tester (Figure 12.17).
FIGURE 12.16 GSM cutter.

FIGURE 12.17 (a) Tensile strength tester, (b) strip test sample, and (c) grab test sample.
In strip test, a fabric of width 2 and ½ inch is taken, and threads are removed from
both the edges until the width is reduced to 2 inches. The test length for strip test is
8 inch. Extra length of fabric should be taken so that it allows gripping the specimen
in the jaws of a tensile strength tester. The specimen is then mounted centrally in
the jaws properly to prevent any slippage. Then the load is applied till the specimen
ruptures (Kothari 1999).
In grab strength testing, the effective width of the specimen is 4 inch and the
width of the jaw used is 1 inch. This means grab test uses jaws that are narrower
than the fabric specimen and only the central 1 inch of the fabric is stressed. The test
length for strip test is 3 inch. Extra length of fabric should be taken so that it allows
gripping the specimen in the jaws of the tensile strength tester. The specimen is then
mounted in the jaws properly to prevent any slippage. Load is applied till the speci-
men ruptures (Kothari 1999; Saville 1999).
12.4.4.2 Tearing Strength
A textile would be regarded as inferior product if it tears easily (except certain excep-
tions like adhesive tapes etc.). When a fabric is snagged by a rough object, it may
generate a small puncture that may be converted into a long rip by a small extra
amount of force. Therefore, the propagation of tear is usually catastrophic. So, tear-
ing strength of a fabric is defined by the force required to propagate an existing tear
(Booth 1986; Kothari 1999; Saville 1999). This force, which requires continuing
a pre-existing tear or a slit previously cut in a fabric, is determined by measuring
the work done in tearing the fabric through a definite distance. Elmendorf Tearing
Strength tester is usually used to find the tearing strength of a fabric (Figure 12.18).
This device consists of a pendulum with a clamp that is in alignment with another
fixed clamp when the pendulum is raised at a starting position. At raised position
(starting position), the pendulum has the maximum potential energy. The fabric
specimen is mounted in the clamps and an existing tear is created in the speci-
men between the clamps by cutting a small slit with a knife. The pendulum is then
released and the specimen is torn completely as the moving clamp in the pendulum
moves away from the fixed clamp. The tear force is calculated from the scale reading
on the device and pendulum capacity.
FIGURE 12.18 Elmendorf tearing strength tester.
During tear, either a single yarn breaks or a small group of yarns break together.
A fabric that allows the threads to group together under the application of tearing
force exhibits better tearing resistance. For example, 2/2 matt or satin fabric allows
the thread to group together (due to comparatively less number of interlacements)
than a plain woven fabric; therefore, a 2/2 matt or satin fabric exhibits more tear
strength (or tear resistance) than plain fabric.
12.4.4.3 Bursting Strength
Tensile and tearing strengths testing are generally done for woven fabrics, as there
is a definite warp and weft direction in which the strengths can be measured.
For knitted and non-woven fabrics, there is no such distinct direction where the
strength is maximum and minimum. Bursting strength testing is usually used to
find out the strength for such fabrics in which the fabric is stressed in all d irections
in the same time. There are however woven fabrics that are simultaneously
stretched in all directions while in use, such as parachute fabrics, nets, tents, etc.
and require bursting strength testing. In this test, the distending force, which is
applied at right angles to the plane of the fabric under specific condition resulting
fabric rupture, is measured (Kothari 1999; Saville 1999). Diaphragm bursting
tester or ball bursting tester is used to determine the bursting strength of textiles
(Figure 12.19).
FIGURE 12.19 Diaphragm bursting tester.
In diaphragm bursting tester, the fabric specimen is clamped over an elastic

d iaphragm by means of a flat annular clamping ring, and an increasing fluid pressure
is applied to the underside of the diaphragm until the specimen bursts. The extension
of the diaphragm is noted, and another test is carried out without the specimen. The
difference in pressure is the bursting strength of the fabric.
In ball bursting tester, a steel ball is pushed through the stretched fabric speci-
men and the force is recorded. The force that ruptures the fabric is the bursting
strength.
12.4.5 Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion resistance of a textile fabric is its ability to withstand loss of appearance,
surface and utility due to destructive action of surface abrasion (Booth 1986; Kothari
1999; Saville 1999). Abrasion resistance is measured on Martindale Abrasion tes-
ter by subjecting the textile specimen to abrasive action. The test specimen is
rubbed against the same fabric at a defined force in the form of Lissajous figure
(Figure 12.20). After completion of defined stages of abrasion cycles, the degree of
fuzziness and wear of the test specimen are assessed. Abrasion resistance can also
be assessed by the number of cycles of the surface abrader required to rupture a yarn
FIGURE 12.20 (a) Lissajous figure, (b) Martindale abrasion tester and (c) a holder for abra-
sion tester.
or when change in shade or appearance of the fabric specimen is sufficient to cause

the customer to complain.
12.4.6 Serviceability Tests
12.4.6.1 Snagging
A snag is loop of fibres that is being pulled from a fabric when it is in contact with a
sharp or rough object. Fabrics made from very less twisted bulk continuous filament
yarns are susceptible to snag. Also, woven fabrics with long floats or with less thread
density (like gauge fabric) are prone to snagging. Knitted fabrics due to its unique
loop structure are more vulnerable to snagging than similar kind of woven fabrics.
A ‘Mace Snagging tester’ is used to find out the snagging propensity of a fabric
(Figure 12.21). In this test, a metal ball with spikes (mace) is made to bounce ran-
domly against a rotating fabric mounted on a cylinder. The cylinder with the fabric
is rotated for a specific number of cycles. After the completion of the test, the f abric is
removed from the cylinder and the surface appearance of the specimen is compared
with a set of photographic standards, and a rating from 5 (no snagging) to 1 (severe
snagging) is given (Saville 1999).
12.4.6.2 Pilling
Pilling means small little balls that arise on a fabric due to rubbing action, giving
an unsightly appearance. The pilling propensity is determined by fibre entangle-
ment, leading to pill formation, development of more surface fibre or fibre and
FIGURE 12.21 (a) Mace snagging test, (b) fabric before snagging test and (c) fabric after
snagging test.
pill wear off. The degree of pilling and surface fuzziness can be determined by
Martindale method, Pill Box method and Random Tumble method (ISO 12945-1
2000; ISO 12945-2 2000; ISO 12945-3 2014). In Martindale method, the face of
the test specimen is rubbed against the face of the same fabric at a specific force in
the form of a Lissajous figure for a definite number of rubbing cycles in Martindale
Abrasion tester. After completion of the test, the sample is removed and assessed
visually.
In Pill Box method, specimens are mounted on polyurethane tubes and tumbled
randomly in a cork-lined box at a constant rotational speed (Figure 12.22). After
completion of definite rotational cycles, the specimen is removed and pilling is
assessed visually.
In Random Tumble method, fabric specimens are subjected to random rubbing
motion produced among them in a cylindrical test chamber lined with abrasive mate-
rial. Small amount of grey cotton lint is also added in the cylinder to resemble the
pills that are produced on fabrics/garments. After a specific number of cycles, fabrics
are removed and assessed visually.
After pilling tests, the samples are assessed by comparing them with a set of
photographic standards, and the rating is given from 5 (no pilling) to 1 (very severe
pilling) as shown in Figure 12.23 (ISO 12945-1 2000; ISO 12945-2 2000; ISO
12945-3 2014).
FIGURE 12.22 ICI Pill Box tester.
FIGURE 12.23 Pilling grade photographs.

12.4.7 Comfort
Comfort is one of the most desirable attribute of textiles. ‘Comfort’ is a subjective
perception and could be achieved through satisfactory interaction of several attri-
butes like physiological, psychological and physical factors. Among these attributes,
the thermo-physiological comfort is the most influential one affecting the overall
comfort level (Geralds et al. 2008; Saville 1999). Attributes like air permeability,
thermal conductivity, thermal resistance, thermal absorptivity, absorbency, wicking
and moisture vapour transmission rate of a textile are the deciding parameters of
thermo-physiological comfort.
12.4.7.1 Air Permeability
Air permeability of a textile material is defined by the volume of air that passes
through a unit area of the material, in unit time, under a constant pressure gradient
across it (ASTM D737-12 2012). The air permeability of a fabric depends on cover
factor and the twist of yarns. Air permeability tester is used to find the air permeabil-
ity of a fabric and is illustrated in Figure 12.24. In this apparatus, the airflow through
a given area is measured at a constant pressure drop across the fabric of 10 mm head
of water. The fabric specimen is clamped over the air inlet of the apparatus, and air
is sucked through by means of a pump. A pressure drop of 10 mm head of water is
maintained across the fabric. The airflow is then measured using a flow meter. Five
specimens are used each with a test area of 1 inch diameter and the mean airflow in
cm3/s is calculated. From this the air permeability can be calculated in cm3/cm2/s.
12.4.7.2 Thermal Conductivity, Resistance and Absorptivity

The thermal conductivity of a textile material is its ability to conduct heat through it
and is expressed as
Qh
Thermal conductivity ( λ ) = W/mK (12.12)
A∆Tt
FIGURE 12.24 Air permeability tester.

where Q is the quantity of heat conducted (J), h is the thickness of the material (m), A
is the area of the surface (m2), ∆T is the temperature differential across the material
(K) and t is the time (s).
The thermal absorptivity is the measurement of warm-cool feeling of the textile
material at first contact of the skin. It is expressed as follows:
Thermal absorptivity = ( λ cρ )
1/ 2
Ws1/ 2 /m 2K (12.13)
where λ is thermal conductivity (W/mK), c is the specific heat of the material (J/kg)
and ρ is the density of the material (kg/m3).
A higher thermal conductivity value indicates higher ability of the material to
conduct heat, whereas a higher thermal absorptivity implies cooler feeling and vice
versa (Pac et al. 2001). Thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity can be mea-
sured using Alambeta instrument. The schematic diagram of an Alambeta (Sensora
1990) instrument is shown in Figure 12.25. The instrument consists of two measuring
heads between which the test specimen is mounted. Both measuring heads have heat
flow sensors. The lower plate is adjusted to the ambient temperature (22°C) by suit-
able cooling means, whereas the upper plate is adjusted to a controlled constant dif-
ferential temperature (at 32°C). When the upper head is lowered on the sample, heat
flow at the upper surface and the underside of the test specimen can be measured.
The contact pressure between the heads and the sample is maintained at 200 Pa.
The heat sensors detect the amount of heat flow from the hot surface to the cold
surface. Another sensor measures the thickness of the sample. These values are used
to evaluate the thermal conductivity and thermal absorptivity of the fabric sample.
12.4.7.3 Absorbency
A fabric with more absorbency provides better comfort in hot and humid climate.
The absorbency of textile fabrics can be measured by Static Immersion test, Drop
test and Sink test (Saville 1999). Static immersion test measures the total amount of
water that a fabric can absorb. In this method, a weighed fabric specimen is immersed
FIGURE 12.25 Schematic diagram of Alambeta instrument (Sensora 1990).

in water for a given period of time, taken out and excess water is removed by shak-
ing. The samples are then weighed again, and the weight of the water is calculated as
the percentage of dry weight of the fabric.
massof water absorbed

Absorption = × 100% (12.14)
Original mass
Sink test measures the time taken by a fabric to sink in water. A fabric specimen
of definite size is dropped on the surface of a beaker of water. The time taken by
the specimen to sink below the surface is measured. Shorter time to sink indicates
greater absorbency.
Drop test measures the total time required by a drop of water to sink into the
fabric. In this test, a fabric specimen is clamped onto an embroidery frame fixed on
a horizontal plane. The fabric specimen is illuminated from 45° angle and is viewed
at 45° angle from opposite direction. A drop of water is placed on the specimen with
the help of a burette from a definite height and the timer is started. As long as the
water drop stays on the fabric surface, light reflects. When the reflection from the
liquid vanishes, the timer is stopped and measured.
12.4.7.4 Moisture Vapour Transmission Rate

The moisture vapour transmission rate (MVTR) is the measurement of passage of
water vapour through textiles (Slater 1999; Saville 1999). A higher MVTR of a fabric
ensures better comfort in hot and humid climatic condition. MVTR of a fabric can be
measured using cup method. In this method, the fabric specimen is sealed over the
open mouth of a dish containing water (Figure 12.26). The water in the dish is placed
under standard atmospheric condition. After specific time, successive weighings of
the dish are made, and the MVTR through the specimen is calculated.
Usually, water vapour permeability (WVP) index is calculated, which is defined
by the ratio of WVP of a fabric to the WVP of a reference fabric, expressed as a
percentage. In this test, two dishes with sufficient distilled water are taken such that
the height between the tip of water and the fabric sample is 10 mm. Both the dishes
are covered with fabric specimen and reference fabric. Both the dishes are kept at
standard atmosphere for at least 1 h to establish equilibrium. The dishes are weighted
after a specific time interval. The WVP for each sample can be calculated using the
following formula.
FIGURE 12.26 Water vapour transmission rate test (cup method).

24 M g
WVP = /day (12.15)
At m 2
where M = loss in mass (g), t = time between weighings (h), A = internal area of
dish (m2).
The WVP index can be calculated using the following formula.
WVPt × 100
Water vapour permeability index = (12.16)
WVPr
where WVPt = water vapour permeability of test specimen and WVPr = water

vapour permeability of reference fabric.
12.4.7.5 Wicking
Wicking is the transportation of liquid through the surface of a fabric without being
absorbed (Saville 1999). To test the wick ability of a fabric, a strip of that fabric
specimen is suspended with its lower edge suspended in a beaker of distilled water
(Figure 12.27). The rate of rise of leading edge of water through the fabric is mea-
sured. To detect the leading edge of water, dye can be added. The height of dyed
water raised in the fabric in given time indicates the wick ability of the fabric.
12.4.8 Colour Fastness Testing

Colour fastness is a term that defines the degree of propensity of a textile to change
or fade colour when treated in a certain way (Saville 1999; Behera 1999; Mohsin
2017). Textile materials are added colours (either by dyeing or printing) to increase
their aesthetic value. However, the added colours may fade due to the influence of
various environmental factors like rubbing, light, seawater, chlorine, water, etc.
In addition, colour may also fade while processing or caring textiles like durable
press, washing, dry cleaning, hot pressing, drying, etc. Colour of some textiles fades
significantly, whereas some textiles lose little colour or not at all while being used.
FIGURE 12.27 Wicking test.

A textile that loses little or no colour due to various caring and environmental factors
is said to have good colour fastness and vice versa. For example, if a coloured fabric
does not bleed colour while washing, then that fabric is said to have an excellent
colour fastness to washing, whereas if the fabric bleeds colour, then the fabric is said
to have poor colour fastness to washing. Apart from the colour change of the textile,
assessment of colour staining is also important, as textiles are usually in contact with
each other, especially during using and caring like rubbing, washing, dry cleaning,
etc. Hence, there is a possibility of migration of colour from one textile to the other.
Therefore, the colour fastness of a textile is assessed with respect to the following:
• Colour change or fading

• Colour staining of undyed material that is in contact with the textile during
the test
However, aforesaid assessments of fabrics are qualitative. Therefore, a numerical

assessment of colour fading and colour staining of textiles is done by comparing
them with two sets of standard grey scales, namely ‘grey scale for colour change/
fading’ and ‘grey scale for colour staining’ (Saville 1999; Mohsin 2017).
Colour Fading Assessment with Grey Scale
The grey scale colour change consists of five pairs of coloured material, each
of which has a specific number (1–5). A grey scale for colour change is shown in
Figure 12.28a. Number 5 in this grey scale consists of two identical greys, whereas
number 1 has two greys of maximum contrast (Saville 1999; Mohsin 2017). Each of
the numbers 4, 3 and 2 has a pair of grey of intermediate contrast (in between contrast
of numbers 5 and 1) in a gradually increasing level. For colour change assessment, the
contrast in colour between the treated and untreated fabrics is compared with reference
to the contrast of the pair of greys of each number in the grey scale under standard con-
dition. If there is no change in colour, the textile is classified as grade 5. In case there
is a change in colour due to treatment, the contrast of treated and untreated textiles is
matched with contrast with the pair of greys in the grey scale, and a grade is given. A
grade 5 means no colour change, whereas grade 1 means severe colour change.
FIGURE 12.28 (a) Grey scale for colour change, (b) grey scale for colour staining and
(c) multi-fibre fabric.
Colour Staining Assessment with Grey Scale

During treatments, caring or using, the colour from a textile may migrate and stain
other textiles. Colour staining is also assessed quantitatively by using another set of
grey scale known as ‘grey scale for staining’ (Saville 1999; Mohsin 2017). In this
assessment, the textile is stitched with a multi-fibre white woven fabric that consists
of six different fibres and then undergoes a treatment. The stained white fibre of the
multi-fibre fabric is then compared with the corresponding fibre of untreated white
multi-fibre fabric with reference to grey scale for colour staining. A grey scale for
colour staining and multi-fibre fabric is shown in Figure 12.28b and c, respectively.
Alike grey scale for colour change, the grey scale for staining also has five pairs of
grades. Number 5 has two identical white materials, whereas number 1 has a white
and a grey material that defines maximum contrast. Each of the numbers 4, 3 and 2
has a pair of grey and white of intermediate contrast (in between contrast of numbers
5 and 1) in a gradually increasing level. For colour staining assessment, the contrast
in white and stained fabrics is compared with reference to the contrast of the pair of
white and grey of each number in the grey scale under standard condition. Grade 5 is
given in case of no staining. In case the white fabric is stained due to the migration of
colour from the textile, the contrast of white and stained fabrics is matched in contrast
with the pair of white and grey in the grey scale of colour staining, and a grade is
given. A grade 5 means no staining, whereas grade 1 means severe staining.
Condition of Viewing during Colour Fading and Staining Assessment
D-65 light is used to make the comparison between the contrast in colour fading
or staining between the treated and untreated fabrics with reference to grey scales
(Behera 1999; Saville 1999). The specimen is placed on a flat, uniform surface with
grey background and surroundings (Figure 12.29). The specimen plane is at 45°
angle to the horizontal. During assessment, the original and the tested specimen, or
the undyed and stained adjacent fabrics, are arranged side by side in the same plane
and oriented in the same direction.
FIGURE 12.29 Colour matching cabinet.

12.4.8.1 Colour Fastness to Rubbing/Crocking

In colour fastness to rubbing or crocking test, the degree of transfer of colour from
one coloured textile material to another by rubbing is assessed. A textile with poor
colour fastness would transfer its colour with ease onto other textiles and stain them.
The test is performed by a device known as Crockmeter (Figure 12.30). The test
specimen (i.e. coloured textile) is mounted on the platform of the Crockmeter and is
rubbed ten times with a weighted finger covered with standard white cotton rubbing
cloth. Usually, two tests are carried out; one with a dry rubbing cloth and other with
a wet one. Contrast of both the rubbed cloths and untreated cloth are matched with
the pair of white and grey in the grey scale of colour staining and a grade is given.
The higher the grade, the better is the fastness.
12.4.8.2 Colour Fastness to Washing

In this colour fastness test, both colour fading of the coloured textile and transfer of
colour to other fabric due to laundering are assessed (ISO 105-C06 2010). Initially,
a multi-fibre fabric is stitched to the test specimen. Laundering is performed in a
launderometer machine that consists of closed stainless steel canisters rotating in
a water bath (Figure 12.31). Various parameters like temperature and duration of
washing can be controlled. The composite sample (test specimen and multi-fibre
FIGURE 12.30 (a) Crockmeter and (b) sample after dry and wet crocking.
FIGURE 12.31 (a) Launderometer and (b) sample and multi-fibre fabric before and after
washing.
fabric), appropriate detergent solution and stainless steel balls are sealed inside the
canister, and a water bath is heated to the desired temperature. Stainless steel balls
give agitation to simulate action of hand or machine wash. The launderometer is
run for a definite time and then the sample is taken out, rinsed in water and dried
in shade. The washed fabric and the stained multi-fibre fabric are compared with
grey scales for colour fading and staining, respectively, and grades are given. A
higher grade for both the coloured and multi-fibre fabrics after washing indicates
better colour fastness property to washing. A lower grade concludes that the dyes
are not fixed well, and necessary action should be taken for better fixation of dyes
and pigments.
12.4.8.3 Colour Fastness to Dry Cleaning

Most of the consumers believe that dry cleaning is the safest way to care a fabric
with little or no harm to the textile. However, in reality, the solvents used in dry
cleaning may change the colour of the textile. The colour fastness to dry clean-
ing test indicates the degree of change in colour and subsequent staining of other
textile materials during commercial dry cleaning. This test is performed using a
launderometer, the similar way as that for colour fastness to laundering, except
that instead of using soap solution, perchloroethylene is used (ISO 105-D01 2010;
Saville 1999). Perchloroethylene is used, as it is comparatively more severe in sol-
vent action than other petroleum solvents and thus a colour that is unaffected by
perchloroethylene will not be affected by other petroleum solvents. The specimen
is then evaluated for colour fading and staining on multi-fibre fabric with the help
of grey scales.
12.4.8.4 Colour Fastness to Perspiration

The textiles that come in contact to our body may discolour due to perspiration.
The perspiration may loosen some dye from the coloured textile and may also cause
staining to other fabrics adjacent to that of coloured textiles. Colour fastness to
perspiration test is intended to determine the fastness of coloured textiles to the
effect of perspiration (ISO 105-E04 2013; Saville 1999). Perspiration is a compli-
cated composition and can be either acidic or basic depending upon human body.
The device used to test perspiration fastness is ‘Perspiration Fastness Tester’ or
‘Perspirometer’. A perspirometer consists of a stainless steel frame that can hold a
number of glass or acrylic plates (Figure 12.32). The samples are kept between a
pair of plates to keep them moist. A specific weight is also placed on the top of the
plates to apply pressure to the specimen. Simulated acidic perspiration solutions
(both acidic and basic) are prepared and two sets of composite specimens (coloured
textile and multi-fibre fabric stitched together) are wet in the solutions separately.
Each of these wet composite specimens is placed between two plates of two differ-
ent perspirometers under fixed mechanical pressure. The perspirometers are kept
in an oven and dried at specific temperature and time. Both the specimens are then
evaluated for colour fading and staining on the adjacent multi-fibre fabric with the
help of grey scales.
FIGURE 12.32 Perspirometer.
12.4.8.5 Colour Fastness to Water

Sometimes colour of a textile fades and stains other fabric, which are in intimate
contact with each other, not due to actual washing process but due to mere plain
water. Colour fastness to water is conducted to assess the degree of colour fading
and cross staining that may occur when garments are left in contact in damp (ISO
105-E01 2013; Saville 1999). For example, let us assume a water-resistant lightweight
jacket with a red-coloured brand logo on the chest. Water-resistant jackets are mainly
used for outerwear during mild raining. When the jacket is used in rains and sub-
sequently folded and kept in wet condition without immediate drying, the logo may
mark off on neighbouring portions of the jacket. Over a period of time, the logo may
completely deface from the chest area and spread over other portions of the jacket.
Such problem is due to poor colour fastness to water of the logo colour.
In this test, a composite specimen is made by stitching the coloured textile
and a multi-fibre fabric. The composite specimen is wetted out in distilled water
at room temperature. The wet specimen is then placed in a perspirometer with
precise mechanical weight and kept in an oven at specific temperature and time.
The specimen is then removed from the perspirometer, dried and then evaluated
for colour fading and staining on the adjacent multi-fibre fabric with the help of
grey scales.
12.4.8.6 Colour Fastness to Chlorine Water

The colour fastness property to chlorinated water has utmost importance to terry
towels, swimwears, etc. Tap water in cities usually contains some amount of chlorine
to kill bacteria. Therefore, this chlorine water may fade the colour of textiles. Colour
fastness to chlorine water test is conducted to evaluate the resistance to colour loss
of textile to chlorinated water. In this test, the test specimen is treated with a weak
solution of sodium hypochlorite in a launderometer under specified conditions of
chlorine content, temperature and time (ISO 105-E03 2010; Saville 1999). The speci-
men is dried in shade and then evaluated for colour fading by comparing the contrast
between treated and untreated specimens with the help of grey scale.
12.4.8.7 Colour Fastness to Seawater

A fabric designed for beachwear may lose colour when it comes in contact with sea-
water. Seawater consists of minerals and salts that loosen the dye from the textile and
may also stain other parts of the textile. This test is intended to assess the resistance
to colour fading of textile and staining to adjacent fabric to seawater (ISO 105-E02
2013; Saville 1999). A composite specimen is made by stitching the coloured tex-
tile sample with multi-fibre fabric. The composite specimen is then wetted out in a
sodium chloride solution of definite concentration and placed in a perspirometer in
an oven for a specified condition of time and temperature. The specimen is dried in
shade and then evaluated for colour fading by comparing the contrast between the
treated and untreated specimen with the help of grey scale.
12.4.8.8 Colour Fastness to Light

Fading of colour of outdoor textiles (e.g. seat fabric inside a car, carpet exposed to
sunlight, curtains, apparels when dried under sunlight, etc.) is a common phenom-
enon. All dyes fade when exposed to sunlight and a significant change in colour is
quite unacceptable. A dye is said to have a good light fastness property if it absorbs
radiation without being destroyed. Light fastness is thus the degree to which a colou-
rant resists fading when exposed to light (Saville 1999). Therefore, to check the resis-
tance of fading against light, a test is conducted by exposing a sample to sunlight
or artificial light (either carbon or xenon arc lamp) for a specific period of time
(Figure 12.33). Artificial light is used to speed up the result and simulate the effect
of natural light. In this test, a blue scale is used instead of grey scale for evaluation
of colour fading. Unlike the grey scales that have five grades, a blue scale has eight
grades. A grade 1 in blue scale indicates very low light fastness, whereas grade 8
implies very high light fastness. There are two sets of blue reference standards in
use, one in Europe and the other in America. The sets used in Europe and America
are identified as 1–8 and L2–L9, respectively. The sample is exposed to light source
together with blue wool reference standards. The sample and blue wool standards
are covered partially so that only the exposed portion fades. The contrast between
FIGURE 12.33 (a) Colour fastness to light tester. (b) Sample for light fastness test.
the exposed and unexposed portion of the sample is compared with that of eight blue
wool standards, and a rating is given to the sample.

In this chapter, the testing of fibres, yarns and fabrics and recent development of
textile testing instruments have been discussed. There will be high demand for rapid,
fully automatic, reliable and cost-effective testing of textiles using high-tech instru-
ments. The rigorous process of sample preparation for the testing of textile products
needs to be eliminated in future. There will be more application of artificial intel-
ligence techniques in textile testing. The online testing of textile products would be
a reality in future with the aid of state-of-the art cloud computing technology.
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13 Recent Developments to
Reduce Environmental
Impacts of Textile
and Apparel
Huantian Cao
University of Delaware
CONTENTS
13.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 257
13.2 Resource Depletion........................................................................................ 258
13.3 Hazardous Chemicals.................................................................................... 259
13.4 Water Use and Wastewater Generation......................................................... 261
13.5 Energy Use..................................................................................................... 262
13.6 Solid Waste.................................................................................................... 263
13.7 Summary.......................................................................................................264
References...............................................................................................................264
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The textile and apparel industry has a huge amount of production, with about 94.9
million metric tons (MMTs) of total fibre production in 2016 (Textile Exchange 2017).
It is also one of the most polluting industries. Textile production, especially the wet
processing, i.e., preparation, dyeing and finishing, uses vast amount of energy, chem-
icals and water (Parisi et al. 2015), and has caused significant environmental impacts
throughout the product life cycle. The production of textiles also causes health prob-
lems to human beings, especially workers, due to the use of hazardous chemicals.
This chapter discusses the environmental impacts of textile and apparel industry,
including the use of depleting resources, hazardous chemicals, water, energy and
the generation of wastewater and solid waste. In the past decades, the textile and
apparel industry and academic researchers have developed a variety of new tech-
nologies and strategies to reduce environmental impacts. This chapter presents the
recent developments to address the industry’s environmental problems of resource
depletion, hazardous chemicals, water use and wastewater generation, energy use
and solid waste.
257
13.2 RESOURCE DEPLETION
In 2016, 64.8 MMTs of synthetic fibres were produced globally, which accounted
for 68.3% of total fibre production. Among these synthetic fibres, 64% were polyes-
ter and 36% were others such as nylon, olefin and acrylic (Textile Exchange 2017).
Synthetic fibres use petrochemicals, derived from depleting petroleum resources, as
feedstocks in polymer synthesis. Oil is a finite and rapidly depleting resource, and its
supply to meet the human beings’ growing demand has been a recurrent concern for
over 50 years (Miller and Sorrell 2014).
The textile industry has used recycled plastic materials to produce synthetic
fibres as a solution to mitigate resource depletion problem. Plastic bottles made from
polyester is one of the most widely recycled post-consumer products and have an
increased share of starting material in polyester production. Polyester bottles can
be relatively easily collected, cleaned, chopped into chips and made into filament
fibres using melt spinning process. In 2016, more than 4 MMTs of recycled polyester
were used in textile production, which accounted for about 7% of total polyester
production (Textile Exchange 2017). Unifi Inc. (Greensboro, North Carolina, USA),
a leading recycled polyester fibre producer, had recycled more than 10 billion plastic
bottles by 2017 to produce about 163,500 metric tons (calculation based on 47,407
metric tons of recycled polyester fibres ≈ 2.9 billion bottles as in Textile Exchange,
2017) of Repreve® recycled polyester fibres (Repreve 2017). In addition to using post-
consumer plastic bottles, recycled polyester fibres can be made from pre-consumer
(industrial waste) and post-consumer polyester textiles. In 2005, Patagonia (Ventura,
California, USA) launched a line of recyclable Capilene® performance base layer
garments and Common Threads Garment Recycling Program. Patagonia collected
used garments from consumers and sent them to their industrial partner Teijin Ltd.
(Tokyo, Japan) for a closed-loop recycling into polyester fibres (Patagonia 2009).
Teijin’s closed-loop Eco Circle program converts used polyester textiles to dimethyl
terephthalate (DMT), which is then repolymerized into polyester to make textile
products (Wang 2010). By 2009, Patagonia has recycled more than 6,000 kg of gar-
ments (Patagonia 2009).
Post-consumer nylon products such as fishing nets and carpets can be recycled
into nylon fibres. There are two major types of nylon: nylon 6 polymerized from
one monomer caprolactam and nylon 6,6 polymerized from two monomers, i.e.,
adipic acid and hexamethylene diamine. Nylon 6 can be chemically recycled by
depolymerizing into caprolactam and repolymerizing to nylon 6 for a closed-loop
recycling process (Wang 2010). One commercial example of closed-loop carpet
recycling is EcoWorx carpet tile made by Shaw Industries (Dalton, Georgia, USA).
Shaw Industries collected used EcoWorx carpet tiles from users, separated nylon 6
face fibres and the polyolefin backing and recycled the nylon 6 through the depoly-
merization process (which was done by Honeywell International Inc.) to make face
fibres for new carpet tiles (Segar et al. 2003). Since nylon 6,6 is synthesized from two
monomers, depolymerization of nylon 6,6 is more complicated than nylon 6. Closed-
loop nylon 6,6 recycling process through the depolymerization–repolymerization
process has not been commercially implemented, and nylon 6,6 recycling is done
through melt processing (Wang 2010).
Reduction of Environmental Impacts 259
Using feedstock derived from renewable resources to synthetize polymers for

synthetic fibres is another strategy to mitigate textile industry’s resource deple-
tion problem. Polylactic acid (PLA) and poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT or
triexta) are two examples of commercially produced polyester fibres from feedstocks
derived from renewable resources. Starch, derived from plants such as corn, can be
hydrolyzed to glucose. Glucose can be converted to lactic acid, the monomer for
PLA polymerization, through an anaerobic fermentation process, or be converted
to 1,3-propanediol (PDO), one of the two monomers for PTT, through an aerobic
fermentation process (Shen 2014).
Lactic acid, which has both hydroxyl (-OH) and carboxyl (-COOH) groups in
its molecule, can be synthetized to PLA through condensation polymerization or
ring-opening polymerization (Farrington et al. 2005). Since lactic acid, derived from
plants, is the sole monomer used in PLA synthesis, PLA is completely synthesized
from renewably resourced feedstock. The first commercial production of PLA was
by Cargill-Dow, which later became NatureWorks, LLC (Minnetonka, Minnesota,
USA), in 2001. NatureWorks LLC has an annual production capacity of 140,000
metric tons PLA, under the brand name IngeoTM (Agriforvalor 2017).
The DuPont Company (Wilmington, Delaware, USA), partnered with Tate &
Lyle (London, UK), developed a fermentation process to produce bio-based PDO
(Bio-PDO) from glucose. Bio-PDO is reacted with another monomer, either DMT or
terephthalic acid (TPA), to form PTT (DuPont brand name Sorona®) through con-
densation polymerization (Kurian 2005). Since one monomer, Bio-PDO, is derived
from renewable recourse and the other monomer, DMT or TPA, is derived from
petrochemicals, 37% of the ingredients in Sorona® are renewable (Sorona).
13.3 HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS
Textile manufacturing uses a wide range and a large quantity of chemicals in essen-
tially every stage of its production. Textile chemicals include dyes and pigments,
chemical specialties such as softeners, wetting or penetration agents, functional
finishing agents and chemical commodities such as salts, acids and alkalis (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 1996). More than 3,600 individual textile
dyes are produced (Kant 2012), and the global dyes and pigments production is about
1.3 MMTs (Doing Business in Maharashtra). There are more than 5,000 proprietary
specialty chemical products in 100 categories, and surfactants are used in almost
all chemical specialty formulations (U.S. EPA 1996). A number of textile chemicals
have been found to have negative effects on the environment and human health.
Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEOs) are non-ionic surfactants used in textile emulsi-
fying, wetting and scouring agents (U.S. EPA 1996). APEOs and their degradation
products are endocrine disrupting chemicals that interfere with the hormonal system
of many organisms and are bioaccumulative and environmentally persistent pollut-
ants (Zoller 2006; Soares et al. 2008). Zoller (2006) reported that egg production by
zebrafish, exposed to 75, 25, and 10 µg/l of APEOs, was reduced by 89.6%, 84.7%,
and 76.9%, respectively, between the 8th and 28th day of exposure. Exposure to low
concentration (10 −9 M) of p-nonylphenol, a degradation product of APEOs, in first
trimester human placenta may cause aberrant placental turnover in the uterus, which
could result in early termination of pregnancy, gestational pathologies, and foetal

growth defects (Bechi et al. 2006).
Tang et al. (2018) conducted a comprehensive literature review and analysis
on the adverse effects of textile dyes on human health and identified three major
research domains, i.e., dermatological, toxicological (carcinogen and genotoxicity)
and respiratory effects. Textile-related allergic contact dermatitis are mainly caused
by disperse dyes, since they are small and lipophilic molecules that are not chemi-
cally bonded to fibres and may easily migrate onto the wearer’s skin (Malinauskiene
et al. 2012a). The European Union and the International Oeko-Tex Association listed
21 disperse dyes as allergic and forbade their use in textiles. A study tested 121 gar-
ments obtained from 13 countries in Europe, Asia, America and Africa and found
that three items contained four of the 21 allergic disperse dyes, i.e., Disperse Yellow
3, Disperse Blue 124, Disperse Blue 106 and Disperse Orange 1 (Malinauskiene
et al. 2012b). Azo dyes, accounting for 70% of all organic dyes, may be reduced to
aromatic amines by an enzyme azoreductase, which can be found in many microor-
ganisms and mammals, including humans (Bafana et al. 2011). The European Union
identified 22 aromatic amines that are known or suspected human carcinogens and
banned azo dyes that may be reduced to these aromatic amines (Bafana et al. 2011).
A long-term study (58-year follow-up) in Italy confirmed the excess bladder cancer
risk in dyestuff workers who were heavily exposed to aromatic amines (Pira et al.
2010). Textile dyeing workers who are exposed to reactive dye powders have a higher
risk of work-related asthma, because airborne dye molecules may act as haptens and
cause immunoglobulin E (IgE)-mediated allergy (Park et al. 1989; Nilsson et al.
1993). Reactive dyes containing vinyl sulphone reactive groups are major causes of
occupational asthma (Jin et al. 2011).
To solve the problem of hazardous chemicals used in the textile and apparel indus-
try, companies established the Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC)
Program in 2011, and set the goal to eliminate the most hazardous chemicals from
their supply chains by 2020. Since its establishment, the number of members in ZDHC
Program has grown rapidly. Beginning with six members in 2011, ZDHC Program
currently (as of August 2018) has 110 members, including 24 brands, 70 value chain
affiliates and 16 associations. In 2015, the ZDHC Program published Manufacturer
Restrictive Substance List Version 1.1 to identify the banned chemicals. In textile
and synthetic leather production, these banned chemical groups include alkylphe-
nol and APEOs (AP/APEOs), chlorobenzenes and chlorotoluenes, chlorophenols,
dyes (azo dyes forming restricted amines, navy blue colourants, sensitizing), flame
retardants, glycols, halogenated solvents, organotin compounds, polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons, perfluorinated and polyfluorinated chemicals, phthalates, heavy
metals (arsenic, cadmium, mercury, lead and chromium (VI)) and volatile organic
compounds (Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals 2015).
Since its establishment, ZDHC member companies have investigated alternative
chemicals or processes to substitute these hazardous chemicals. In 2013, G-Star Raw
(Amsterdam, The Netherlands) identified and implemented fatty alcohol polyglycol
ether as an alternative chemical to substitute APEO to reduce yellowing in polyam-
ide, polyester and their blends with elastane fibres in heat setting (G-Star Raw 2016;
G-Star Raw). Companies also developed action plans and published progress reports
towards ZDHC. In 2016–2017, C&A (Vilvoorde, Belgium) tested incoming water,
raw wastewater and discharge wastewater of 108 wet processing facilities in its sup-
ply chain in Asia, North America and South America. C&A tested 250 hazardous
chemicals from 15 ZDHC priority groups and found that 200 hazardous chemicals
were not detected across all samples. C&A identified phthalates, halogenated sol-
vents, AP/APEO and azo dyes as the biggest challenge in the supply chain (C&A
2017). Inditex (Arteixo, Spain) reported a very positive progress towards ZDHC, as
the detection ratios of hazardous chemicals have reduced since 2012. For example,
the detection ratio of AP/APEO was 16.1% in 2012, which has been reduced to 7.7%
in 2017 and 4.4% in 2018 (Inditex 2018).
13.4 WATER USE AND WASTEWATER GENERATION

Textile production, especially wet processing including desizing, scouring, bleach-
ing, dyeing, printing and finishing, uses a huge amount of water. To produce one
pound of textile, an average of 160 pounds (20 gallons) of water are used (U.S. EPA,
1996). In Europe, the textile industry uses an estimated 600 million cubic metre of
fresh water annually (Vajnhandl and Valh 2014).
Due to the wide variety and large quantity of chemicals used in textile produc-
tion, fresh water is used as influent in textile mills and wastewater contaminated with
chemicals is discharged as effluent. Textile dyeing and finishing wastewater is char-
acterized by significant amounts of organic and colouring chemicals, low biodegrad-
ability and high salt content (Vajnhandl and Valh 2014). In China, about 17%–20%
of industrial water pollution comes from textile processing, and 72 toxic chemicals
(30 of these chemicals cannot be removed) in China’s water originate solely from
textile dyeing (China Water Risk 2011).
New development in textile industry to minimize water use and prevent water
pollution includes implementing low liquor ratio dyeing process, low/no-water tex-
tile processing and replacement or abandoning hazardous chemicals (as discussed
in the previous section) (Vajnhandl and Valh 2014). Low liquor dyeing saves water
and energy but also causes low exhaustion and poor levelling problems due to dye
aggregation or agglomeration in high concentration solution (Xie et al. 2011; Hassan
and Bhagvandas 2017). Using appropriate surfactants in the dyeing process may help
solve these problems. Xie et al. (2011) reported a 1:5 low liquor ratio dye-surfactant
micelle dyeing process using reactive dyes and dibutyl maleic acid ester sulphate
surfactant to dye cotton fabric. It was found that the 1:5 liquor ratio micelle dye-
ing process has similar levelling, exhaustion, fixation and colour fastness proper-
ties as 1:15 liquor ratio conventional dyeing, but could save about 60% water, 50%
steam and 60% electrolyte than the conventional dyeing (Xie et al. 2011). Huntsman
Chemical’s (The Woodlands, Texas, USA) Teric G12A6 (C12-C15-based alcohol
ethoxylate) surfactant effectively prevents acid dye agglomeration and helps dye-
ing wool fabric by acid dyes at a low liquor ratio of 1:10 to achieve similar colour
strength and uniformity as the 1:30 liquor ratio in the traditional dyeing process
(Hassan and Bhagvandas 2017).
In the late 1980s, Professor Eckhard Schollmeyer and his research group in
Germany developed a waterless dyeing technology that uses supercritical carbon
dioxide (CO2, which has low critical point at pressure of 73.7 bar and temperature
of 31.1°C) to replace water as the dyeing medium (Bach et al. 2002; Banchero
2012). Supercritical CO2 has properties of a hydrocarbon solvent such as toluene,
but provides more hydrogen-bonding basicity than hydrocarbon solvents (Montero
et al. 2000). Supercritical CO2 can dissolve disperse dyes and has swelling and
plasticization effects on hydrophobic polymers, so it is a suitable dyeing medium
for polyester and other synthetic textile colouration (Banchero 2012). Banchero
(2012) provided a comprehensive review on supercritical CO2 polyester dyeing in
pilot plants. DyeCoo (Weesp, The Netherlands), founded in 2008, developed com-
mercial supercritical CO2 dyeing technology and equipment. DyeCoo’s waterless
supercritical CO2 dyeing has a dye uptake of 98%, recycles 95% of all CO2 used
after every batch, does not use any process chemicals, and does not need waste-
water treatment (Davies 2016). DyeCoo’s supercritical CO2 dyeing machines cost
$2.5 million to $4 million apiece, but can reduce the production cost by about
30%–50%. Textile manufacturers Yeh Group (Thailand) and Far Eastern New
Century (Taiwan) use DyeCoo’s machines to produce clothes for Adidas and Nike,
respectively (Heida 2014).
13.5 ENERGY USE
Textile production uses a large amount of electricity, fuel, with corresponding
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Hasanbeigi and Price 2015). Textile industry
is the sixth largest energy-consuming industrial sector (Huang et al. 2017), and
accounts for about 4% of total manufacturing energy use in China (Hasanbeigi and
Price 2015). In 2006, the U.S. textile industry used 472 trillion British thermal units
(TBtu) primary energy in the forms of electricity, steam and fuel and accounted
for about 2.1% total manufacturing energy use (Brueske et al. 2012). Different tex-
tile production processes use different types of energy. Yarn spinning, fabric pro-
duction (weaving and knitting) and apparel production mainly use electricity for
machine operation, while wet processing (dyeing and finishing) mainly use thermal
energy, e.g., steaming. Electricity consumption rate for individual textile production
stages are 93% for spinning, 85% for weaving, 43% for wet processing and 65%
for clothing manufacturing (Palamutcu 2010). Textile production is not energy effi-
cient. In the United States, the overall primary energy loss for the textile industry
is 79%, while the average primary energy loss for all manufacturing sectors is 66%
(Brueske et al. 2012).
Energy consumption significantly contributes to GHG emissions. In 2012, China
produced approximately 56.3% of global textile production, and the textile industry
in China generated about 5,800 MMTs of GHG emissions in 2011 (Huang et al.
2017). In the United States, the total GHG emissions for the textile industry were 29
MMTs CO2 equivalent (MMT CO2e), accounted for about 2.3% of total manufactur-
ing GHG emissions (Brueske et al. 2012).
The water-saving technology discussed in the previous section can also help
reduce energy consumption. The 1:5 low liquor ratio micelle dyeing process can
save up to 50% energy for heating dyeing solution compared with the conventional
dyeing method (Xie et al. 2011). DyeCoo’s commercial waterless supercritical CO2
dyeing reduces energy use due to shorter dyeing cycle and eliminates the steps of
heating water and drying textiles (Davies 2016). Hasanbeigi and Price (2012) pro-
vided a comprehensive review of energy use in the textile industry and documented
184 energy efficiency measures and technologies for the textile industry, including
114 textile sector-specific, i.e., spinning, weaving, wet processing, man-made fibre
production, measures and 70 cross-cutting measures found in all textile subsectors.
13.6 SOLID WASTE
Textiles may become solid waste in garment production (pre-consumer solid waste)
or after consumers use (post-consumer solid waste). In garment pattern cutting, usu-
ally there is 15%–20% fabric loss as fabric scraps or unused fabrics (Townsend and
Mills 2013). Kasemset et al. (2015) used 272.40 m2 cotton fabrics as material input to
produce 100 t-shirts (one lot), and found that 44.57 m2 (16.4%) fabric was wasted in
the cutting process and 14.71 m2 (5.4%) was wasted in the sewing process. If apparel
manufacturers cannot find ways to recycle or reuse these textile waste, they send
them to landfill, which is a huge waste and a considerable cost to the companies
(Cao et al. 2017).
The significant increase of textile and apparel production in the past decades is
accompanied with the increase of post-consumer solid textile waste. In less than
20 years, the amount of used clothing that U.S. consumers threw away has doubled
from 7 million tons to 14 million tons, an average of about 80 pounds per person
(Wicker 2016). In 2014, 16.22 million tons of textile wastes were generated in the
United States, accounting for 8.9% of total waste materials in products in munici-
pal solid waste. Among them, 2.62 million tons were recycled, 3.14 million tons
were combusted for energy recovery and 10.46 million tons were sent to landfill
(U.S. EPA 2016).
Apparel manufacturers may use Computer Aided Design (CAD) software to
enhance fabric usage efficiency in marker making and reduce pre-consumer solid
waste. An early CAD application in apparel industry indicated that the CAD sys-
tem saved 2.92% of fabric for a manufacturer of dresses and uniforms (Hands
et al. 1997). Ondogan and Erdogan (2006) also reported that CAD system helped
economize fabric usage and reduced fabric waste in t-shirt production.
Fashion designers use creative pattern design and cutting techniques to accom-
plish zero waste fashion design (ZWFD). Townsend and Mills (2013) explained a
visually led design process that combined draping as a design tool and the exploration
pattern shapes on a flat to create a definitive zero waste pattern. They illustrated the
zero waste pattern cutting methods of ‘irregular-shaped pattern’, ‘geometric shapes’,
and ‘one-piece pattern’ and used the design of a dress, a pair of trousers and a top
as examples of these three methods, respectively (Townsend and Mills 2013). Two
pioneer designers in ZWFD are Timo Rissanen and Holly McQuillan. Their book
Zero Waste Fashion Design (Rissanen and McQuillan 2016) provides useful ZWFD
information such as creative pattern cutting techniques (e.g., Transformational
Reconstruction that combines sketching with pattern cutting on a dress form and
Subtraction Cutting, in which the patterns represent the negative spaces within the
garment rather than the outward shape), the basic ZWFD techniques and examples,
using CAD technology in ZWFD and manufacturing zero waste garments.
Knitting technology makes it possible to produce fabrics in the shape of an apparel
or footwear pattern. As a result, pattern cutting is eliminated and zero fabric waste
can be accomplished. Nike Inc. (Beaverton, Oregon, USA) used knitting technology
to produce zero fabric waste shoes Flyknit, which reduced 3.5 million pounds of
waste in 4 years (Nike 2016).
In the United States, the recycling rate of textiles is 16.2%, which is much lower
than the 36.6% recycling rate of materials in total products (U.S. EPA 2016). One
obstacle for post-consumer textile waste recycling is that apparel products often con-
tain multiple types of fibre materials, e.g., polyester and cotton blend is a commonly
used textile fabric for t-shirts and shirts. In addition, other materials or components
such as zippers, snap fasteners and buttons are often used in apparel products. The
material blend makes it very difficult, if not impossible, to recycle. To facilitate
post-consumer textile waste recycling, the product designers should carefully select
materials used in the products and design the products so that materials can be eas-
ily separated for recycling. Gam et al. (2011) implemented ‘design for disassembly’
strategy to design a man’s jacket that can be easily disassembled into the wool outer
shell and polyester lining. The ‘design for disassembly’ strategy has been used by
companies to produce products that can be easily separated and recycled. Examples
include ‘Sugar and Spice’ shoes made by Patagonia (Chua 2009) and ‘Earthkeeper
2.0’ shoes made by Timberland (Schwartz 2009).
13.7 SUMMARY
The textile and apparel industry is one of the largest industrial sectors and also one of
the most polluting industries. The production, use and disposal of textile and apparel
products have caused significant environmental problems related to resource deple-
tion, hazardous chemicals, water, wastewater, energy and solid waste. In the past few
decades, a variety of new technologies and strategies have been developed by the
industry and academic researchers to reduce the environmental impacts. This chap-
ter discusses these new developments, including those that have already been widely
accepted by the industry such as ZDHC Program, those that have been successful
in the commercial applications such as Nike Flyknit shoes and DyeCoo’s supercriti-
cal CO2 dyeing and those that have been explored by pilot designers and academic
researchers such as ZWFD. It is expected that more technologies will emerge in the
future to make the textile and apparel industry more environmentally friendly.
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14 Use of CAD and
CAM and Its Recent
Developments in Textiles
Ashvani Goyal and Anil Kumar Yadav
The Technological Institute of Textile and Sciences
CONTENTS
14.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 270
14.2 History........................................................................................................... 272
14.3 Use of CAD in the Textile Industry............................................................... 273
14.4 Computer-Aided Manufacturing .................................................................. 273
14.5 Advancements in CAM................................................................................. 275
14.5.1 XML.................................................................................................. 275
14.5.2 Cloud Computing............................................................................... 275
14.5.3 Quantum Computing......................................................................... 275
14.5.4 Input/Output....................................................................................... 275
14.6 CAD/CAM Softwares Used in the Textile and Garment Industries............. 276
14.6.1 Gerber................................................................................................ 276
14.6.2 Lectra................................................................................................. 277
14.6.3 Optitex............................................................................................... 277
14.6.4 Tukatech............................................................................................. 278
14.6.5 Ned Systems...................................................................................... 279
14.6.6 CorelDraw.......................................................................................... 279
14.6.7 Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop............................................ 279
14.7 Importance of CAD/CAM Software.............................................................280
14.8 3D Body Scanning Technology..................................................................... 281
14.8.1 Laser Scanning.................................................................................. 282
14.8.2 Cyberware.......................................................................................... 282
14.8.3 Human Solutions............................................................................... 282
14.8.4 Telmat (SYMCAD)............................................................................ 282
14.8.5 Wicks and Wilson (TriForm/TriBody).............................................. 282
14.8.6 [TC]2 Body Measurement System..................................................... 283
14.9 A
pplication of CAD....................................................................................... 283
14.9.1 A pplication in Yarn Manufacturing.................................................. 283
14.9.2 A pplication in Fabric Structures........................................................ 283
14.9.3 A pplication in Garment Manufacturing............................................284
14.9.4 A pplication in Dyeing and Printing................................................... 286
269
14.10 C hallenges in Application............................................................................ 286

14.11 Benefits of CAD/CAM................................................................................ 287
14.12 Disadvantages of CAD/CAM...................................................................... 287
14.13 Summary and Conclusion............................................................................ 287
References............................................................................................................... 288
14.1 INTRODUCTION
In life, we all are surrounded by different kinds of colourful textiles, but do we
know how these colourful design patterns are designed? We all are wearing cloth-
ing, but did you know how your suit, shirt or trouser might have been created on a
computer? New modern designs are available for the manufacturer and the textile
designer. The product in the early phase of manufacturing is designed with the help
of a computer software tool. An important way computers are used in the textile
industry is through computer-aided design (CAD) and computer-aided manufactur-
ing (CAM) software.
CAD is a very powerful tool for the manufacturing industry, offering several ben-
efits such as improved product design, increased productivity, higher utilization and
better quality control. CAD system simplifies the process of designing textile ele-
ments like printed surface patterns and garments, and CAD softwares are so popular
in the textile industry (Diamond 2018). Nowadays, CAD is used in every field of the
textile from making a blueprint to the final creation of the product. CAD systems
were originally developed to design precision machines, but by 1970s, they began to
find applications in the textile industry. Today, CAD use is widespread in textile and
fashion design.
Basically, CAD is a software program on the computer that helps designers to
create whole garments, design printed patterns for textiles and create specific weave
and knit patterns. Nowadays, the popularity of CAD and CAM is increasing day
by day. The possible reasons for its worldwide acceptability is that the designer has
to create a rough draft done by hand, followed by scans of the draft and import the
design into the CAD software (Nayak and Padhye 2015; Nayak et al. 2015a). The
rest of the work on design is performed by CAD. The designer can make changes
in the draft size and colours and is able to produce three-dimensional (3D) images.
These images can also be used for taking the clients’ review. It is important to
discuss how the software is useful in the different phases of the design process.
The main steps involved in the design process are (http://edge.cs.drexel.edu/GICL/
howto/CADtutorial/index.html):
• In the first step, the designer drafts a rough idea into the computer system.
Then the idea is transformed into data. The data is stored in the computer
and available for the user to make proper use of that.
• In the second step, the software gives its suggestions and ideas to enhance
the design, and by the software database, the designer can take their
decisions.
• In the third step, the computer can easily run the tests and numerical com-
putations. This phase is also called the analysis phase.
Use of CAD and CAM and its Developments 271
• In the fourth step, it is time to check the results obtained in the third step so
that the designer decides what improvements can be made with the design.
• In the fifth step, designer has to check whether the obtained design is opti-
mal or not; if not, then steps four and five are repeated again and again.
Once the design is accepted, then it will be printed, and a copy of that will
be stored in the database for later use.
A product is passed through many phases from design to final delivery. Nowadays,
CAD allows us to develop all these functionalities. CAD is used to design,
develop and optimize the product (www.scribd.com/document/295531845/Stages-
of-CAD-Process).In the textile industry, mostly textile designers are using CAD
systems. Different types of CAD softwares are used by the designer for the dif-
ferent types of design applications. Special CAD softwares are used for designing
knitted, printed and embroideries design patterns. There are many CAD systems
that offer illustration and sketchpad applications, which allow a user to draw free-
hand designs directly on the computer. Once the design is accepted, the user is
free to make necessary changes. Designer is now allowed to make changes in pat-
tern, colour and size. All these can be performed on the computer screen; there-
fore, CAD is not only used to increase the quality of the product but also used
to increase production(). The processes that take multiple days are now possible
in a few hours. CAD is a very powerful tool as it allows the user to enhance its
creativity and visualization (https://study.com/academy/lesson/how-is-cad-cam-
used-in-textiles.html).
There are various types of two-dimensional (2D) and 3D CAD software avail-
able in the market. With the help of these, the designer is able to make his deci-
sions on the virtual design and fabric. With the help of 3D body scanners, the
correct information of the body is provided, and the designer is free to adjust the
pattern according to the size and transform the human body into graphic forms.
With the help of this graphic, the exact information about the body is developed
and can be used for more transformations. In today’s global competitive envi-
ronment, manufacturer must rely on new technologies so that they are capable
to compete with others and also capitalize on current market trends (Omondi
et al. 2016). Through CAD/CAM solutions industry, modern designs and different
colour combinations are adopted, which make the textile fabrics more attractive
and competitive. The different 2D CAD software available for clothing industry
are listed later (Islam 2017):
• GRAFIS from Software Dr K. Fridrich

• Audaces Apparel Pattern from Audaces
• COAT from COAT-EDV System
• PAD Pattern design from PAD System Technologies Inc.
• TUKACAD from Tukatech
• CAD Assyst from Assyst
• Fashion CAD from CAD CAM Solutions
• Modaris from Lectra
• Accumark from Gerber Technology.
Available 3D CAD software (Islam 2017) for the clothing industry is listed later:
• Modaris 3D Fit from Lectra

• Virtual fashion from Reyes Infografica
• Vidya from Assyst-Bullmer
• Accumark Vstitcher from Gerber
• 3D Runway from Optitex
• Haute Covture 3D from PAD System
• Design concept from Lectra
• Vstitcher from Browzwear
• EFit Simulator from Tukatech.
14.2 HISTORY
The first CAD software was PRONTO, which was developed in 1957 by Dr Patrick
J. Hanratty. That’s the reason that he is referred to as the father of CAD/CAM soft-
ware, but due to its limitations, it was not so popular. In 1960, SKETCHPAD was
developed by Ivan Sutherland during his Ph.D. thesis at Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. It was the first accurate CAD software and because of that it is also
popular in the present scenario. This software has the capability that the designer
directly interacts with the computer using a light pen to draw on the computer screen.
It was fast and interactive, but the cost is very high.
Most of the softwares of this duration are 2D. They have various benefits, but the
researchers are working for the 3D Technology. CATIA (Computer-Aided Three-
Dimensional Interactive Application), which was developed in 1977 with 3D, is very
popular in the present scenario. VAX minicomputer, launched by Digital Equipment
Corporation in1979, reduces the cost of a computer and operating cost. Due to cost
reduction aspect, these softwares are popular in small industries.
In 1985, the CAD software industry seemed to be comfortable because of the
new advancements in the CAD software and stagnant hardware prices, so new ven-
dors were attracted in this industry due to high profits. In 1990s, 3D CAD software
allowed the user to use client–server internet-based softwares, which are capable of
performing 3D design modelling over the web and the user can view their designs
in the web browser. In 1992, UNIX workstations came into use, and they totally
redefined the use of CAD. Microsoft produced its first 32-bit operating system, and
Intel produced its 32-bit Pentium Pro chips. At the same time the ‘3D solid mod-
eller kernel wars’ were intensified as EDS/Unigraphics, officially released Parasolid
for Windows NT, Spatial Technology, released its 3D Toolkit extensions for Alan
Charles Ian’s System on Windows NT, and Ricoh released Design base on Windows
NT. In the last few decades, there is a significant improvement in the hardware and
software. With this, it was very easy to progress the 3D CAD system.
Vstitcher is a commercial application developed in 2001. This software is used to
develop 2D patterns to simulate in 3D. In 2005, Gerber (www.directindustry.com/
prod/gerber-technology/product-55072-360947.html) developed a technology that is
very effective in this area. 3D body scanning contributes to a better understanding
of the human body. Human body modelling is a very challenging task, but with the
help of laser scanner, it becomes very easy for the scanner to obtain a 3D image of
the body.
The past of CAD has been filled with unexpected expectations. Some anticipated
3D modelling without flat screen or mouse pointers– a completely immersive 3D
environment, where modelling tools include special gloves and glasses. In the future,
painting will be closer to the sculpture than painting. So far, 3D glasses cause nausea,
immersive technologies are expensive and complex, and most designers prefer using
keyboards, stylus and icons. Although some of these optimistic predictions can be true,
the more likely it is that future changes will develop in ways that we do not see now.
Even so, some trends seem more likely to succeed and are widely adopted than others.
The following speculations are separated into strong, medium and weak prob-
ability of adoptions. The CAD format will follow the development in office applica-
tions, where the Extensible Markup Language (XML)-based open document format)
format adheres to the standard. Similar standardization attempts for 3D and CAD
related formats are represented by X-3D. Companies and developers will start imple-
menting X3D import/export as a default way for data exchange. This will increase
the difference between related applications like CAD and computer aided engineer-
ing, and CAM 3D models created in CAD can be instantly presented in web brows-
ers, which will be able to display 3D models.
The CAD system will continue in the trends of expertise. The general purpose is
CAD, which can be extended for a specific purpose and specially built on generic
engine CAD. Many commercial and proprietary programs have their strong open-
source options. But there is no viable strong open source for commercial CAD systems
such as AutoCAD or SolidWorks, and some CAD systems available are not competi-
tive. Yes, some open sources like Ballistic Research Laboratory-CAD are CADs, but
they are not widely adopted and used in the industry. There may be a strong open-source
CAD solution in the future. This will probably be based on the open cascade engine.
Another potential scenario is that the CAD company will start an open-source project
to promote its more profitable products (e.g., CAM or CAD) based on the same engine.
14.3 USE OF CAD IN THE TEXTILE INDUSTRY

In the last few years, there is a boom in the textile industry not only at the domestic
level but also at the international level, and the fashion designing industry is at the
top of the wave of success. As there is a huge amount of competition and demand in
the textile industry, it is not possible to survive with the traditional methods of work-
ing. So looking forward, we have to be familiar with the use of technology. With the
help of technology, we are able to increase the interactivity between the real and the
virtual, which enhances the designer’s creativity, increases productivity and reduces
production cost and time. Nowadays, CAD is used in every field of textile like fibre
science, study of yarn structure, weaving, knitting, dyeing, printing, etc.
14.4 COMPUTER-AIDED MANUFACTURING
Once the design is completed, it can be imported as a digital file to the CAM system.
CAM works with the CAD system. It takes the design and prepares the actual textile
pattern. It is mainly used to manage all aspects of the manufacturing process. In this,
everything is automated from the initial stage to the sewing of garments together. It
makes the manufacturing process very efficient and smooth.
CAM means the use of computer software to control machine in the manufac-
turing process. CAM is considered as a numerical control programming tool. The
2D or 3D models of components generated in CAD software are used to generate
G-code to drive computer numerically controlled (CNC) machine tools. The output
from the CAM software is usually a simple text file of G-code/M-codes (Dwivedi
and Dwivedi 2013).
The phases of the CAM processes are outlined later (Dwivedi and Dwivedi 2013):
1.
A CAM system employs computer for two basic purposes:
• Computer monitoring and control
• Manufacturing supporting applications.
2.
Typical areas of concern:
• High-speed machining including streamlining of tool paths
• Multi-function machining
• 5 Axis machining
• Feature recognition and machining
• Automation of machining process
• Ease of use.
Over the time, the historical shortcomings of CAM are being attenuated
by providing niche and high-end solutions. This occurred primarily in three
areas:
• Ease of use – very easy for the new user to learn and implement the
available features
• Manufacturing complexity
• Integration with Product Life cycle Management (PLM) and the
extended enterprise.
3.
CAM Tools:
• CAD Tool: Geometric information of model
• Manufacturing Tool: Fundamental of manufacturing processes
• Networking Tool: Communication between various machines and
computers
4.
CAM software:
• Dassault Systems
• Delcam
• Siemens PLM Software
• PTC
• Vero Software
• SolidCAM
• CNC Software
• BobCAD-CAM
5.
Benefits of CAM:
• Fast speed for creating products.
• Great accuracy and consistency as each product produced are exactly

the same.
• Efficiency is very high
• No gap in the design and manufacturing process.
• Decrease the turnaround time by minimizing errors.
14.5 ADVANCEMENTS IN CAM
• XML
• Cloud computing
• Quantum computing
• Input/output (www.manufacturinglounge.com)
14.5.1 XML
The standardization of the process is advanced with the use of XML technology.
XML increases the portability of designs across all software platforms. XML trans-
lates the design elements into text with tags via a standard and transparent system.
As a result, all designs can be exported from one package to another without requir-
ing further processing. This reduces the time and resources required for the conver-
sion process.
14.5.2 Cloud Computing
Cloud computing provides a platform where multiple designers and engineers work
on a project at once. Cloud-based solutions also allow for the sharing and distribution
of documents so that all team members can stay informed at all times. Other future
cloud solutions with promising benefits include access via phones and tablets.
14.5.3 Quantum Computing
Quantum computing is another promising future advancement. It refers to the theo-
retical computing based on advanced physics and is still in the research and develop-
ment stage. Quantum computing process is very different from traditional binary
digital computing. Quantum reduces the need for excess interface, which results in
faster operations and hence significantly speeds up the design process.
14.5.4 Input/Output
The traditional input and output methods may soon change the way CAM profes-
sionals operate on a daily basis. This technology referred to as virtual reality (VR)
is gaining popularity across many industries. VR allows for enhanced interactions
with drawings, and the designer is allowed to see their models in 3D before they are
physically created. This increases the accuracy of the design and helps in finding the
mistakes before the product gets manufactured.
14.6 CAD/CAM SOFTWARES USED IN THE

TEXTILE AND GARMENT INDUSTRIES
There are many CAD softwares available in the market with interactive tools.
With the help of these tools, the process of manufacturing is very easy and fast.
CAD is used in every phase of the textile industry. Design program of CAD is
based on two systems: one is a raster scan and another is a vector. Both systems
have their own pros and cons, so the selection of the software is according to
user requirements. Some of the famous CAD softwares are listed later along
with their applications. Major software available in the market are (Islam 2015)
as follows:
• Gerber
• Lectra
• Optitex
• TUKATECH
• CAD CAM Solutions
• Assyst
• PAD system
• Ned Graphics
• CorelDraw
• Illustrator and Photoshop
• Colour Matters
• Auto CAD
• Koledo
• U4ia
• Polygon
These are some softwares available in the market. All these are not suitable for every
industry. The industries dealing with only design have different requirements than
those of the manufacturing industry. The use of the software depends upon the need
and application of the industry, and the user has to select appropriate software for
their use. Selection of the accurate software is the primary task; therefore, some of
the widely used softwares and their pros and cons are discussed later.
14.6.1 Gerber
AccuMark Pattern Design Software is specially designed to provide good qual-
ity performance, especially in the fashion industry by Gerber Technology.
Pattern Design Software has been a reliable system for fashion designers, which
ensures high and accurate measurement and pattern. Users can easily operate
the software due to its easy and quick functionality, which prevents designers
or users from t aking too much time. Through the AccuMark pattern design
software, the users can always rely on the repository of the patterns to mini-
mize its loss due to a disaster (www.directindustry.com/prod/gerber-technology/
product-55072-360947.html).
14.6.2 Lectra
Lectra brings designing solutions and best practices to the sports field, which enables
fashion companies to increase creativity and speed; Solutions which can merge trad-
ers, textile designers, product designers and supply chains. Expertise for spot on
innovative design makes good business sense.
Lectra design solutions integrate fashion expertise and design best practices for
creating innovative clothing designs and styles in record time. They help design
teams to differentiate their customers with ultra-realistic textile simulations and pre-
cise technical sketches. Based on a practical project approach and best-in-class expe-
rience, Lectra solutions promote teamwork to ensure accurate information sharing.
Plugging design in the rest of the organization is important for reducing lead time.
Lectra allows designers to share sketches and cloth designs with product development
and suppliers on a unique platform, to ensure that designs reach in time to fashion-
hungry consumers (www.lectra.com/en/fashion-apparel/design-software-kaledo.).
14.6.3 Optitex
The Optitex O/15 streamlines many aspects of 2D pattern design and introduces
success innovations and improvements in 3D simulation. Figures 14.1 and 14.2 show
the pattern making and pattern grading concept using the Optitex software. The
users can get more life forms for their digital designs faster than before. User can
still make more decisions in the digital environment, can promote creativity and
save time and cost. Optitex (https://optitex.com/) integrated platform allows to auto-
matically reflect every change made in 2D or 3D. Once user makes 3D rendering
of the design, user can take advantage of it repeatedly in many business processes
– from product development and sales, through sales and marketing all the way. It
creates fewer samples and saves on the wastage of clothes, increases the accuracy
FIGURE 14.1 Pattern making using Optitex software.

FIGURE 14.2 Pattern grading using Optitex software.
and uniformity of the fit of product line and minimizes it from time to time with the
360° view of the design before production.
The core of the pattern design software:
• Eliminate hundreds of manual steps in the design process with a superior

design experience that is fully customizable to the customer needs.
• Visualize measurements of different styles and gain control of internal fea-
tures such as notches, buttons and drill holes.
• Draft pieces from scratch, digitize existing hard-copy patterns, or even edit
and finalize existing digital patterns.
• Darts, seam allowance, special corners, advanced measurement techniques,
pleats, curves and facings are all fitted to trade, to meet the needs of cus-
tomers across a wide range of product and style types.
• Designers can create their own working environment with movable toolbars.
• Quick access to regularly used functions without ever needing to access a
menu.
• No hardware lock-in, including importing and exporting, to and from all
major CAD formats.
14.6.4 Tukatech
Tukatech offers award-winning 2D and 3D pattern making, design and construction
software designed specifically for apparel planners and automated broadcasters and
cutters for production, as well as apparel manufacturers of all sizes and skill levels.
The capabilities of Tukatech Technology remain unique in the fashion industry, and
all products are offered at affordable prices. Tukatech has developed a large and loyal
international customer base, which is using user-friendly products to develop and
improve their apparel and garment lines. Tukatech customers have used Tukatech
extensive online and real-world training and education initiatives, not only pushing
its capabilities but also the overall standards of the entire apparel industry. Tukatech
invests in their clients and develop strong bonds with large and small garment manu-
facturers around the world. Tukatech has created a global network of industry experts
who continue to guide and support the company and its products. Tukatech contin-
ues to break new ground in cutting-edge 3D fashion software and hardware, and is
excited to share these events with current and new customers (www.tukatech.com).
14.6.5 Ned Systems
NedGraphics is a leading developer of CAD Software solutions specifically designed
for apparel and retail, home furnishings, flooring design and other various garments.
NedGraphics allow product designers to use full creative freedom while improving
efficiency, productivity and accuracy to create product-ready artwork. NedGraphics
offers dedicated tools for print, woven and knitted fabric design, carpet and tufts,
colour management and calibration, sales and more.
NedGraphics enables its user to improve their sales by minimizing time to
market, optimizing product development flow and reducing sampling costs. Each
software solution is offered in a fully integrated modular system to guarantee the
current and future operational performance. NedGraphics was acquired in 2014 by
the parent company FOG Software Group, a division of Constellation Software Inc.
(TSX:CSU). FOG Software Group acquires, manages and builds software compa-
nies in a variety of vertical markets, enabling them to be clear leaders in their indus-
tries (www.nedgraphics.com/about-us).
14.6.6 CorelDraw
CorelDraw CAD is compatible with all major CAD programs, so experienced users
will feel comfortable with the familiar command bar, command aliases, and menu
and toolbar items. Use of CorelCAD smart tools, such as object snaps, grips and polar
guides, to quickly reposition, align, copy or resize objects. The enhanced EntityGrips
provide 3D editing and intuitive manipulation. The shortcut menus instantly edit the
geometry of objects in the desired place while hovering over any EntityGrip.
By using the new ExportTable command to export tables in a comma separated
format (CSV), CSV files are imported in Microsoft Excel or database applications. In
tables, one can add formulas into cells plus insert, delete, merge or resize cells, rows
and columns within existing tables. The enhanced EntityGrips and Properties palette
allow for 3D editing and provide intuitive manipulation capabilities in 3D. Addition of
3D solid primitives to the design and use of Boolean operations to unite intersect and
subtract bodies as per the requirements (www.coreldraw.com/en/product/corel-cad).
14.6.7 Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop

Adobe Illustrator and Adobe Photoshop are two of the most commonly used CAD
software programs in the fashion industry due to their versatility and affordability.
When used in combination with one another, these two programs provide all the tools
an apparel designer needs to draw fashion design sketches, technical flat sketches,
CAD presentations (rendered flat sketches), create and modify textile designs, repeats
and colourways, design embroidery, graphic artwork and more. Adobe Illustrator is
a vector-based program, which means that artwork can be scaled and printed at any
size and resolution while maintaining full detail and clarity. This aspect makes the
program ideal for producing fashion flat sketches, CAD sketch presentations, fashion
illustrations and other images that are commonly resized and rearranged for various
presentation purposes.
Some notable advances in Illustrator over the past few years continue to make
it faster and easier to create fashion sketches, CADs and other projects. The “Live
Trace” feature, introduced in CS2, allows users to easily convert photos, scans
and bitmap images into editable vector files. Also introduced in Illustrator CS2 is
the ‘Live Paint’ feature that enables fashion designers to fill apparel sketches with
colours and patterns using only a few simple clicks.(www.designersnexus.com/
fashion-design-industry-information/adobe-illustrator-photoshop-fashion-design/).
14.7 IMPORTANCE OF CAD/CAM SOFTWARE

CAD is a computer-aided design and drafting software implemented on a computer.
CAD uses a large number of hardware and software devices. The software available
in the market is installed on the system with their drivers. The hardware devices
mostly in use are Flat bed plotter, Digitizer, Printer, video display boards and zip
driver for backup purpose. Earlier, the manual process of body measurement is
not so effective and time consuming. Body scanners have significant advantages in
measuring the human body compared with traditional tape measurement methods.
The 3D body scan technique captures the three coordinates to cover the complete
body measurement. This scanned data is converted into accurate body dimension
with the help of software (Nayak and Padhye 2018).
The garment is draped on their 3D scan image, and the consumer can see how the
garment looks and fits before the purchase is made. The virtual fit models reduce
the cost and time involved in the creation of physical samples. The virtual fit models
can help the customers to visualize the mass-customized product before making
the purchase (Nayak and Padhye 2018). The right type of fabrics can be selected as
per the customer’s choice with virtual dressing rooms; consumers are also able to
virtually try-on selected garments and preview fit and appearance before purchase.
The virtual fit model is used by many online retail businesses. The universities,
research institutions and software producers apply new technologies nowadays to
create advanced computer solutions that will in the future support the whole cycle
starting from the virtual design of fabric and garments through automated produc-
tion up to virtual merchandizing.
CAD supports 2D drafting and 3D wireframe models. The system is designed
as a single-user CAD package. The drawing elements are lines, polylines of any
width, arcs, circles, faces and solids. There are many ways to define a drawing ele-
ment. For example, a circle can be defined by centre and its radius, three points and
two end points of its diameter. The system always prompts the user for all options.
Annotation and dimensioning are also supported. Text and dimension symbols can
be placed anywhere on the drawing, at any angle and at any size. A variety of fonts
and styles are also available (Tabraz 2017).
CAD plays a major role in the textile and apparel industry. CAD is one of the
technologies being used in the fashion industry for mass customization, develop
more design, frequent changing styles and production, making work easier through
efficient and better quality products. CAD is more favourable in quick changes for
any design and possible to use more application on garments.
In pattern making of main size patterns, when we discuss about the simple pat-
terns, there are no major differences, but as the complexity of style patterns increases,
CAD system gives good results. It is not only the CAD system that is responsible for
fast, accurate, efficient and better quality of products to produce but it also depends
on the personal skills and creativity. A CAD system is very useful for creating a
virtual sample that saves time. The virtual sample made by CAD can be shared with
buyer immediately without physical designing of the sample which saves time and
cost of the industry.
It is creating more job opportunity for students. It has created more study oppor-
tunities for aspiring professionals, especially fashion design students and CAD
learners as well. Nowadays, many institutions presented different types of short-term
and long-term courses, which examine the importance of CAD knowledge for the
industry (Tabraz 2017).
14.8 3D BODY SCANNING TECHNOLOGY

The 3D body scanning technology and the combination of this technology with
the CAD software are widely available in the market. Today’s consumers are more
demanding, which increases more demand options in the shopping of personalized
products. Body scanning is very helpful for today’s customer with these trends, and
now more focus is on mass customization and not mass production. With 3D body
scan, the individual size and design features are taken, and the desired product is
produced with competitive price and on-time delivery (Apeagyei 2010).
Pantano and Naccarato (2010) explored the importance of advanced technologies
and outlined their influences on consumers’ experience and satisfaction in the retail
environment. The development of 3D body scanning technology allows for the quick
and consistent extraction of body measurements and can generate customized fit for
any number of customers.
The success of the 3D technology mainly depends on the interaction, personaliza-
tion and visualization to meet the customer demands. Linear measurement scanning
can easily extract a huge number of data types and measurements of shapes, angles
and relational data points (Radhakrishnan et al. 2008).
In the clothing industry, scanner captures an accurate 3D representation of gar-
ment’s relationship to the body and reduces visual distraction. These measurements
are the base foundation to construct pattern and digital data. The 3D technology
allows instant evaluation of the validity of scan, dimensions and shape. The captured
data might be used repeatedly for various garments without the need for repetitive
measurement. The measurements obtained using this technology is exact and repro-
ducible, as those can be obtained from traditional, physical measurement process.
Measurement data can be changed or revised at any time. The 3D scanning technolo-
gies used for body measurement extraction on today’s market are based on various
systems. Although there is variability and incomparability of measurements between
them (Simmons et al. 2004), their common aim is to scientifically extract anthropo-
metric data in a valid and reliable manner. They are mainly based on the following
technologies:
14.8.1 Laser Scanning
In laser scanning, scanners work on the basis of a light-plane and triangulation
method. A laser is used as a light source and a technology called couple-charged
device (CCD) scans the field of view. The CCD detects the displacement of the light
on a body. Body scanners based on laser technology are used to capture the scan
data.
14.8.2 Cyberware
Cyberware is a complete 3D body scanner, and it captures more than 100 measure-
ments in just 17 s. The scanning process captures the data in an array of digitized
points represented by X-, Y- and Z-coordinates for shape. 3D rendering tools allow
the operator to view the 3D scan data immediately on completion of the scan (www.
cyberware.com).
14.8.3 Human Solutions
Human Solutions is a 3D body scanner that is based on laser technology. Eight sensor
heads are used along with an optical triangulation process, and it captures approxi-
mately 140 body dimensions in a 3D image of the body in just 12 s, and the collected
data can be exported in different formats as per user requirements(e.g., ASCII, OBJ,
STL and DXF formats) (www.human-solutions.com).
14.8.4 Telmat (SYMCAD)
SYMCAD is used for Measuring and Creating Anthropometric Database using
structured light. In this, set of white lights stripes are projected onto the subject for
capturing the data. Its new Tracking version applies 3D digitizing to its data capture
for accuracy due to errors with natural body sway movements and underwear reflec-
tance (www.symcad.com).
14.8.5 Wicks and Wilson (TriForm/TriBody)

White light is used to capture the 3D scan data in approximately 12 s via eight dif-
ferent camera views. Stripes of safe white light are used to capture the 3D shape of a
person. These invisible rays are harmless and capture the images in 3D coordinates
(X-, Y- and Z). These resulting 3D scans can be saved in different output formats
(www.wwl.co.uk).
14.8.6 [TC]2 Body Measurement System

[TC]2 is a body scanner system. It is a 3D measuring system that uses optical lenses
to produce a digital copy of surface geometry of the body. On the basis of ‘white
light’ technology and phase mapping profilometry, it scans the whole body in a few
seconds (www.tc2.com).
14.9 APPLICATION OF CAD
14.9.1 Application in Yarn Manufacturing
To study the behaviour of fibre assembly in yarn structure based on mechanical
action and fibre properties, CAD software like solid works and COSMOS software
packages are used. If an accurate computer simulation of a fabric is to be produced,
it should begin with an accurate simulation of the component yarn (Cassidy and
Grishanov 2008). For filaments and yarn, many models have been developed by
researchers that display the visual characteristics of real filaments and yarns (Keefe
et al. 1992; Keefe 1994; Harwood et al.1997; Adanur and Liao 1998; Jiang and Chen
2005; Sriprateep and Pattiya 2009). Most of them pertain to geometrical modelling
of the yarn structure based on a single-line yarn path. YarnCAD is a CAD system
specially developed for yarn design and visualization at De Montfort University as
part of an investigation supported by the Engineering and Physical Science Research
Council (Harwood 1995). Successful attempts have been made to show yarns accu-
rately in both structure and texture according to the raw material properties and
manufacturing parameters. The YarnCAD system simulates a range of yarns, includ-
ing two-component yarns. Although the simulation does not include fibre simulation,
the yarn appearance is very close to the appearance of real yarns.
Sriprateep and Bohez (2006, 2009) developed an algorithm for the 3D modelling
of yarn structures as assemblies of many filaments obtained by twisting. They used
CAD that simulated the yarn’s structure, and the algorithm modelled a wider variety
and yielded an improved visual representation of the real yarn structure. A CAD
software package was used to model the yarn structure as an assembly of many
filaments obtained by twisting. The yarn structures were based on an idealized heli-
cal model with many twist angles. CAD is also used to visualize the 3D modelling
behaviour of fibre assembly in air-jet textured yarn and air-vortex yarn during high-
speed airflow application.
14.9.2 Application in Fabric Structures

In recent years, the computer representation of woven fabric structures has become
familiar to design engineers who are mainly concerned with the appearance and use
colour and weave techniques to design a pretty representation of the fabric. Today,
there are several fabric and garment CAD software packages commercially available
for weaving pattern and colour pattern design (e.g. Online Tailor Shop/Textronics,
Molotow™ Colour Composer, Scotweave, Sophics, Nedgraphics, Cadtex and Lectra
System). Most of these systems represent the fabric in 2D structures (Bruniaux and
Ngoc 2006; Caillerie and Tollenaere 1995; Luo 2011) and use them in 3D imaging
process and animations. Chen and Potiyaraj presented a series of papers on interactive
modelling of weaves and developed algorithms for the CAD/CAM of woven fabrics
(Chen and Potiyaraj 1998, 1999a, 1999b; Potiyaraj and Chen 1997). They proposed
a new approach for generating weaves, which enabled the automatic generation of
2D and 3D weaves. Lomov et al. (2001) and Verpoest and Lomov (2005) developed
a software package for the prediction of woven fabrics in 3D, which includes single-
layer and multi-layer fabrics. Fancy yarn support fabric simulation feature allows the
user to see the virtual fabric of the newly formed design even before the production
of actual fabric. This allows creating both front and back of the design, and one can
easily change the simulation with different parameters easily with minimum effort
and cost (Mitra 2006).
Adanur and Vakalapudi (2013) developed a fabric 3D design and analysis system
that gives users a convenient interface and enables them to view the virtual fab-
rics and analyze their properties. The new computer software includes fabric input
parameters (fibre selection, yarn parameters and point diagram), fabric 2D structure
simulation (colour structure) and fabric 3D structure simulation (woven, knitted,
braided and composites). Fibre selection includes the selection of fibre types for warp
and weft yarns in single layer, warp backing, weft backing and two-layer fabrics
with warp and weft stitching fabrics. The user will have the option to select different
fibres for different yarns like warp yarn, weft yarn, top layer, bottom layer, stitching,
etc. In addition, it is possible to select blend of fibres by defining blend ratios. In yarn
parameter selection, four types of parameters, namely yarn type (like ring spun,
open end, filament and false twist), yarn twist direction, twist amount, yarn size and
yarn count, can be entered for the warp and weft yarns. In the yarn size selection, the
user can select threads per unit area by entering the values as ends and picks per inch
or ends and picks per centimetre for the warp and weft yarns. For pattern diagram,
users can select the repeat size and can enter any design pattern by clicking on the
boxes arranged as a pattern paper. Fabric 2D structure generates the simulated struc-
ture of the fabric in two dimensions. The user will have the opportunity to change the
colours of warp yarns, weft yarns and the background of the fabric. Users can view
the 2D structure with different magnification by changing the magnification ratio
values. Figure 14.3 shows the 2D structure of a random design selected.
In fabric 3D structure simulation, the cross-sectional shapes and the centreline
configurations of the constituent yarns mainly determine the geometric structure of
the fabric. The yarn’s cross-sectional shape in the fabric can be circular, ellipsoidal or
race track shapes. The shape of the yarns depends on many factors like cloth construc-
tion, weave patterns, the tightness of construction and finishing treatments. The 3D
structure is developed from the input parameters of fibres, yarns and design pattern.
However, users can change the yarn diameter values, yarn spacing and yarn crimp lev-
els, plot points and the viewing angles to see the fabric in different shapes and viewing
angles. Figure 14.4 shows the simulation of a two-layer fabric with weft stitching.
14.9.3 Application in Garment Manufacturing

Garment is the last product of the textile industry, which is directly consumed by
society for wearing, covering, etc. Its manufacturing process involves some steps
FIGURE 14.3 The 2D structural simulation of a fabric. (Source: Adanur and Vakalapudi
2013.)
FIGURE 14.4 The 3D structure simulation of a two-layer fabric with weft stitching. (Source:
Adanur and Vakalapudi 2013.)
like measurement, cutting, development, sewing, pressing, etc. to be generated rap-

idly and adjusted quickly without diminishing creativity using CAD technology
and ability to work on ladies fashionable garments, men’s wear, children’s wear and
home furnishing. CAD/CAM technique with computer graphics offer the base of
designing and editing of components like design making, pattern creation, grading,
lay marker plan, 3D scanning and virtual garment styling with enormous computa-
tions capability in the system. The CAD in addition with embroidery is used to make
stitch design with variable stitch parameter and embroidery in connection with a
sewing machine on garment pieces.
14.9.4 Application in Dyeing and Printing

Improved technologies are used to secure quality with an estimated improvement in
dye selection, colour matching and the dyeing procedure so as to reduce cost of pro-
duction. DyStar introduces a new dyeing system using auxiliary data that replace
older non-optimized standard dyeing procedure. The CAD system can be utilized to
design a computer colour matching system and colour management. The computer-
ized methods of fabric designing are weaving and print design. Print design is con-
nected with fine art, but it is an industrial process to obtain small and fine design.
Digital printing is widely used nowadays, for digital printing graphics, mainly
Photoshop and Corel draw are used. CAD software is used in the design process
and also in the preparation of design as well as screen for print by exploring more
and more traditional motifs. It also reduces the design processing time, production
cost and has a greater quality level in terms of tones and shade than computer print.
14.10 CHALLENGES IN APPLICATION
Determining complete and perfect design for clothing provision is not simple. With
old traditional, manual methods precise location of body landmarks and how these
are handled can be subjective, due to the awkward positioning of certain measure-
ment areas (e.g., crotch for inside leg measurement), and there are also issues regard-
ing ethical considerations. 3D body scanning is similarly not without challenges
related to land marking (Simmons and Istook 2003). Furthermore, some scanners
require subjects to wear undergarments for scanning. Currently, capturing a ‘good’
scan in a posture that allows extracting specific measurement varies among systems.
There are image-based problems; where the body sways and is never really still
and also the impact of breathing (Apeagyei 2010). The study confirms challenges
with applications determining subtle landmarks, such as the seventh cervical, which
is usually found by feel at the back of the neck base, which could be obscured by
subjects’ hair. Shadows cast on areas of the subject’s body also tended to not record
precise data due to light control. The armpit and crotch areas also continue to remain
indisputably problematic areas to locate and scan when the prescribed (slightly
lifted) position of the arms were not applied. Mismatched undergarment colour of
the scan subjects can cause the 3D systems to record missing data or present shading
in these areas as the study tested; however, this aspect may be limited to white light
systems (Apeagyei 2010).
14.11 BENEFITS OF CAD/CAM
• Increase productivity.
• Designing textile patterns and clothing used to take a lot of time. But today,
computers make the process quicker and more efficient by using software
like CAD and CAM.
• Machines can work continuously and with marginal errors.
• Makes just in time delivery and quick response possibility with
documentation.
• Use basic engineering graphics and create multi-view drawing with 2D and 3D.
• CAD plays a key role in increasing efficiency and flexibility.
• Uniform design standards improve design ability using CorelDraw and
Adobe Illustrator.
• It helps the designers to evaluate the ideas based on past performance using
the database available in the CAD system.
• Due to the use of software, there are fewer requirements for labour.
• Data from previous years use to show consumer preference.
• Reduces the cost of sample and prototype.
• CAD software provides all the solution to the textile industry. It is also used
in all design-based industry like mechanical, electronic, jeweller, leather,
fashion or garment, etc.
14.12 DISADVANTAGES OF CAD/CAM
With so many available advantages, care has to be taken before going for any CAD
software. The industry has to always prefer the software that is supported by the
available hardware; otherwise, the hardware should be upgraded to make it compat-
ible with the software. The main disadvantages of the use of machines/software are
as follows:
• As the use of software increases, the traditional drafting skills will be lost
because they are not necessary.
• Engineer, expert and technicians are required for operating the software.
This increases the cost.
• Engineer, expert and technicians may need expensive training in order to
use the software, and this is time consuming and costly.
• The saved data is not safe due to virus, threats, power cuts, etc.
• The software available in the market is of very high cost, which is very
expensive, especially for startups.
• Machine maintenance is costly.

CAD can be used for many fashion design procedures such as design sketches,
apparel designing, pattern making and grading, dropping, virtual imaging, apparel
specification sheets, storyboards, print and technical drawings for clothing. Typically,
CAD determines time during all stages of the fabric design process, helps to create
new design ideas, shows every design components, develops a prototype and helps
improve the new design before final production.
There are different CAD/CAM software systems such as Gerber Technologies,
Lectra Systems, Tukatech, Ned Systems, Optitex, etc. Using 3D technology is a new
trend in the textile and fashion industry. 3D technology has many advantages. These
techniques help in the development of personal clothing.3D body scanning technol-
ogy is seen as a pioneer for the provision of clothing for manufacturers, retailers and
consumers. Although its potential seems tremendous, but the cost and real benefits
will become more clear over time. These challenges are the path of future develop-
ment so that these technologies will be more efficient.
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15 Recent Developments
in Textile-Reinforced
Composites and
Biocomposites
Asanda Mtibe
CSIR Materials Science and Manufacturing
Teboho C. Mokhena, Sudhakar

Muniyasamy, and Osei Ofosu
CSIR Materials Science and Manufacturing
Nelson Mandela University
Mokgaotsa J. Mochane
Central University of Technology
CONTENTS
15.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 292
15.2 Classification of Composites......................................................................... 293
15.2.1 Textile Composites............................................................................. 293
15.2.2 Biocomposites and Green Composites.............................................. 296
15.2.3 Hybrid Composites............................................................................ 298
15.3 Processing of Composites.............................................................................. 299
15.3.1 Solvent Casting Method..................................................................... 299
15.3.2 Melt Compounding Method..............................................................300
15.3.3 Compression Moulding...................................................................... 301
15.3.4 Injection Moulding............................................................................ 301
15.3.5 Extrusion Process.............................................................................. 301
15.3.6 Liquid Composites Moulding............................................................302
15.4 Biodegradation of Biocomposites.................................................................. 303
15.4.1 Biodegradation of Biocomposites in Soil.......................................... 303
15.4.2 Biodegradation of Biocomposites in Compost.................................. 303
15.4.3 Hydrolytic and Biodegradation of Biocomposites in
Aqueous Medium��304
15.4.4 Microbial and Enzyme Degradation of Biocomposites..................... 305
291
15.5 Composite Market Size..................................................................................307

15.6 Summary.......................................................................................................308
References...............................................................................................................308
15.1 INTRODUCTION
Polymer composites have been used in various applications, such as automotive,
aerospace, construction and packaging; and their market is growing immensely
(Hsiao and Heider 2012; Mngomezulu et al. 2014). Man-made fibres such as glass
and carbon have been used as reinforcing agents in polymer composites to enhance
their performance. However, the combination of one or two fibre-reinforced polymer
composites, also known as ‘hybrid composites’, have also been studied (John and
Thomas 2008). After the end of service life, these high-performance materials are
disposed off in natural environments because they are not recyclable as the separa-
tion of their multiple components is quite difficult. This leads to environmental pol-
lution, which is often an eyesore and harmful to the environment.
Due to the severity of problems caused by traditional polymer composite waste
and the fact that they are harmful to wildlife, there is a necessity to develop alter-
native products that will be sustainable and eco-friendly. However, end-of-life
options of traditional polymer composites waste, the depletion and high price of
materials are some of the driving forces towards the development of sustainable and
eco-friendly products. The welcomed paradigm shift towards sustainability and eco-
friendly materials is also due to the waste management legislation. This has resulted
in the development of polymer composites reinforced with natural fibres; this type of
composite is known as biocomposites (John and Thomas 2008).
However, over the past decades, there has been a growing demand for the use of
biocomposites as a suitable replacement of non-biodegradable traditional polymer
composites. The use of natural fibres in biocomposites provides solution for waste
disposal and reduction of carbon and energy footprint. In addition, natural fibres
are renewable, biodegradable, low cost, low density, sustainable and environmental
friendly (Mngomezulu et al. 2014; John and Thomas 2008). Despite these features of
natural fibres, it has been reported that they also have inherent drawbacks such as
high moisture absorption due to their hydrophilic nature, and they are unstable when
exposed to high temperatures. The polarity of natural fibres makes them incom-
patible with hydrophobic polymer matrices that lead to poor interfacial adhesion.
This results in poor mechanical properties due to lack of stress transfer between the
polymeric matrix (continuous phase) and fibres (discontinuous phase). These draw-
backs can be mitigated by modifying the surface of the natural fibres to make them
hydrophobic and thus improve the interfacial adhesion between natural fibres and
polymeric matrices to enhance the mechanical properties of the resultant biocom-
posite materials. Also, combining natural fibres with synthetic fibres can reduce the
water uptake of composites.
Several researchers have investigated the surface modification of natural fibres to
alter their functional properties from hydrophilic to hydrophobic. The modification
of the surface of natural fibres is usually achieved by alkalization, silane treatment,
Textile‑Reinforced Composites 293
acetylation, grafting and adsorption. In the case of El-Abbassi et al. 2015, the effect
of alkali treatment on the mechanical properties of polypropylene (PP) biocompos-
ites reinforced with alfa fibres (a fibre extracted from grass) was investigated. The
results revealed that alkali treatment of fibres enhanced the tensile strength and ten-
sile modulus of PP biocomposites. This improvement was attributed to the removal
of extractives that covers the surface of fibres as well as hemicellulose and lignin,
which result in improving the surface roughness of fibres and separation of fibres in
microfibrils. This leads to a better fiber–matrix interfacial bonding that improves the
mechanical properties of biocomposites.
Other researchers reported that the use of natural fibres aid in accelerating
biodegradation of biocomposites, particularly, if both biobased biodegradable
polymer and natural fibres are used (Kalka et al. 2014). Yet, biocomposites from
non-biodegradable synthetic polymers and natural fibres are partially biodegradable.
Biodegradation is the disintegration of organic matter such as bio-based biodegrad-
able biocomposites by microbial activity to form water, carbon dioxide and humus.
The factors that contribute to biodegradation of polymers are as follows: chemical
structure, molecular weight and crystallinity. Biodegradation of polymers and their
biocomposites involve three steps: (1) deterioration of the material properties such
as mechanical, chemical, physical and thermal due to the growth of microorganisms
in and on the surface (2) depolymerization by enzymes which lead to reduction in
molecular weight and converting polymers into oligomers, dimers and monomers
and (3) assimilation by microorganisms, which implies that oligomers, dimers and
monomers are being integrated into microbial cells and converted to water, carbon
dioxide (CO2) and humus (Emadian et al. 2017; Karamanlioglu et al. 2017; Gómez
and Michel 2013).
Many research articles, books, reviews and conference proceedings have demon-
strated that the field of biocomposites is growing immensely. Most recently, Sanjay
et al. (2018) published a comprehensive review on the effect of natural fibres on
mechanical, thermal, tribological and water absorption properties of biocompos-
ites. In their review, they also discussed the characterization of biocomposites with
a range of characterization techniques such as Fourier transform infrared (FTIR),
X-ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The majority of
documented literature lack detailed information about the biodegradability of bio-
composites. In this chapter, we discuss different types of composites, processing and
their biodegradation studies. We also cover the current market and future prospects
of biocomposites.
15.2 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOSITES
15.2.1 Textile Composites
Textile composites (or fibre-reinforced composites) have received considerable
interest in various applications over the last few decades due to their unique prop-
erties. Various types of reinforcements in polymer composites are textile materi-
als, especially if the polymer composite is reinforced with fibrous reinforcement.
Fibrous reinforcements have been explored since the inception of composites. These
reinforcements include fibres (short and long), yarn and fabrics. Fabrics are classified
into woven, non-woven and knitted structures. Moreover, textile composites can be
manufactured according to their desired end application. Among all types of textile
reinforcement, woven fabric is the most preferred, as it is easier to handle and has
good tensile strength in both warp and weft directions.
Numerous researchers have studied textile composites reinforced with differ-
ent textile materials and their properties (Merotte et al. 2018; Karaduman and Onal
2016; Zakriya and Ramakrishnan 2018). For instance, George et al. (2013) inves-
tigated the dielectric behaviour of PP yarn reinforced with jute yarn. During fab-
rication, both PP and jute yarns were wounded onto metal plate and subsequently
compression moulded at 205°C, 0.2 MPa pressure and a holding time of 9 min. The
moulded composites were cooled at room temperature and tested for dielectric prop-
erties. The authors reported that the dielectric constant, dissipating factor, loss factor
and conductivity improved with an increase in fibre loading. In contrast, resistivity
decreased with an increase in fibre loading. Zaidi et al. (2015) reinforced unsaturated
polyester with flax yarn and studied their mechanical properties. The incorporation
of flax yarn into unsaturated polyester enhanced the flexural strength and modulus
of the resultant composites.
Many authors have investigated the effect of non-wovens on mechanical, thermal
and acoustic performance of composites (Merotte et al. 2018; Karaduman and Onal
2016; Zakriya and Ramakrishnan 2018; Ma et al. 2016; Hidalgo-Salazar and Correa
2018). Non-woven fabrics are reported to have good mechanical properties in the
fibre direction; however, poor mechanical properties in the perpendicular direction
of fibres. Non-wovens are utilized when the stress is applied in the fibre direction.
In the case of thermal stability, Hidalgo-Salazar and Correa (2018) reported that the
incorporation of industrial fique fibre (FF) non-woven mat decreases the thermal
stability of the linear lowdensity polyethylene (LLDPE) biocomposite, as shown in
Figure 15.1. This was attributed to fibre degradation.
In the case of epoxy resin (ER) biocomposites, the incorporation of industrial
FF non-woven mat enhanced thermal stability of the biocomposite as shown in
Figure 15.2. This could be due to the fact that industrial FF had higher degradation
temperature in comparison with the industrial FFs.
FIGURE 15.1 Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential thermogravimetric

(DTG) curves of neat LLDPE and LLDPE reinforced with industrial FF non-woven mat bio-
composites. (Source: Hidalgo-Salazar and Correa 2018.)
FIGURE 15.2 TGA and DTG curves of neat ER and ER reinforced with industrial FF non-
woven mat biocomposites. (Source: Hidalgo-Salazar and Correa 2018.)
Zakriya and Ramakrishnan (2018) developed polyester composites reinforced

with jute non-wovens. During the preparation of composites, jute fibres were opened
using pilot Trytex card machine and, subsequently, jute web was produced in the
form of a sheet. Jute web was then blended with hollow conjugated polyester fibres at
a ratio of 50:50. Subsequently, the material was needle punched at a speed of 1,200
strokes/min, needling density of 150 punches/cm2 and penetration depth of 60 mm.
The blended non-woven was then hot pressed in the compression moulding machine
at a temperature of 160°C to initiate thermal bonding, and the pressing time was
30 min at 0.6 ± 0.02 MPa. Different materials (sandwich structure, blended struc-
ture, blended fibres with low-melt polyester structure and stitched structure) were
produced. The authors reported that blended structure and blended fibres with low-
melt polyester structure were suitable for insulating materials, and these materials
showed superior mechanical properties when compared with sandwich and stitched
structures. On the other hand, sandwich structure and structures could be used for
wall hangings.
As aforementioned, woven fabric is the most preferred because it is easier to handle
and has good tensile strength in both warp and weft directions. Szolnoki et al. (2015)
fabricated composites from epoxy and 30 wt.% hemp fabrics by hand lay-up technique
and studied flammability properties. Before the fabrication of composites, hemp
fabrics underwent three treatment stages: phosphoric acid treatment, aminosilane
treatment and sol–gel coating treatment in order to render fl ammability properties.
The prepared composites were then cured at room temperature for 24 h followed by
post-curing at 80°C for 4 h. It was reported that untreated fabrics caught fire after 3 s.
However, when the treatments were combined, the fabric caught fire after 15 s, which
was a five times increase. The addition of phosphorus into the fabrics decreased their
flammability and promoted more char after burning. In addition, similar observa-
tions were seen in the composite reinforced with hemp fabric treated with phosphoric
acid. Battegazzore et al. (2018) and Sepe et al. (2018) studied the effect of treat-
ment of fabrics on the mechanical properties of composites. For instance, Sepe et al.
(2018) treated hemp fabric with alkali and silane. The composites were fabricated
by vacuum infusion process in a rectangular mould at room temperature. Polyvinyl
alcohol, a releasing agent, was applied to the surface of the rectangular mould. Four
plies of the treated hemp fabrics were infused with catalyzed resin and cured for
24 h at room temperature. The composite reinforced with alkali-treated hemp fabrics
FIGURE 15.3 (a) Tensile strength and (b) tensile modulus of composites reinforced with
untreated and treated hemp fabrics. (Source: Sepe et al. 2018.)
displayed lower tensile strength and modulus as well as lower flexural strength and
modulus in comparison with composites reinforced with untreated hemp fabrics, as
depicted in Figure 15.3. The reduction in tensile strength and modulus was due to
the removal of lignin and hemicellulose which cause the fibrils in the fibres to easily
pull out. Similarly, composites reinforced with silane-treated hemp fabrics displayed
lower tensile strength (viz. in comparison to composites reinforced with untreated
hemp fabrics), but tensile modulus showed an inverse effect. Flexural strength and
modulus of composites reinforced with silane-treated hemp fabrics was higher than
that of composites reinforced with untreated hemp fabrics. The enhancement of ten-
sile modulus was due to the improvement of interfacial adhesion between treated
fibres and the polymer matrix.
15.2.2 Biocomposites and Green Composites

Biocomposite materials are produced by combining polymer matrix and natural
fibres that have their own distinguish properties. However, after combining them, the
resultant material possesses superior properties in comparison to those of individual
polymer matrix and natural fibres, and they are suitable for various technical appli-
cations (Aiman et al. 2016). Polymer matrix provides the structure and shape of the
material, whereas natural fibres improve the performance (tensile, flexural, impact
etc.) of the resultant biocomposites. Biocomposite is a new emerging field. Range
of polymers has been studied as matrices reinforced with natural fibres. Polymers
are synthesized from fossil fuels, bio-based resources and a combination of both.
Synthetic polymers include PP, polyethylene, polyvinyls, phenolics and polystyrene.
For instance, El-Abbassi et al. (2015) prepared PP biocomposites reinforced with
short alfa fibres by melt extrusion technique and injection moulding. The authors
reported that the incorporation of alfa fibres improved the tensile modulus of PP. On
the other hand, bio-based polymers include polylactic acid (PLA), polybutylene
succinate (PBS), polyamides and thermoplastic starch (TPS). However, when both
polymer and filler are 100% biobased, the biocomposite is referred to as ‘green com-
posites’. For example, Dorez et al. (2013) investigated the thermal and fire behaviour
of green composite composed of PBS reinforced with cellulose, hemp, flax, sugar
cane and bamboo prepared by melt mixer and compression moulding. The authors
reported that the incorporation of natural fibres reduces thermal stabilities and the
time to ignition of biocomposites and increased char content.
The majority of biocomposite materials to date are made from synthetic polymers
for a wide range of applications due to their low production cost, easy processability,
lightweight and mouldability into different shapes. Synthetic polymers reinforced with
natural fibres have been extensively used in packaging and automotive applications.
However, the increased use of synthetic polymers has resulted in two major problems;
depletion of fossil fuel resources and environmental pollutions caused by these mate-
rials and greenhouse gas emissions during incineration. In addition, after-the-service
life, these polymers are disposed off to the natural environments, and they pose a
threat to the environment because they are not biodegradable (Sánchez-Safont et al.
2018; Scaffaro et al. 2018a, 2018b; Yang et al. 2018; Yatigala et al. 2018).
Over the last decades, the development of green composites made from 100%
bio-based materials has been a research hotspot (Orue, et al. 2018; Sánchez-Safont
et al. 2018; Scaffaro et al. 2018a, 2018b; Yang et al. 2018; Yatigala et al. 2018). These
materials offer several advantages such as low cost, acceptable biodegradation, low
density, high aspect ratio and high specific strength, which place them among high-
performing materials. The driving force behind the development of 100% green
composites is the growing attention to reduce the negative environmental impact
caused by the synthetic polymers and synthetic polymer-based composites, limited
fossil fuel resources and the lack of knowledge about natural fibres properties that
will enhance the performance of composites. Various natural fibres which have
been used to produce green composites including flax, sisal, kenaf, cotton, hemp
and agave. They are abundantly available and renewable. Agricultural by-products
such as sugar cane bagasse, maize stalks have also been used as reinforcements.
Table 15.1 provides a list of recent studies of biocomposites and green composites.
TABLE 15.1
A List of Recent Studies on Biocomposites and Green Composites
Polymer Matrix Reinforcement Reference
Poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) (PHB) Almond shell, rice husk and Sánchez-Safont et al. (2018)
seagrass
Polypropylene (PP) Hemp fibres Badji et al. (2018)
High-density polyethylene (HDPE) Chonta palm wood Haro et al. (2018)
Thermoplastic starch Oil palm empty fruit bunches Abral et al. (2018)
Epoxy Flax fibres Campana et al. (2018)
MMT clay-PVA (Mt-PVA) Rice straw Perumal et al. (2018)
PBS Curaua fibres Sisti et al. (2018)
PP Corn stover Delgado-Aguilar et al. (2018b)
Green epoxy Sisal fibres Mancinoa et al. (2018)
Epoxy Hemp fibres Sepe et al. (2018)
Phenolic Sugar palm fibres Agrebi et al. (2018)
(Continued )
TABLE 15.1 (Continued )

A List of Recent Studies on Biocomposites and Green Composites
Polymer Matrix Reinforcement Reference
Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) Lignin and holocellulose from Agustin-Salazar et al. (2018)
pecan nutshell
PP Cellulose from softwood Hietala and Oksman (2018)
PLA PO leaves Scaffaro et al. (2018a, 2018b)
PLA Nanocellulose from Western Red Nair et al. (2018)
Cedar (Thuja plicata) bark
PLA and MaterBi® PO leaves Scaffaro et al. (2018a, 2018b)
PLA Jute fibres Delgado-Aguilar et al.
(2018a,b)
PLA CNCs from bamboo fibres Qian et al. (2018)
PLA, PHB, PHBV, Bioflex (PLA Wood fibres Yatigala et al. (2018)
blend) and Solanyl (starch-based)
PLA Sisal fibres Orue, et al. (2018)
PLA Wheat straw Yang et al. (2018)
15.2.3 Hybrid Composites
Hybrid composite is when two or more fibres or fillers are used to reinforce a single
polymer or one or more fibres or fillers used to reinforce a polymer blend (Safri
et al. 2017; Jawaid and Abdul Khalil 2011). The hybrid composites have better tensile
properties in comparison to individual reinforced polymer composite. In the case
of different fillers reinforced polymer matrix, one filler complement disadvantages
of the other filler, i.e. one type of filler in the hybrid composite can be expensive
and possess high tensile modulus, whilst the other type can be inexpensive having
low tensile modulus. John and Thomas (2008) indicated that combining inexpensive
fibres with low tensile modulus and expensive fibres with high tensile modulus can
balance the cost and performance of materials. However, in the case of synthetic and
natural fibres reinforced polymer composites, the incorporation of synthetic fibres
helps to reduce the moisture absorption and enhance the properties, whereas natural
fibres reduce carbon footprint and the price of the end product. The properties of
hybrid composites depend on various factors; these factors include fibre loading,
alignment and orientation of fibres, dispersion of fibres, fibre dimensions and inter-
facial adhesion between fibres and polymer matrix or matrices. Hybridization can be
performed by combining synthetic and synthetic fibres, synthetic and natural fibres,
natural and natural fibres and incorporation of nanofillers such as nanoclays, car-
bon nanotubes, graphite sheets and metal oxide nanoparticles in reinforced polymer
composites.
Isa et al. (2013) fabricated different polyester hybrid composites (Kevlar and
glass, glass and nylon and Kevlar, glass and nylon) and studied their mechani-
cal properties and thermal stabilities. They reported that hybrid polyester com-
posites showed intermediate mechanical properties when compared to individual
composites. Interestingly, the authors reported that the combination of Kevlar,

glass and nylon-reinforced polyester displayed fairly high mechanical properties
which can balance the cost and performance of materials. Moreover, the inclusion
of glass fibres in composites resulted in improvement of thermal stabilities of the
material.
Kureemun et al. (2018) prepared epoxy hybrid composites reinforced with both
natural fibres (flax) and synthetic (carbon) woven fabrics by resin infusion technique.
The incorporation of carbon fabric in epoxy reinforced with flax fabric enhanced the
mechanical properties. Further increase in carbon fibre loading, however, led to a
further increase in mechanical properties.
The effect of hybridization of cassava bagasse and sugar palm fibres on the prop-
erties of cassava starch hybrid composites were investigated by Edhirej et al. (2017).
They found that the thermal stability of the hybrid decreased after adding sugar palm
fibres in cassava starch reinforced with cassava bagasse.
Saba et al. (2016) studied the effect of nanofillers (oil palm nano filler and mont-
morillonite (MMT)) on the mechanical properties of epoxy reinforced with kenaf
fibres. The results showed that the inclusion of nanofillers improved the impact
strength, tensile strength and tensile modulus of hybrid composites.
The properties of hybrid composite can be predicted by the rule of mixture using
Equation 15.1.
PH = Pc1Vc1 + Pc2Vc2 (15.1)
where PH is the resulting properties of the hybrid composite, Pc1 and Pc2 are proper-
ties of the respective composite, while Vc1 and Vc2 are their respective volume frac-
tions, as shown in Equation 15.2.
Vc1 + Vc2 = 1 (15.2)
15.3 PROCESSING OF COMPOSITES
There are many processing techniques for polymer composites reported in the pub-
lished literature. These methods include solvent casting, melt compounding, com-
pression moulding, injection moulding, extrusion process, etc. The selection of a
particular processing method is dependent on the desired application, type of poly-
mer and reinforcement to be used.
15.3.1 Solvent Casting Method

This method is widely used for the preparation of biocomposites, and it requires
small amounts of both polymer matrix and reinforcements. In this method, a poly-
mer is dissolved in a suitable solvent system. After dissolution, the reinforcement is
added to prepare a homogeneous mixture. When homogeneity is attained, the sol-
vent is removed either by vaporization or precipitation to form a film. This method
achieves uniform distribution and good dispersion of reinforcement in a polymer
matrix. Silvério et al. (2013) produced thin films from reinforcing polyvinyl alco-
hol (PVA) and cellulose nanocrystal (CNC) obtained from corncob by solvent
FIGURE 15.4 SEM image of (a) neat plasticized starch and (b) starch nanocomposites
reinforced with 10 wt.% CNC. (Source: Cao et al. 2008.)
TABLE 15.2
Selected Studies of Composites Prepared via Solution Casting
Composition Solvent Used References
PLA/CNFs Acetone and water Iwatake et al. (2008)
PLA/CNF Acetone and chloroform (9:1) ratio Jonoobi et al. (2010)
PLA/CNF Dichloromethane Kowalczyk et al. (2011)
PLA/CNC Acetone and chloroform (3:7) ratio John et al. (2013)
PLA/CNC Chloroform Espino-Pérez et al. (2013)
c asting method. After mixing those materials, ultra sonication was used to facilitate
CNC dispersion. Similar studies were performed by Petersson et al. (2007) and Xu
et al. (2013) using PLA and polycarbonate matrix reinforced with CNC. Cao et al.
(2008) reported that the presence of CNC in plasticized starch appeared as white
dots as shown in Figure 15.4 with arrows. The authors reported that there were no
large aggregates observed.
Other studies on solvent casting method are listed in Table 15.2.
The major drawback of this method is that it requires organic solvents that may be
hazardous to the environment due to their volatility. Moreover, it is not feasible for
industrial scale since the recovery of the solvent will be expensive.
15.3.2 Melt Compounding Method

So far, this is the most prevalent method for industrial processing of biocomposites.
This process involves direct mixing of the polymer matrix and reinforcement. In
this method, both the dry polymer and reinforcement are mixed, compressed and
heated and passed through a high-pressure system. It uses a top-down approach
to breakdown the aggregated reinforcement during mixing. This process is
more applicable in the development of biocomposites reinforced with nano and
submicron-sized reinforcements. The dispersion of the reinforcement is attained
by employing high shear stresses combined with diffusion at high temperatures
(Frone et al. 2011). Oksman et al. (2003) reinforced PLA with flax fibres using melt
compounding technique. Fibre pull-outs and orientation of fibres were observed,

which implies that the fibres were separated during the compounding process.
Bitinis et al. (2013) produced biocomposites using direct mixing and solvent cast-
ing. The results showed that direct mixing resulted in poor dispersion, while solvent
casting showed good dispersion. Nonetheless, this technique has unique features,
such as environmental friendliness and compatible with the current industrial pro-
cesses (Iwatake et al. 2008).
15.3.3 Compression Moulding
This technique involves the moulding of the semi-finished material by applying heat
under compressive pressure until the final product is produced. It is normally carried
out at different pressures and temperatures depending on the polymer used (Baghaei
et al. 2013; Reddy and Yang 2011). This technique offers good advantages, such as
moulding of a large amount of semi-finished material, high reproducibility, low cycle
time and production cost (Reddy and Yang 2011).
15.3.4 Injection Moulding
This technique produces a material by injecting a molten polymer into a mould
to form a desired material with required structural design (Liu et al. 2004). The
sample (resin granules and short fibres) is placed in a heated barrel, and when the
granules are melted, the screw injects the melt and transports it into a tool cavity
chamber, where it cools and solidifies to form a desired material (Liu et al. 2004).
This technique renders numerous advantages, such as manufacturing a complex
geometry of the structure, low labour cost, possibility to use recycled material and
industrial scale.
15.3.5 Extrusion Process
Extrusion process is widely used in the plastic industries, and it is considered as a
high-temperature and short-time process to produce granules, semi-finished and
finished material (Hietala et al. 2013). It consists of a single and/or twin screw
extruders. Single screw extruders are used to melt, mix and homogenize the mate-
rial. It is normally preferred for blending pure polymers at moderate operational
speed in a short period of time and when pre-pelletizing is not necessary. The
disadvantages of single screw extruders are poor performance under high pressure
and lower production compared to twin screw extruders. Twin screw extruders, on
the other hand, are capable of producing pellets by mixing two or more materi-
als that are heat and shear sensitive (Hietala et al. 2013). They are classified into
co-rotating and counter rotating screw extruders. The screws in the co-rotating
extruders revolve in the same direction; whereas in counter rotating extruders, the
screws revolve in the opposite direction. The advantage of twin screw extruders
is the production of a homogeneous mixture of components (Hietala et al. 2013).
Different studies of compression and injection moulding and twin screw extrusion
are listed in Table 15.3.
TABLE 15.3
Biocomposites Prepared by Melt Compounding Methods
Biocomposites Preparation Methods References
PLA/silkworm silk Twin screw micro-extruder and Zhao et al. (2010)
injection moulding
Mater-Bi®/hemp fibres Melt blending and injection Lopez et al. (2012)
moulding
PLA/miscanthus and bamboo Twin screw extruder Gamon, et al. (2013)
Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB)/lyocell fibre Twin screw extruder and injection Gunning et al. (2013)
moulding
PLA/wood Compression moulding Faludi et al. (2013)
15.3.6 Liquid Composites Moulding

Liquid composite moulding such as resin transfer moulding and vacuum-assisted
resin infusion moulding have been used to fabricate composite laminates over sev-
eral decades and it is still being used. These techniques offer combined benefits of
high quality, reproducibility and repeatability ease and clean handling, scalability,
flexibility as well as reducing volatile organic compounds (Gu et al. 2014; Xu et al.
2016). These techniques utilize the pressure difference between vacuum and envi-
ronmental pressures to compress and secure preform against the mould and draws
resin into the preform (Hsiao and Heider 2012). Composites produced by these tech-
niques have applications in marine, aerospace, defense and automotive (Gu et al.
2014; Hsiao and Heider 2012). Before moulding, the mould should be thoroughly
cleaned to avoid contaminants followed by applying releasing agent such as wax
on the surface of the mould. After this step, the preforms are laid on the surface
and covered with vacuum bag. The resin infusion is then performed by creating a
vacuum between the vacuum bag and the mould. Moreover, the vacuum pulls the
resin along the distribution layer of fibre preform at a pressure of 1.3–1.6 kPa (applied
to the infusion system by a vacuum pump) for a certain period (Xia et al. 2015). The
resin-infused preforms are subsequently cured at high temperatures (100°C–150°C)
for 2–4 h (Xia et al. 2015). After curing and cooling to room temperature, the vac-
uum bag and developed composites are removed from the mould (Hsiao and Heider
2012; Xia et al. 2015).
Numerous researchers fabricated composites using vacuum-assisted resin infu-
sion process (Cicala et al. 2018; Hsiao and Heider 2012; Xu et al. 2016; Gu et al.
2014; Xia et al. 2015). Amongst these researches, Xu et al. (2016) and Gu et al.
(2014) fabricated epoxy reinforced with ramie fibre biocomposites using vacuum-
assisted resin infusion moulding with hot compaction. The authors reported that
the coupling of hot compaction on vacuum-assisted infusion moulding assist
when increasing fibre loading, which result in improved mechanical properties of
biocomposites.
15.4 BIODEGRADATION OF BIOCOMPOSITES
15.4.1 Biodegradation of Biocomposites in Soil
Soil environment consists of different types of microorganism that convert organic
matter into water, carbon dioxide, inorganics and humus. Kalka et al. (2014) investi-
gated the biodegradation of all-cellulose laminates in soil. In their work, samples of
coupon size underwent soil burial test in a controlled environment for 70 days. The
moisture content of the soil was kept constant by continuously adding water into the
system (Kalka et al. 2014; Joyyi et al. 2017). After completion of the experiment, i.e.
70 days, the samples were removed from the soil, and they were washed and weighed
to determine the rate of biodegradation. All-cellulose laminates displayed delamina-
tion, mass loss and colour transformation, which are an indication of microorgan-
ism activity. In another study, it was reported that the inclusion of natural fibres in
biodegradable polymer matrix accelerates the rate of biodegradation (Teramoto et
al. 2004). Natural fibres serve as a site for microorganism activity as it has high
water absorption capacity (Joyyi et al. 2017). In another study, Teramoto et al. (2004)
reported that biodegradation of biocomposites made from biodegradable polyes-
ter (poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyvalerate)
(PHBV), PBS, and PLA reinforced with abaca fibres was more efficient in com-
parison to neat polymers. SEM results showed that the surface of PCL and PBS bio-
composites had hollows that were attributed by biodegradation of polymer matrix.
In the case of PLA and PHBV biocomposites, biodegradation was more visible on
the polymer–natural fibre interface. It was noticed that, in all biocomposites, the
inclusion of abaca fibres in polymers lead to accelerated biodegradation rate. The
authors concluded that PCL and its biocomposites degraded first followed by PHBV,
PBS and PLA biocomposites. In other studies, the inclusion of kenaf and sisal fibres
in poly(3-hydroxybutyrate-co-3-hydroxyhexanoate) [P(3HB-co-3HHx)] and Mater
Bi-Y, respectively, triggered the biodegradation rate of the material (Joyyi et al. 2017;
Alvarez et al. 2006). The effect of surface modification of fibres on the biodegrada-
tion rate was investigated by Joyyi et al. (2017). It was found out that the treatment
of fibre decreases the biodegradation of biocomposites (He et al. 2016). Maran et al.
(2014) fabricated biocomposites by mixing starch, glycerol, agar and span-80 and
studied their biodegradation properties. Results showed that high content of starch
and glycerol improved the biodegradation rate.
15.4.2 Biodegradation of Biocomposites in Compost

Composting plays a pivotal role in sustaining and managing plastic waste products.
Plastic waste products pollute the environment, and therefore there is the need to
develop products that will biodegrade in compost in the presence of microorgan-
isms to mitigate plastic waste pollution problems. In the compost, microorgan-
isms use organic matter (biodegradable biocomposites in this case) as a source of
energy and convert it into CO2, water, inorganics and biomass residues (Gómez and
Michel 2013). This process is carried out in three steps: (1) the breakdown of organic
matter into smaller molecules, (2) elevation of temperatures due to microorganism
activity and (3) cooling phase, whereby temperatures are dropping resulting in the
formation of humus-like substance. Degradation of organic matter and formation of
humus occurred simultaneously (Karamanlioglu et al. 2017). Many researchers have
extensively investigated the biodegradation of biocomposites in compost (Gómez
and Michel 2013; Muniyasamy et al. 2013). Muniyasamy et al. (2013) studied the
biodegradation of poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) reinforced with
distiller-dried grains with solubles (DDGS) in laboratory scale compost incubated at
a constant temperature of 58°C ± 2°C and 50% relative moisture content for 200 days.
Continuous airflow was supplied to provide aerobic conditions. CO2 produced during
biodegradation was trapped in 0.5 M potassium hydroxide (KOH) and subsequently
titrated against 0.5 M hydrochloric acid (HCl). The presence of DDGS enhanced
the rate of biodegradation of PBAT. In another study, it was seen that the presence
of hemp fibres in PHB induced the rate of biodegradation of PHB. Moreover, the
increase in fibre content led to enhancement in the rate of biodegradation (Gunning
et al. 2013). On the contrary, incorporation of lignin nanoparticles in PLA led to
prolonged biodegradation. Interestingly, the increase in content enhances the rate of
biodegradation, but with a lower rate in comparison to neat PLA. The reason for that
was explained by the fact that the increase in nanoparticles content result in agglom-
eration and rough surface which induce the rate of biodegradation (Yang et al. 2015).
Abraham et al. (2012) studied the biodegradation of natural rubber (NR) and NR rein-
forced with cellulose nanofibres (CNF) in vermicomposting, using worms for biodeg-
radation. The inclusion of nanocellulose in NR enhanced the rate of biodegradation.
Way et al. (2012) reinforced PLA with surface-modified wood fibres and stud-
ied their biodegradation. The biodegradation profile of biocomposites showed a lag
phase in day 2 to day 11, followed by an exponential (biodegradation) and plateau
phase at about 100 days. PLA reinforced with wood fibres modified with sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) biodegraded first. Biodegradation of other PLA biocomposites
(PLA reinforced with wood fibres modified with silane and acetylation and unmodi-
fied wood fibres) were almost similar. It was reported that all the biocomposites
degraded faster than neat PLA. In contrast, poly(ethylene sebacate) (PES) reinforced
with acylated cellulose fibres degraded slower than neat PES (Fernandes et al. 2011).
15.4.3 Hydrolytic and Biodegradation

of Biocomposites in Aqueous Medium
Few studies have investigated (Pelegrini et al. 2016; Seggiani et al. 2017; Deroiné et
al. 2014). The biodegradation of PLA and PLA reinforced with buriti fibres (a type of
palm fibres) in simulated marine environment. From SEM results, it was seen that,
after exposure of PLA composite in simulated marine environment, the degradation
of the material was caused by microorganism colonization on the surface of material.
It resulted in deterioration of PLA matrix properties leading to fragility due to the pres-
ence of diatoms within the fibres and the removal of fibres. It was also reported that the
exposure of PLA biocomposites between 60 and 600 days have resulted in 2.5% mass
loss. Also, the crystallinity of biocomposites increased with an increase in exposure
time, which could be due to the degradation in the amorphous regions by microorgan-
isms. In another study, the degradation of PLA in distilled water and seawater was
investigated (Deroiné et al. 2014). In this work, water was renewed every week. From
the results, the reduction in molecular weight of PLA by 60% was observed at 50°C
after immersion for 1 month, and for lower temperatures (25°C, 30°C and 40°C), the
material degraded after 6 months. It was also indicated that the degradation rate for
distilled water was faster when compared with seawater.
Most recently, Seggiani et al. (2017) studied the biodegradability of polyhydroxy-
alkanoates (PHA) reinforced with posidonia oceanica (PO) fibres in natural marine
environment. The authors reported that during winter–spring season the micro-
scopic changes and weight loss were not evident. Interestingly, in summer season,
the rate of degradation increased considerably. For neat PHA, after 6 months, small
fragments of the polymer were observed, and about 93% of mass loss was achieved.
In the case of PHA biocomposites reinforced with PO, no fragments were visible at
all. They suggested that complete degradation of biocomposites was influenced by
the presence of PO fibres.
Another parameter to measure the degree of degradation is the molecular weight and
shape of the polymer. Duigou et al. (2009) measured the molecular weight of PLA and
PLA biocomposites reinforced with flax fibres after hydrothermal ageing. The results
showed that molecular weight of all materials was reduced after 3 months of immer-
sion. This was caused by irreversible chemical degradation mechanism. The degrada-
tion of PLA and PLA biocomposites reinforced with flax fibres was also determined
by differential scanning calorimetry. The increase in melting enthalpy was observed in
both PLA and PLA biocomposites reinforced with flax fibres. This could be caused by
the recrystallization that indicates degradation due to ageing. In the same study, dif-
ferent types of materials were tested. They injected sample and film-stacked samples.
It was stated that the injected samples degraded faster than the film-stacked samples.
Other studies were focusing on the degradation of biocomposites in buffer
solutions. Cheung and co-workers investigated the degradation of PLA and PLA
reinforced with silk fibres in phosphate buffered saline solution, which is a balanced
salt of pH 7.4 (Cheung et al. 2010). The experiments were run in humidified thermo-
stable and orbital shaking incubator at 37°C for up to 16 weeks. After every week,
the pH values were recorded, and the old buffer solution was replaced by a fresh
buffer solution. The results showed that the pH of the solution did not change after
16 weeks for both neat PLA and PLA biocomposites reinforced with silk fibres. It
was also reported that degradation was not observed in the first 4 weeks, and the
changes of materials were observed afterwards. The transformation of colour from
transparent to translucent and yellow to pale yellow were observed for PLA and PLA
biocomposite reinforced with silk fibres, respectively, as well as their weight loss
after 16 weeks. Although biodegradation occurred, the authors concluded that the
rate of biodegradation was slow for this period, and it was improved with the addi-
tion of silk fibres. A similar study was reported by Huang et al. (2013).
15.4.4 Microbial and Enzyme Degradation of Biocomposites

The degradation process of biocomposites by microbial and enzyme rely on various
factors. These factors include nature/type of microorganism, molecular weight of
the material, structure of the material and nature of pre-treatment. Various types of
microorganisms that are reported in the literature are capable of degrading polymer
and biocomposites. The characterization of degraded material is usually monitored
by SEM to demonstrate the changes in the surface of material after biodegradation
(Babaee et al. 2015), while FTIR is used to monitor the alterations in chemical bonds
(Emadian et al. 2017). Another method to determine biodegradation of biocompos-
ites is clear zone method surrounding the growth in the plate (Joyyi et al. 2017).
T. versicolor (white rot fungus) was shown to be capable of biodegrading TPS and
TPS reinforced with CNF (Babaee et al. 2015). The experiments were conducted
for 2 months, and the rate of biodegradation was evaluated in 10-day intervals by
measuring weight loss. It was reported that, when incubation time was increased,
the biodegradation rate also increased. Neat TPS completely degraded first just
after 30 days, and the biocomposites completely degraded after 40 days. The reason
for slower degradation of biocomposites could be due to the addition of crystal-
line CNF which delays biodegradation. Moreover, the effect of surface modifica-
tion of CNF with acetic anhydride on the biodegradation of biocomposites was also
investigated. The results showed that TPS reinforced with modified CNF degraded
after 60 days, which indicate that the addition of acetyl groups further delay degra-
dation. The fungi such as Aspergillus niger, Penicillium ochrochloron, Aspergillus
terreus, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis, Aureobasidium pullulans, Trichoderma viride,
Paecilomyces variotii and Chaetomium globosum) were capable of degrading PCL
biocomposites reinforced with epoxidized NR containing natural antioxidants
(Masek et al. 2014). From the results, the biocomposites were more degrading than
neat PCL. The addition of natural antioxidants slightly improved the degradation of
biocomposites by fungi. In another study, Wu (2011) investigated the degradation
of polybutylene succinate-co-adipate (PBSA) and PBSA reinforced with sugar cane
bagasse by R. oryzae. The authors reported that the incorporation of sugar cane
bagasse results in an increase in the rate of biodegradation. Similar results were
reported by Wu (2012) and Scaffaro et al. (2009). Wu (2012) investigated the biodeg-
radation of PBSA and PBSA reinforced with rice hulks by Azospirillum brasilense
BCRC 12270, while Scaffaro et al. (2009) studied the degradation of Mater-Bi® and
Mater-Bi® biocomposites reinforced with wood fluor by a mixture of bacteria found
in active sewage sludge.
Few studies reported on the degradation of biocomposites by enzymes. Enzymes
are used to accelerate the degradation of biocomposites. Enzyme degradation
involves depolymerization of polymers into oligomers, dimers and/or monomers,
which later are assimilated by microorganisms to form water and CO2 (Valdes et al.
2016). Pseudomonas lipase was used to degrade PCL and PCL-reinforced almond
skin (Valdes et al. 2016). The degradation rate of the material after enzyme degrada-
tion was measured by mass loss. The results showed that the addition of almond skins
slowed the degradation rate of biocomposites. In another study, Jbilou et al. (2013)
studied the biodegradation of PBSA blended with plasticized corn flour by α-amylase
and amyloglucosidase from Aspergillus niger and lipase from Pseudomonas cepa-
cia. The degradation rate was improving with the decrease in content of PBSA.
Similar work on degrading PLA blended with thermoplastic starch by enzyme pro-
duced Laceyella sacchari LP175 (Lomthong et al. 2015). Complete biodegradation
of blends was seen when a pH of 9 and a temperature of 50°C were reached. In a
further study by Zhao et al. (2010), degradation of PLA and PLA composites rein-
forced with silkworm silk was investigated and PLA-degrading enzyme proteinase
K was used. SEM results showed that the surface of neat PLA was smooth, and after
enzyme hydrolysis, small holes were visible on the surface of PLA. The size of these
holes increased with an increase in incubation period, which indicates the evidence
of degradation. In the case of PLA biocomposites, the surface appeared to be rougher
when compared with neat PLA before enzymatic hydrolysis. After enzyme hydro-
lysis, the surface of PLA biocomposites showed some cracks, and more PLA was
hydrolyzed. This was more pronounced when the content was increased, indicating
that silkworm fibre triggers degradation. These results were supported by weight
loss, of which biocomposites have higher weight loss when compared with neat PLA.
15.5 COMPOSITE MARKET SIZE

Composite is an emerging area, and it offers an opportunity to replace synthetic
products made from petroleum-based resources. Composites have attracted consid-
erable attention in aerospace, automotive and wind energy applications due to the
low cost, flexibility, lightweight, high mechanical properties and less energy con-
sumption. The global market of composites is growing, and is anticipated to grow
owing to the increased demand for composites in a variety of applications. The
global composite industry was valued at USD 114.13 billion in 2016. The market of
composites is anticipated to reach USD 282.9 billion by 2025, an increase of 10.7%
from 2017 to 2025 according to a new report by Grand View Research, Inc. (Grand
View Research 2018). The major manufacturing companies that are producing com-
posite materials are Arkema S.A., Hexcel Corp., Cytec Industries, SGL Carbon SE,
BASF SE, Owens Corning Corp., TPI Composites, Owen Corning (U.S.), Solvay
(Belgium), SGL Group (Germany), Hexcel Corporation (U.S.), Koninklijke Ten Cate
bv (Netherlands), Teijin Limited (Japan), Toray Industries, Inc. (Japan), Huntsman
Corporation (U.S.), Jushi Group (China), Gurit (Switzerland), etc. (Transparency
Market Research 2018).
The increase in production of composites will lead to a drop in product price
and increase of competiveness among the manufacturing industries. These manu-
facturing companies are collaborating with research institutions to develop novel
and improved existing products. In addition, the research is shifting into developing
novel processing technologies to reduce the production cost and enhance the produc-
tion capacity (Grand View Research 2018).
Automotive segment dominated the overall industry in 2016 followed by con-
struction segment. The major driving force for developing composites for the afore-
mentioned segments is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and other harmful
pollutants. Regulatory agencies have stipulated the stringent legislations to reduce
gross vehicular weight. In addition, the reduction of vehicular weight improves the
performance of the vehicle and enhances higher fuel efficiency. The frontrunners
of composites market in 2016 were North America and Europe followed by Asia
Pacific, which is anticipated to increase over 20% of the overall market share by
2025. The Asia Pacific region is estimated to grow by 11.5% from 2017 to 2025
(Grand View Research 2018).
15.6 SUMMARY
This work discusses the development of composites reinforced with textiles.
Composites are suitable substitutes of aluminium, titanium and steel in certain
applications, because they are lightweight, have good performance properties, low
carbon and low energy footprint. Composites are categorized into textile compos-
ites, green composites, biocomposites and hybrid composites. Among all types of
composites, green composites attracted considerable interest due to environmental
friendliness, sustainability and completely biodegradable in different environments,
without leaving any toxic residues. In addition, regulatory agencies have stipulated
stringent guidelines and legislations to stop production of materials that are hazard-
ous to the environment. There are several global players operating in the industry
of composites using different processing technologies. These key players are col-
laborating with researchers to find new ways to improve the quality of the material
and production capacity while reducing the price of the product. The market of
composite is growing rapidly, and it is expected to grow by 10% from 2017 to 2025.
The leaders in composite market are America, Asia Pacific, Europe, Middle East
and Africa.
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16 Technical Textiles and
Recent Developments
Asis Patnaik
CONTENTS
16.1 I ntroduction................................................................................................... 315
16.2 Different Types of Technical Textiles and Their Applications...................... 317
16.2.1 Aggrotech........................................................................................ 317
16.2.2 Buildtech......................................................................................... 318
16.2.3 Clothtech......................................................................................... 318
16.2.4 Geotech........................................................................................... 319
16.2.5 Hometech........................................................................................ 319
16.2.6 Indutech........................................................................................... 320
16.2.7 Medtech........................................................................................... 321
16.2.8 Mobiltech......................................................................................... 321
16.2.9 Oekotech.......................................................................................... 322
16.2.10 Packtech.......................................................................................... 322
16.2.11 Protech............................................................................................. 323
16.2.12 Sportech........................................................................................... 324
16.5 Summary....................................................................................................... 328
Acknowledgement.................................................................................................. 328
References............................................................................................................... 328
16.1 INTRODUCTION
Textile or fiber-based materials are increasingly used for technical applications in var-
ious fields, be it in the automotive industry in the form of filters, sound/noise absorb-
ing materials or in the building industry in the form of insulation materials or in the
construction industry in the form of geotextiles or in the medical field in the form
of wound dressing patch, stents, sutures, face masks, etc. The range of materials
that can be produced by combining several textile manufacturing processes together
along with the diverse range of available textile raw materials (natural and synthetic
fibres) open up a new era in the manufacturing field for the past two decades.
As per the widely used definition, ‘textile materials and products manufactured
primarily for their technical and performance properties rather than their aesthetic
or decorative characteristics is known as technical textiles’ (Textile Institute 2014).
315
As per another definition, ‘Technical textile materials are designed to have high level
of physical, mechanical, thermal and/or chemical properties for use in specific appli-
cations within industrial sectors such as earthworks, construction, civil engineering,
transport, defense, medical and healthcare’ (Definitions of Technical Textiles 2016).
Sometimes other terms like industrial textiles, functional textiles, engineered tex-
tiles, performance textiles, etc. can be used instead of technical textiles (Horrocks
and Anand 2000, 2016).
Depending on the application areas, technical textile products are broadly divided
into 12 different categories as shown in Figure 16.1 (Byrne 2000). These products
are discussed in the next section. Since a range of materials can be produced as per
the application requirements, sometimes, a single manufacturing process is used, or
at times, different technologies can be used along with special properties of fibers/
filaments.
As shown in Figure 16.2, fibers/filaments (natural, synthetic and higher perfor-
mance) can be used for the technical textile products (Source: Byrne 2000). Similarly
different technologies such as spinning, weaving, knitting, non-woven, braiding, and
composite can also be used for technical textile products. For example, filters used in
high-temperature applications require thermal and chemical resistances. Therefore,
specialty fibers like polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) are
used along with other fibers (Patnaik 2011; Patnaik and Anandjiwala 2016). Such
type of filters can be manufactured by non-woven technology. Therefore, the end
product is a filter having good chemical and thermal resistances. Another example is
the use of the poly(lactic acid) (PLA) sutures in the medical field (Lou et al. 2008).
These sutures have good biocompatibility and biodegradability properties along
with excellent mechanical properties. These sutures are biodegradable in human
FIGURE 16.1 Technical textile sectors.

Technical Textiles and Recent Developments 317
FIGURE 16.2 Technical textile materials, processes and products. (Source: Byrne 2000).
body without the necessity to remove them in case of surgery; therefore, it is widely
used in medical applications.
This chapter briefly discusses the different technical textile areas along with their
applications. The raw material requirements for various applications are also discussed.
Some of the recent developments and market trends are also discussed in this chapter.
16.2 DIFFERENT TYPES OF TECHNICAL TEXTILES

AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
16.2.1 Aggrotech
It deals with the technical textile products used in the agriculture, horticulture, forestry,
farming and fishing industries. Depending upon the applications, the raw materials for
aggrotech products must have these properties (Technical textiles in Agriculture 2007).
• Resistance to sunlight and weather (frost, wind, rain, hail storm, etc.)
• Resistance to microorganisms
• Long service life and lightweight
• Biodegradability
Both natural and synthetic fibers are used for aggrotech products. Some of the com-
monly used natural fibers for aggrotech products are jute, flax, ramie, etc. These
fibers are used for their biodegradable property. Similarly, polypropylene (PP), poly-
ethylene, nylon, and polyester, are also used for their good ultraviolet (UV) resistance,
good strength and long service life properties. Weaving, knitting and non-woven
technologies are used to manufacture aggrotech products. Some of the examples of
aggrotech products are sunscreens, bird protection nets, plant nets, h arvesting nets
and packing material for agriculture products.
16.2.2 Buildtech
This sector consists of technical textiles that are used in the construction of tempo-
rary buildings, permanent buildings and structures (Pohl 2010). These are widely
used for roofing, insulation and cladding, acoustic and structural purposes. A
major growth in this sector is due to the demand for eco-friendly, lighter and high-
performing and sustainable materials and products (Pohl 2010; Patnaik et al. 2015).
One of the advantages of using textiles in buildings consists of providing a large
obstruction-free span, ease of deconstructing and re-erecting as per the require-
ments. Depending on the architecture requirements, fabrics can be made into dif-
ferent shapes and appearances. Similarly, fiber-reinforced composites can be made
from aramid, glass or carbon fibers to create structures with excellent strength to
weight capability, high stiffness to weight and have design flexibility.
Some of the materials requirements are (Pohl 2010) as follows:
• High tensile and high tear strengths

• Resistant to deformation
• Resistant to extension under tension
• Resistant to wind and water
• Resistant to degradation, especially with exposure to sunlight
• Low-maintenance fabrics
• Acoustic insulation and thermal balancing functions
Carbon, nomex, wool, polyester, nylon, PP and glass fibers are widely used in build-
tech applications. Weaving, knitting, braiding, non-woven and composite technolo-
gies are used to manufacture buildtech products. Sometimes, fabrics are coated with
special finishes in order to have waterproof functions. For example, polyester fabrics
are usually coated or laminated with polyvinyl chloride or polyvinylidene chloride
films. Some of the examples are insulation, acoustic products, architectural fabrics,
glass fiber reinforced concrete, etc. (Pohl 2010).
16.2.3 Clothtech
Clothtech forms a part of the technical components of clothing and footwear sectors.
Some of the products are interlinings, zip fasteners, elastic narrow fabrics velcro,
shoe laces, umbrella cloth, sewing threads, etc. (Baseline survey 2014).
Some of the material requirements are (Baseline survey 2014) as follows:
• Good tensile and high tear strengths

• Resistant to deformation
• Good elasticity
• Resistant to extension under tension
• Good dimension stability
• Good abrasion resistance
• Good seam strength
Spinning, weaving, knitting, braiding and non-woven technologies are used to manu-
facture clothtech products. Viscose, polyester, nylon and PP are used for clothtech
products.
16.2.4 Geotech
Geotextiles are a part of geotech products. Geotextiles are continuous sheets of woven,
non-woven, knitted or stitch-bonded fibers or yarns. The sheets are flexible and per-
meable and generally have the appearance of a fabric. Geotextiles are used for sepa-
ration, filtration, drainage, reinforcement and erosion control applications (Bathurst
1999; Rankilor 2000). Furthermore, geotextiles form a part of geosynthetic family.
Since geotextiles are permeable textile materials, they are utilized with founda-
tion soil, rock, earth and geotechnical engineering material for a particular structure
of system. The textile material increases soil stability and decreases water erosion
and helps with drainage, thus improving soil characteristics. These materials are
constructed into fabrics like mats, webs, nets, grids and plastic sheets.
Some of the materials requirements are (Ingold 1994) as follows:
• Permeable
• High strength and modulus
• Maintain rigidity and stability to withstand strain, stress, tension and forces
• Resistant to rupturing and puncturing
• Flexible
• High abrasion resistance
• Resistant to contaminated ground water
• Resistant to fungal attack and rotting
• Resistant to UV radiation
• Biodegradable
• Good durability
Geotextiles can be woven, knitted or non-woven and also be made of natural or syn-
thetic fibers. Polyester, polyamide, polyethylene, PP, flax, hemp, kenaf and jute fibers
are used for geotech products.
16.2.5 Hometech
It deals with the technical textile components used in the furniture, household tex-
tiles and floor covering applications. Some of the examples of these products are
carpet backing layers, mattress components, blinds, stuff toys, furniture fabrics, etc.
(Baseline survey 2014).
Some of the material requirements are as follows:

• Good durability
• Flexibility and good elastic recovery
• Compression and recovery

• High abrasion resistance
• Good handle and drape
Hometech can be made from woven, knitted, braided or non-woven processes. Both
natural and synthetic fibers are used in the manufacturing of hometech products.
Acrylic, viscose, wool, polyester, PP, nylon and jute fibers are commonly used for
hometech products.
16.2.6 Indutech
It deals with the products used in filtration, conveying, cleaning and other industrial
applications. Some of the examples of indutech products are filters, conveyor belts,
ropes and cordages, abrasives products, etc. Filtration is a process of separating solid
particles from liquids and gases by passing them through the filter media (Hutten
2015; Maduna and Patnaik 2017). Filtration is divided into two major categories: dry
filtration for air, gas and particle and wet filtration for liquids. Air filtration plays an
important role in improving air quality and cleaner environment. Water filtration is
one of the ways of improving water quality and safety. A filter used for air filtration
in power plant is shown in Figure 16.3.
Some of the materials requirements are as follows:

• Good durability
• Flexibility and good elastic recovery
• Good thermal and chemical resistances
• High filtration efficiency and low pressure drop
• Good dimensional stability
• Good bursting strength
FIGURE 16.3 A filter sample for power plants.

Indutech products can be made from woven or non-woven processes. Both natural
and synthetic fibers are used in the manufacturing of indutech products. Some of
the commonly used fibers for indutech products are PAN, PPS, carbon, high-density
polyethylene (HDPE), glass, polyester, PP, nylon, etc.
16.2.7 Medtech
Textile materials developed and used in medical and hygiene applications fall under
medtech sector. Growth in the medtech sector is mainly due to increasing innovation
in medical and textile fields and increasing demand for newer materials with better
functionality (Rajendran 2009; Bartels 2011; Zhang and Ma 2018). Medtech products
are divided into four different areas: non-implantable textile materials, implantable
textile materials, extracorporeal devices, and healthcare and hygiene products. Some
of the example of these products are bandages, absorbent gauges, vascular grafts,
heart valves, artificial kidney, liver, surgical gowns, caps, gloves, masks, aprons, etc.
Some of the advantages of medtech products are as follows:
• Prevention of hospital infections and cross infections

• Breathability functions
• Higher comfort level, e.g., for surgical gowns
• Engineered to have high barrier to blood and other body fluids
• Compatibility with various types of sterilization techniques
• Cost-effective
The material requirements for medtech products are as follows:
• Biocompatible and sterile

• Anti-allergenic and antibacterial
• Good resistance to alkalis, acids and microorganisms
• Good dimensional stability and elasticity
• Good strength and durability
• Free from contamination or impurities
• Absorption/repellency and air permeability
Medtech products can be made from spinning, weaving, knitting, braiding and non-
woven processes. Both natural and synthetic fibers are used in the manufacturing
of medtech products. Some of the commonly used fibers for medtech products are
cotton, viscose, silk, spider silk, polyester, PP, spandex, PLA, etc.
16.2.8 Mobiltech
Transportation textiles or mobiltech can be defined as a technical textile material
that has been developed for manufacturing all types of transportation, such as all
road vehicles, trains, marine vehicles and aeroplanes (Horrocks 2016). Mobiltech
products for the automotive industry can be broadly classified into two categories,
viz. visible and concealed components. Visible components include seat upholstery,
carpets, seat belts, headliners, etc. Concealed components include noise vibration
and harness components, tyre cords, composite reinforcements for automotive bod-
ies, rail bodies and components, aircraft bodies, wings, engine components, boat and
yacht components, bodies etc. There is a variety of functions that each transporta-
tion textile can provide. It includes comfort and style for the user, protection against
impact, protection against UV rays, weight-saving factors in the aircraft sector, etc.
(Shishoo 2008; Horrocks 2016).
• Resistance to sunlight and UV radiation

• Resistance to abrasion
• Good strength and modulus,
• Good dimensional stability
• Reduced flammability and heat stability
• Resistant to mildew
• Ease to clean
Mobiltech products can be made from weaving, knitting, non-woven, coated, lami-
nated or other composite processes. Both natural and synthetic fibers are used in
the manufacturing of mobiltech products. Some of the commonly used fibers for
mobiltech products are acrylic, nylon, polyester, PP, polyethylene, aramid, carbon,
glass, wool, hemp, flax, kenaf, sisal, etc.
16.2.9 Oekotech
Oekotech deals with the technical textiles products used for environmental protection.
Oekotech application segment includes concepts in environmental protection, waste
disposal and recycling processes. It refers to the use of geosynthetic products to secure
landfills against leakage of municipal or hazardous waste (Baseline survey 2014).
• Permeable
• Good durability
Oekotech products can be made from weaving, knitting and non-woven processes.
Both natural and synthetic fibers are used in the manufacturing of oekotech products.
Some of the commonly used fibers for oekotech products are acrylic, nylon, polyester,
PP, polyethylene, jute, hemp, flax, kenaf, etc.
16.2.10 Packtech
Packtech deals with the technical textiles products used for packaging applica-
tions. Packtech products include the following: polyolefin woven sacks, flexible
intermediate bulk container, leno bags, jute hessian sacks, tea bags (filter paper), soft
luggage, absorbent meat pad, etc. (Baseline survey 2014).

• Good durability
• Good flexibility
Packtech products can be made from spinning, weaving, knitting and non-woven
processes. Both natural and synthetic fibers are used in the manufacturing of pack-
tech products. Some of the commonly used fibers for packtech products are nylon,
polyester, PP, polyethylene, HDPE, low-density polyethylene (LDPE), jute, etc.
16.2.11 Protech
Protech can be defined as technical textile materials, apparel and equipment that
are used for protecting personnel and equipment from various environmental and
industrial hazards (Scott 2005; Holmes and Horrocks, 2016). The variety of protec-
tive functions that needs to be provided by different textile products is considerable
and diverse. It includes protection against cuts, abrasion, ballistic and other types of
severe impact including stab wounds and explosions, fire and extreme heat, hazard-
ous dust and particles, nuclear, biological and chemical hazards, high voltages and
static electricity, foul weather, extreme cold and poor visibility.
Some of the material requirements are as follows:

• Good durability and flexibility
• Permeable and breathable
• Lightweight and low bulk
• Good handle and drape
• Water repellent and waterproof
• Windproof and snow shedding
• Heat and flame resistant
• Good impact and shock resistant
Protech products can be made from weaving, knitting, non-woven, coated, laminated
or composite processes. Both natural and synthetic fibers are used in the manufactur-
ing of protech products. Some of the commonly used fibers for protech products are
acrylic, nylon, polyester, PP, polyethylene, aramid, PAN, carbon, glass, polybenz-
imidazole, Dyneema®, Kevlar, Spectra®, ultra-high modulus polyethylene, spandex,
flame-resistant cotton/polyester/viscose, wool, cotton, hemp, linen, etc.
16.2.12 Sportech
Sportech deals with technical textile products used for sports purposes (Shishoo
2005). Some of the sportech products are artificial turf, high-performance swimwear
and sportswear, parachute fabrics, sail cloth, sport shoe components, sport compos-
ites, etc.

• Good durability and flexibility
• Permeable and breathable
• Quick drying
• Good elasticity
• Water repellent and windproof
Sportech products can be made from weaving, knitting and braiding processes. Both
natural and synthetic fibers are used in the manufacturing of sportech products.
Some of the commonly used fibers for sportech products are nylon, polyester, PP,
polyethylene, LDPE, spandex, wool, etc.
There are a number of new technical textiles developed each year, and it is not pos-
sible to cover all of them. A few of the recent products from technical textile sectors
are discussed later.
The growing environmental awareness throughout the world has triggered a shift
towards developing environmentally friendly materials from renewable resources
for many industries including buildtech. In a study, Patnaik et al. (2015) developed
alternative technical textiles buildtech materials (Figure 16.4). It was a dual product
capable of performing both thermal and acoustic functions simultaneously. They
studied the sound insulation properties of the needle-punched non-woven techni-
cal textiles developed from waste wool and recycled polyester fibers for buildtech
applications. They developed materials for ceiling applications. The developed sam-
ples that showed good sound absorption properties in an overall frequency range
(50–5,700 Hz). The waste wool samples was absorbing 75% noise, whereas the
recycled polyester samples was absorbing 61% noise in the overall frequency range
(50–5,700 Hz). The thermal insulation properties of the samples were measured in
terms of thermal conductivity. The waste wool samples have lower conductivity
when compared with the recycled polyester samples. As per the authors, these alter-
native materials will contribute to the cost benefit as well as to the green building
initiative through the development of materials from natural and recycled resources.
In a recent study, Ziegle (2017) reported geotech product development in the form
of intelligent geosynthetics with integrated sensory chips. These types of geotex-
tiles have additional features for measuring strains, temperature and environmen-
tal conditions. It helps to detect deformations in geogrid-reinforced structures, and
FIGURE 16.4 Alternative dual insulation buildtech material.
accordingly steps can be taken to prevent any structural problems. Such type of
intelligent materials can be used in slopes that are vulnerable to slippage.
The world’s largest artificial island (Palm Island Jumeirah Dubai) and one
of the biggest-ever land reclamation project (Hong Kong International Airport)
rely on layers of non-woven fabrics for their stability (Geotextile breakthrough
2017). In the Palm Island Jumeirah Dubai, engineered fabrics were used in the
breakwater to separate the rock base from the sand beach. They were also used
for landscaping, drainage and storm water sewer applications. For the expan-
sion of the Hong Kong International Airport, non-woven geotextiles were used
to stabilize the subbase and prevent migration and mingling of materials, while
allowing free movement of water. They were also laid as a filtration layer along
a wide stretch of the coastline. Similarly, in Switzerland, non-woven geotextiles
are used to prevent the melting of glacier ice layers from heat and UV radiations
(Geotextile breakthrough 2017).
The filtration efficiency of conventional indutech products such as non-woven
filters is very good (90% for micron-sized particles). But when the particle sizes are
in the nanometer range, these filters are not effective as the fine particles can pass
FIGURE 16.5 Nanofibre filters capturing dust particles.
through them (Maduna and Patnaik 2017; Zhang et al. 2016). In that case, nanofilters
are very effective in preventing air pollution. Nanofibers have been used in filters for
vehicle cabins, military vehicles, automobile air intakes, etc. (Agboola et al. 2014).
Nanofibers are increasingly used in filtration due to their low basis weight, high spe-
cific surface area, small pore size and high pore interconnectivity.
Nanofiltration involves the use of nanofibres (in the form of a web) in the range of
100–500 nm in diameter (Figure 16.5). The fibrous webs are deposited on the sup-
porting surface to form a thin layer. Because of very fine fibres, the layer was able to
capture nano- and microparticles (Patnaik 2009; Patanaik et al. 2010).
Fiber-optic biomedical sensor (intra-cranial pressure sensor monitoring system) is
increasingly used in the medical diagnostic field (Tosi et al. 2018) including medtech
sector. Smart printed sensors are thinner than human hair and can be transparently
applied to clothing with functional sensors that monitor movement, breathing and
temperature of patients (Wilson 2016). In a report, a medtech non-woven product
Scaffolene™ (bioactive wound treatment) was discussed, which was bioresorbable,
and it requires no changing and will not damage the wound when the dressing is
changed. The 3D structure is suited for regeneration and replacement of deeper
skin structures (Dove 2017). In a study, authors discussed about medtech prostheses
designed for hernia repair from weft knitting process (Miao et al. 2015).
Sustainability is playing a major role with the depletion of fossil-based resources
in many sectors. In the mobiltech, a new yarn known as EqoBalance® PA6 can be
used for automotive carpets, which can contribute to a sustainable future through the
use of less fossil fuel resources and reduced greenhouse gases (EqoBalance 2018).
BMW™ has released a recent development of a soft polymer-based fiber with elec-
trical properties that respond to touch, and the company is planning to install ‘smart
fabric’ seats and console surfaces in future car models (Heinrich 2016). The smart
fabric will allow drivers with the ability to swipe their fingers across the car seat to
tailor the settings of the vehicle radio, heater or air conditioner, or any component
part (Heinrich 2016). A new technology known as WeatherMax® is developed for
marine covers, tops and awnings. A water-repellent, mildew-resistant outdoor fabric

engineered for long-term colour and strength retention is used in marine and other
outdoor applications (WeatherMAX 2016).
In protech applications, electronic devices, sensors and microprocessors are
integrated into the garment during the manufacturing stage to enhance their smart
functionality (Syduzzaman et al. 2015). Wearable technologies in defence textiles
include fabrics that can be used to capture biometric data, such as breathing,
motion or electrocardiography, as well as external factors such as determining
location or detecting chemical gases. Furthermore, fabrics enhanced with sensors
can be developed to change colours, be more sweat-friendly, ballistic-hardened,
or tear and puncture proof depending on the application requirements (Innovation
in Textiles 2017). South Korea’s Kolon Glotech Inc. has a heat-generating protech
clothing that uses a conductive polymer to create heat called Heatex (Heatex 2016).
The fabric heats up uniformly and can be controlled with a smartphone app. It is
used for extreme temperature clothing, where it is difficult to regulate body tem-
perature. Outlast® technologies phase-change materials known as Thermocules™ is
now used in body armour for police officers to offer lighter weight and temperature
regulation (Outlast® Technology 2017). These Thermocules™ can be incorporated
into fabrics and fibers and have the capacity to absorb, store and release excess
heat. As per the claim by the company, any product containing Outlast® technology
has the ability to continually regulate skin’s microclimate. As the skin gets hot, the
heat is absorbed by the Thermocules™, and as it cools, that heat is released by the
Thermocules™.
In sportech area, Speedo’s Fastskin® technology is built with speed and agility in
mind, and it is inspired by the sleek, hydrodynamic properties of sharkskin (Speedo
Fastskin® 2016). The swimsuit was developed by using V-shaped fibers that mimic
the ridges found on the skin of a shark. It is worn by many well-known swim-
mers, and the Fastskin® reduces drag by 4% and therefore increases the speed of
swimmers.

The global technical textile market is estimated around US$ 165.51 billion in 2017
and is expected to reach around US$ 203.7 billion by 2022. Since 2017, the com-
pound annual growth rate (CAGR) is at 5.89%. It is expected that the global mar-
ket will grow at 4.9% CAGR from 2018 to 2023 (www.textilematex.com 2018).
In another report, the global technical textile market is expected to reach $260.3
billion by 2027 from $166 billion in 2017 with a CAGR of 4.6% from 2017 to 2027
(Technical Textiles Market 2018). In terms of volume, the global market demand for
technical textiles was around 26.6 million tons in 2014. It is forecasted that, in 2022,
the market demand will be around 35.5 million tons with a forecasted CAGR of 3.7%
(Market Demand of Technical Textiles 2017). Another report suggested that demand
for technical textiles was around 34 million tons in 2017 with a forecasted growth of
57 million tons by the end of 2027 (Technical Textiles Market 2018). The CAGR for
the forecasted period (2017–2027) will be around 5.3%. Major growths are expected
in mobiltech, bulidtech and medtech segments (Credence Research 2018).
The Asia-Pacific region is the fastest growing region that is expected to grow at
a CAGR of 7.8% from 2016 to 2022. It is followed by Europe and North America
in the forecast period (Prasad 2018). Key factors driving the growth in the Asia-
Pacific region are rising disposable incomes, rapid infrastructural development and
urbanization, rising healthcare expenditure, etc. (Global Technical Textile Market
2018–2023).
16.5 SUMMARY
Technical textiles are used in every sphere of life, whether it is in the medical field,
in common household applications or in transportation sectors. The flexibility of raw
materials along with different manufacturing methods are some of the main reasons
for a diversified product range. Most of the new developments are happening in smart
and green technical textiles as per the shift towards sustainable and green materials.
With the introduction of additive manufacturing like 3D printing, where a product
can be produced with desired properties with a faster turnaround time, it will be one
of the process that will be widely used in technical textiles in coming years. The Asia-
Pacific is the fastest growing region for the technical textile products, with major
growths expected in mobiltech, buildtech and medtech segments from 2016 to 2022.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the sources for granting permission to reproduce some
figures used in this chapter.
This work is based on the research supported in part by the National Research
Foundation (NRF) of South Africa (Grant unique reference number: 104840). Any
opinion, finding and conclusion or recommendation expressed in this material is that
of the author, and the NRF does not accept any liability in this regard.
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17 Smart Textiles and
Recent Developments
Sweta Patnaik
CONTENTS
17.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 331
17.2 Origin of Smart Textiles................................................................................ 331
17.3 Applications................................................................................................... 333
17.3.1 Are Smart Fabrics the Future of Fashion?......................................... 334
17.4 Recent Application on Smart Textiles........................................................... 335
17.4.1 Processing Technical Textiles............................................................ 336
17.4.2 Industrial-Type Production of Smart Textiles.................................... 336
17.4.3 Customization of Apparel.................................................................. 336
17.5 Risks Involved in Using Smart Textiles/Fabrics............................................340
17.6 Summary and Conclusion..............................................................................340
References............................................................................................................... 341
17.1 INTRODUCTION
The continual shrinkage of the textile industry in the western world has amply
raised interest in intelligent/smart textiles. The amalgamation of electronic com-
ponents and advanced fibres with man-made textiles extends the fields of material
science and digital electronics, which results in an outcome named ‘smart textiles’
or (intelligent textiles) which falls into the category of intelligent materials that sense
and respond to stimuli. Weaving functional components into conventional textiles
resulted in smart textiles, which can generate and store energy, sense and respond
to environmental stimuli or even communicate with users (Jost et al. 2014; Di et al.
2016; Sanatgar et al. 2017b).
17.2 ORIGIN OF SMART TEXTILES

Textiles that are able to sense stimuli from the environment, react to them and adapt
to them by the amalgamation of various functionalities in the textile structure. The
stimulus can range from electrical, thermal, chemical, magnetic or other origin.
Advanced materials, such as breathing, fire-resistant or ultra-strong fabrics, are
according to this definition of smart textiles not considered as intelligent, no matter
how high-technological they might be. The first textile material that, in retroaction,
was labelled as a ‘smart textile’ was a silk thread having a shape memory.
331
According to the idtechex (2017), at the end of the 19th century, as people devel-
oped and grew accustomed to electric appliances, designers and engineers began
to combine electricity with clothing and jewellery, developing a series of illumi-
nated and motorized necklaces, hats, brooches and costumes. In 1968, the Museum
of Contemporary Craft in New York City held a ground-breaking exhibition called
Body Covering that focused on the relationship between technology and apparel.
In 1985, inventor Harry Wainwright created the first fully animated sweatshirt.
The shirt consisted of fibre optics, leads and a microprocessor to control individual
frames of animation. The result was a full colour cartoon displayed on the surface
of the shirt. In 1995, Wainwright went on to invent the first machine enabling fibre
optics to be machined into fabrics, the process needed for manufacturing enough
for mass markets and, in 1997, hired a German machine designer, Herbert Selbach,
from Selbach Machinery to produce the world’s first computer numerical control
(CNC) machine able to automatically implant fibre optics into any flexible material.
Receiving the first of a dozen patents based on light-emitting diode (LED)/optic
displays and machinery in 1989, the first CNC machine went into production in 1998
beginning with the production of animated coats for Disney Parks in 1998. The first
electrocardiogram (ECG) bio-physical display jackets employing LED/optic displays
were created by Wainwright and David Bychkov, using sensors in a watch connected
via Bluetooth to the embedded machine-washable display in a denim jacket and
were demonstrated at the Smart Fabrics Conference held in Washington, D.C., 7
May 2007. Additional smart fabric technologies were unveiled by Wainwright at two
Flextech Flexible Display conferences held in Phoenix, AZ, showing infrared digital
displays machine-embedded into fabrics for Identification of Friend or Foe, which
were submitted to BAE Systems (Marconi Electronic Systems [MES] and British
Aerospace [BAe] merged to form BAE Systems) for evaluation in 2006 and won an
‘Honourable Mention’ award from National Aeronautics and Space Administration
in 2010 on their Tech Briefs, ‘Design the Future’ contest. Massachusetts Institute
of Technology (MIT) personnel purchased several fully animated coats for their
researchers to wear at their demonstrations in 1999 to bring attention to their
‘Wearable Computer’ research. Wainwright was commissioned to speak at the
Textile and Colorists Conference in Melbourne, Australia on 5 June 2012, where
he was requested to demonstrate his fabric creations that change colour using any
smartphone, indicate callers on mobile phones without a digital display and contain
wireless fidelity security features that protect purses and personal items from theft.
In the mid-1990s, a team of MIT researchers led by Steve Mann, Thad Starner
and Sandy Pentland began to develop what they termed wearable computers. These
devices consisted of traditional computer hardware attached to and carried on the
body. In response to technical, social and design challenges faced by these research-
ers, another group at MIT, that included Maggie Orth and Rehmi Post, began to
explore how such devices might be more gracefully integrated into clothing and
other soft substrates. Among other developments, this team explored integrating
digital electronics with conductive fabrics and developed a method for embroidering
electronic circuits. One of the first commercially available wearable Arduino-based
microcontrollers, called the Lilypad Arduino, was also created at the MIT Media
Lab by Leah Buechley. Fashion houses like CuteCircuit are utilizing e-textiles for
Smart Textiles and Recent Developments 333
their haute couture collections and specialty projects. CuteCircuit’s Hug Shirt allows
the user to send electronic hugs through sensors within the garment.
In the wearable computing arena, smart textile applications range from medi-
cal monitoring of physiological signals (Paradiso et al. 2005), including heart rate
(Cheng et al. 2008), guided training and rehabilitation of athletes (Mattman et al.
2007) and to assist for emergency first responders (Axisa et al. 2003) and to commer-
cial applications where electronics including iPod controls, displays and keyboards
are integrated into everyday clothing (Jung et al. 2003).
In the past decade, smart textiles research has been constantly pacing up, yet
it’s still a mechanically demanding environment that electronic circuits face during
integration into textiles and also its subsequent wearing of the smart textile inside
clothing. To maintain essential textile properties such as drapeability, smart tex-
tiles are evolving to integrate more electronic functions at the fibre level (Wagner
et al. 2002), but most fibres are limited to a single functionality, i.e. electrical con-
ductivity. This material was used in textiles by coating or encapsulation to make
thermo-regulated smart textiles for cold environment, which grew interest among
researchers. Temperature-sensitive polyurethane is a novel type of smart polymer.
The water vapour permeability of its membrane could undergo a significant increase
within a predetermined temperature. This material can be employed in the textile
industry, medicine, environmental fields and so on. Such smart textiles would not
only be waterproof but also provide variation in breathability. Tremendous efforts
toward smart textiles and wearable devices have been made regarding developing
coated energy textiles (Jost et al. 2014), fibre devices and device knitting (Liu et al.
2012). Among the investigated fibres used for fabricating functional devices, carbon
nanotube fibres integrate various novel properties, such as high mechanical strength,
extraordinary structural flexibility, high thermal and electrical conductivities, novel
corrosion and oxidation resistivities and high surface area, which make them ideal
for smart textiles (Di et al. 2016).
17.3 APPLICATIONS
Smart textile products meet all criteria of high-added value technology, allowing a
transformation to a competitive high-tech industry:
• From resource-based towards knowledge-based

• From quantity to quality
• From mass-produced single-use products to manufactured-on-demand,
multi-use and upgradable product services
• From ‘material and tangible’ to ‘intangible’ value-added products, p rocesses
and services.
An overview of the smart textiles application is depicted in Figure 17.1. Smart tex-
tiles using flexible integrated pressure sensors have many potential applications
(Carvalho et al. 2017; Tama et al. 2017; Gomes et al. 2018). In the medical field, these
products may be used for measuring the pressure applied to the body via garments,
namely hosiery or bandages for varicose veins or leg ulcers (Baldoli et al. 2016),
FIGURE 17.1 Overview of smart textile applications.
determining the suitability of a wheelchair cushion (Bosowski et al. 2015), moni-

toring the wearer’s respiration (Brady et al. 2005), etc. In sports science, there are
applications in martial arts to measure the impact (Cowie et al. 2009; Del Vecchio
et al. 2011; Mcloughlin et al. 2013) or monitor the performance of muscles during
exercise (Zhou et al. 2016). Also, in home automation, objects with a textile base
cause an increased interest in creating new sensor and controller products (Ojuroye
et al. 2017). While such smart textiles are not commercially available yet due to vari-
ous challenges of textile and device integration and development of suitable func-
tional fibre devices, their bright future has attracted considerable research interest.
There are non-woven protective garments that are used in a variety of applications
such as asbestos and lead abatement, pest control and control of hazardous waste
(Mondal 2008). The construction of non-wovens used in such garments provides a
high barrier function against the penetration by dust, liquids or gases. The combi-
nation of three-dimensional (3D) printing production processes and nanomaterials
have the potential to resolve this challenge and help to create an efficient production
technology for smart textiles (Sanatgar et al. 2017a). This technology can be used in
smart bandages, safety equipment for military use, virtual reality (VR) gloves, wear-
able with sensor and heat properties, medical needs, automotive and more (Sanatgar
et al. 2017b).
17.3.1 Are Smart Fabrics the Future of Fashion?

High quality fabrics that last a long time are hard to find these days. Many gar-
ments only last a few washes. Whether for performance or aesthetic reasons, the
focus within the textile area is on smart fabrics – from those that change their hue
to those that regulate body temperature. Researchers are developing smart fabrics
that do things that traditional fabrics cannot. Smart clothes in the future could have
self-healing properties. If one falls and grazes his/her skin, the technology woven
into the fabric one is wearing will treat the skin. Fabrics interwoven with technology
are becoming a reality. In the future, likely to be 5–10 years away, smart clothes will
monitor our health and help keep us stay healthy and fit. Textiles will warn us about
impending epileptic seizures. The bras can already contain a heart rate sensor. There
could be advantages to using garments rather than attaching gadgets, as some of the
sensors need to be placed in exact positions on the body.
Project Jacquard, run by Google’s Advanced Technologies and Projects unit,
weaves technology into fabric to give it conductive and interactive properties. Google
has collaborated with Levi’s, a smart jacket that will enable cyclists to brush their
fingers on the fabric of their jacket to check the time or play their music (https://atap.
google.com/jacquard/).
In 2017, University of Manchester’s National Graphene Institute produced a dress
in collaboration with wearable tech company CuteCircuit. The dress is made with
a fabric that has ‘wonder material’ graphene that causes the dress to change colour
according to the wearer’s breathing patterns. A key factor in this technology is sus-
tainable materials. Plant-based fibres that use the latest technologies will help manu-
facturers produce innovative hybrid fabrics (https://cutecircuit.com). Developments
such as Stella McCartney’s Skin-free Skin illustrate the elevations in faux leather
quality, increasing their viability as an alternative to animal hides at designer level.
17.4 RECENT APPLICATION ON SMART TEXTILES

Individualization, automation and digitalization, and micro-factories are the way
forward for the future of clothing production, and that will be the main theme of
Texprocess, which takes place in Frankfurt, from 14 to 17 May 2019. In a total of four
micro-factories at the upcoming Texprocess, trade visitors will be able to get an idea
of how integrated textile processing works and where micro-factories are already
being used (innovationtextiles.com 2019). One can send their favourite design to the
manufacturer today via an app and wear their individually designed, perfectly fitting
trainers or shirt the next day. Behind it, however, lies a host of complex processes,
involving production, processing and logistics. Micro-factories, based on networked
and integrated procedures, represent a progressive way of making textile processing
quicker, more flexible and, because it is more local, also more sustainable; whilst, at
the same time, producing personalized products. Texprocess, in collaboration with
the German Institutes of Textile and Fibre Research in Denkendorf and partners from
industry, will be presenting a Digital Textile Micro-Factory display – and thus fully
networked production chains. New this year, the Digital Textile Micro-Factory will
showcase three production lines – one for apparel manufacture, one for 3D-knitted
shoes and one for processing technical textiles, largely for the motor-vehicle and
furniture industries.
The fashion industry plays a central role in the Digital Textile Micro-Factory. The
customer’s digital doppelganger is becoming more and more important in develop-
ment departments in the apparel industry, as the starting point for individualized
and perfectly fitting clothes and for links with finishing departments (innovation-
textiles.com 2019). In the context of the micro-factory’s production line, it is the
key feature. The production line demonstrates the various stages involved, including
computer-aided design (CAD)/design, printing, cutting out, assembly, finishing and

labelling. New approaches also combine 3D simulations of clothing with direct data
transfer in VR and augmented reality (AR). Instead of presenting the customer with
physical examples of the clothing to be produced, the examples are visualized as
virtual objects. And during the production process, the customer has the opportunity
for direct input into the design of the product in question. This direct interaction
between the 3D simulation of an item, the representation in VR/AR displayed on the
customer’s own hardware and the direct impact on the production process has never
been shown before in this way.
17.4.1 Processing Technical Textiles

Industry 4.0 is the focus of the third production line of the Digital Textile Micro-
Factory 2019 on the automated processing of technical textiles, personalized textiles
for the individual customers and taking the customer right through to the finished
product. On-demand inkjet printing and networked machines with integrated sen-
sors are linked through an interconnected system – a future-oriented topic for inte-
grated manufacturing. A robot arm with a special claw for use with textiles sorts the
cut items as they emerge from the cutter in a free-moving open shuttle. The items
to be sewn are conveyed automatically to the sewing stations. Tracing and tracking
procedures show the progress of each order through the individual stages of the
manufacturing process using auto identification (innovationtextiles.com 2019).
17.4.2 Industrial-Type Production of Smart Textiles

In their Smart Textiles Micro-Factory, the Institute for Textile Technology at the
Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule Aachen University will be produc-
ing a smart pillow, which, with the help of integrated LEDs, provides new ways
of interaction. With this demonstration, the partners in the project will present an
industrial-style manufacturing process for a smart textile from design to finished
product.
17.4.3 Customization of Apparel
Six companies have grouped together under the World of Digital Fashion umbrella.
They work in areas of visualization, CAD-cutting systems, automated body mea-
surement, cutting out and process automation. Together, they will be showcasing
ways of integrating and combining their products in a variety of workflows within
the value creation chain and will enable visitors to experience what the digital pro-
cess chain is like in practice. The focus will fall particularly on the customization of
apparel and fashion items.
The development of advanced textiles for specific applications, such as extreme
sports, eventually finds its way to street fashion, where designers are allowed the cre-
ativity of experimenting with these new emerging materials. Microfibres, for exam-
ple, were initially developed for space and military applications, and are now used
in sportswear, interior fabrics and fashion (Braddock and O’Mahony 2005). Eleksen
has developed fabric touchpads integrated into jackets for more accessible control of
MP3 players. Another producer of electronic textiles, Textronics, developed fabrics
that can warm, illuminate, conduct and sense. One of those developments was the
heart rate monitoring sports bra, which had sensors that link wirelessly to a heart rate
monitoring watch (Wallace et al. 2007). To add antibacterial properties, nano-sized
silver, titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are used. Antimicrobial coatings are widely
applied to socks in order to prohibit the growth of bacteria, but their uses also extend
from wound dressings to home furnishings, carpets and clothing (Ramachandran
et al. 2004). Another innovation for such purposes is superhydrophobic self-cleaning
surfaces. It was used to resist spills, repel and release stains and resist static (Nano-
tex press release 2005), leading to improvement in performance and durability of
everyday apparel and interior furnishings. Another was the Lumalive fabric from
Philips, featuring flexible arrays of coloured LEDs fully integrated within the fabric.
These textiles are designed to enhance the observer’s mood and positively influence
his or her behaviour (Philips research press release 2006).
The ‘The Global Market for Wearables and Smart Textiles to 2027’ report has
been added to ResearchAndMarkets.com’s states: The number and variety of wear-
able electronic devices and smart textiles has increased significantly in the past few
years, as they offer significant enhancements to human comfort, health and well-
being. Wearable low-power silicon electronics, LEDs fabricated on fabrics, textiles
with integrated lithium-ion batteries and electronic devices such as smart glasses,
watches and lenses have been widely investigated and commercialized (e.g. Google
glass, Apple Watch).
Advances in smart electronics enable wearable sensor devices, and there are a
number of devices that are near or already on the market. Textile manufacturers have
brought sensor-based smart textiles products to the market, mainly for the collec-
tion of biodata (e.g. heart rate, body temperature, etc.) and in workplace safety. The
use of textiles as smart devices themselves also presents significant advantages over
watches and wristbands in terms of long-term use. Despite considerable research
and development investment, most current wearables do not use flexible or printed
components; instead, they rely on conventional components from mobile devices.
Most currently available wearable technology is based on rigid components. Flexible
electronics offers conformable, adaptable and immersive wearable devices. Recent
advancements in flexible and stretchable electronics enabled by advanced materials
provide viable solutions to bio-integrated wearable electronics.
Printed electronics and energy harvesting technologies are evolving to meet the
demands of new, wearable formats. Next-generation wearables will rely on active
fabrics made by weaving conductor, insulator and semiconductor fibres sparsely into
textile yarn. Fabrics woven from such yarns will enable electronic functions that
seamlessly integrate into everyday comfortable and lightweight clothing. Sensor tat-
toos and wearable motion charging devices are now in early commercial stages.
There is increasing demand for wearable electronics from industries such as
• Medical and healthcare monitoring and diagnostics.

• Sportswear and fitness monitoring (bands).
• Consumer electronics such as smart watches, smart glasses and headsets.
• Military global positioning system (GPS) trackers, equipment (helmets) and

wearable robots.
• Smart apparel and footwear in fashion and sport.
• Workplace safety and manufacturing.
One of the most common applications of smart textiles is in the area of health and
fitness management. DuPont Advanced Material’s (DuPont) Intexar smart clothing
technology is capable of sensing and reporting heart rate, breathing rate, form aware-
ness and muscle tension (https://electronicmaterials.dupont.com/intexar). For exam-
ple, OMsignal, a Canadian smart textiles manufacturer, uses IntexarTM technology
in their line of fitness bras. These bras capture and report the biometric informa-
tion of the wearer to a smartphone app (www.omsignal.com). Health management
is important in all stages of life. Owlet has created a smart sock, particularly for
babies (owletcare.com/products/smart-sock-). The sock works with Owlet’s smart-
phone app, which allows caretakers to have a constant and accurate reading of the
baby’s heart rate and oxygen level with the help of a pulse device positioned within
the sock. The date is transmitted to a base station, where a green light remains lit as
long as the measured parameters remain within the desired range.
The electrical devices have applications in designing smart clothing for use in
entertainment and comfort. Prototypes of fabrics with implanted MP3 players,
LED and organic LED (OLED) textile displays, GPS technology and the ability to
accept or dismiss phone calls have been demonstrated in the recent years (Cochrane
et al. 2011; atap.google.com/jacquard/). It has been shown that it is possible to place
microphones and speakers into clothing, allowing the possibility of voice recogni-
tion technology or gesture-activated technologies, which allows for commands given
to the clothing to perform desired tasks.
JacquardTM by Google is a technology that interacts with the smartphone, and
the technology has been implemented in the Levi’s CommuterTM Trucker Jacket (as
shown in the later figure) (atap.google.com/jacquard/). This jacket allows the user to
manage calls, texts, GPS and music without the need to actually pick up the smart-
phone (Figure 17.2). The jacket has LED lights and vibration options to communi-
cate alerts, and it even has the capability to read out messages. A removable snaptag
FIGURE 17.2 JacquardTM by Google, a fashionable smart jacket capable of managing calls,
texts, location and music. (Source: atap.google.com/jacquard/.)
is placed on the sleeve of the jacket, which is capable of recognizing gestures to

control the technology.
Smart textiles are a big concern, especially in laboratory and industrial settings.
To increase workplace safety is by making the fabric material anti-static. These
smart anti-static materials can be utilized to make garments with extended life and
durability. SophitexLtd is a company that focuses on creating woven and knitted
electronic discharge fabrics.
Radio frequency identification brand label technology, which is sewn onto cloth-
ing products that is resistant to hand wash and dry cleaning, discourages theft
through its built-in electronic article surveillance technology to be able to identify
the exact number of products that has been purchased, speeding up checkout and
return procedures (textrace.com).
With the usage of fibres that can contract and expand with heat, shape-changing
smart textiles can be created. GradeZero Espace is a company that has created fab-
ric using an alloy of nickel and titanium, which has shape memory and superelastic
properties (gradezero.eu).
One of the least common application of smart textiles in personal health is aroma-
therapy. Dr Jenny Tillotson’s EScent technology emits various fragrances and essen-
tial oils that helps in the overall well-being of the wearer, like allergies, wearer’s
mental state, etc. (Pailes-Friedman 2016).
Temperature control is considered as a common consideration in smart textile
production. Companies like DuPont, Wendu and Under Armour have come up with
concepts that provide the wearer with performance measures such as temperature
control, sweat wicking, staying dry, increased comfort and performance. The smart
shoe by Under Armour can be connected to the smartphone app that tracks the
details such as pace, cadence, stride length and distance travelled.
Medical applications of wearable smart textiles in the current world are limitless
and endless. There are humidity and temperature sensor to analyze the condition of
the patient. Many universities are globally working to produce clothes that allow for
higher individual comfort levels and decrease the need for large amounts of heating
and air conditioning and also to implement control systems by developing wireless
charging systems (arpa-e.energy). Fabric electrodes used to monitor ECG have been
successfully implanted into wearable shirts that allow for monitoring of medical
patients over a period of time. Piezoresistive fabric sensors that have been knitted
into shirts have been used to collect respiratory signals.
The effectiveness of prostheses can be analyzed using sensors to record the
amount and pattern of movement in rehabilitation patients. For example, the move-
ment of a prosthetic arm can be analyzed directly or in comparison to the movement
in the patient’s other arm (Bonato 2005).
Researchers at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University in Hong Kong, China,
considered wearable smart textiles for phototherapy. For this purpose, they used
side-emitting polymer optical fibre (POF). Using LED light sources and POF, they
developed ‘a flexible luminous fabric device for wearable 3D fitted low-level light
therapy’ (Shen et al. 2013).
Ping is a concept garment that was designed by Jennifer Darmour, which
allows the wearer to connect to and communicate to Facebook through a garment
(electricfoxy.com/ping). The prototype garment, a sleeveless hoodie, senses the

wearer’s motions and translates them into messages to be sent online.
Light is very important in smart clothing. Other than illuminating, it is possible to
create clothing that charges electrical devices. Photovoltaic textiles that absorb light
energy carry the potential to charge electrical devices (Overton 2018). MicroLED
technology has been considered as the illumination technology for wearable smart
textiles. MicroLEDs have the potential to serve in a more energy-efficient way to
create flexible fabric displays when compared with LEDs and OLEDs (Overton
2018). Companies that invested in MicroLED technology include Apple (Lux Vue),
Facebook (Oculus), Samsung and Song (eeNews Europe 2018).
17.5 RISKS INVOLVED IN USING SMART TEXTILES/FABRICS

The obvious flip side of using smart fabrics is the potential misuse of their capa-
bilities. For example, networked clothes are perennially at risk of being misused,
defaced and otherwise exploited by hackers. There is also the permanent risk of
unwanted or unintended body surveillance and the erosion of any remaining sense
of privacy. The ability to, as it were, switch off the fabric by the end user is essential,
but may not be sufficient, since the entire garment may act as an antenna. The social
implications of a pervasive internet in which humans mediated through clothing
promise to redefine fundamental assumptions about social relationships and raise
new questions about privacy, ownership of data and the trade-off between utility and
security.
One of the challenges for the manufacture of smart fabrics is achieving a seamless
and invisible integration of the electronics into the fabric. Consequently, material
researchers need to produce fibres with the desired electronic functionality without
compromising strength, comfort, and aesthetic appeal. At the same time, the devel-
opment of these electronic textiles forces a rethinking of the design choices adopted
in implementing electronic circuits and communication systems for optimum perfor-
mance. In particular, the antenna system required for the transmission of data devi-
ates from convention. There are also implications for the sensing of computational
and storage units.

Developments in smart textiles may affect many aspects of our daily lives and pro-
duce clothing that is contextually aware. Smart textiles have a large range of appli-
cations, often starting as a highly specialized application before becoming a more
generally available consumer product. A number of researches and developments
were conducted in areas such as advanced materials, polymers, microelectronics,
computers and information technology. These are all done for the development and
advancement of new materials and better communication. Textiles are also chang-
ing day by day. The hybridization of textiles and electronics brought changes in the
interactive textiles. The developing field of smart textiles could show a lot of new
things in all its applications. It has importance for medicine and healthcare, protec-
tive clothings and in the casual clothings and life-saving products.
As smart textile technologies became increasingly advanced in recent years, new

applications have come to light. Smartphone to clothing communication is becom-
ing increasingly popular versus other methods of reporting data from sensors within
wearable smart textiles. Companies including Wendu, Google and Apple have imple-
mented some form of smartphone app for easy viewing and analysis of reported data.
Wearable smart textiles are becoming increasingly advanced, popular and helpful
in both everyday clothing and work wear, even though they are still being improved
and developed.
Implementation of wearable smart textiles in the workplace increases the overall
safety through the use of anti-static and conductive properties. It has been shown to
enhance the functionality of the wearer in everyday life, with designs and concepts
that are being widely adopted and accepted. LED and OLED displays have been
used to increase the visual appeal of clothing.
Without causing an increase in bulk, it is important to consider how the integrated
electronics impact the comfort and appearance of the base clothing. With companies
starting to design smart clothing for everyday use, it is not farfetched to believe that
smart clothing will continue to become more advanced and seamless.
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18 Nanotextiles and
Recent Developments
Rajkishore Nayak
RMIT University Vietnam
Asimananda Khandual
College of Engineering & Technology (BPUT)
CONTENTS
18.1 Introduction..................................................................................................346
18.2 Electrospinning............................................................................................ 347
18.2.1 Types of Electrospinning.................................................................348
18.2.2 Solution Electrospinning.................................................................348
18.2.2.1 High Voltage Power Supply..............................................348
18.2.2.2 Syringe..............................................................................348
18.2.2.3 Collector...........................................................................348
18.2.2.4 Working Principles of Solution Electrospinning.............. 349
18.2.3 Melt Electrospinning....................................................................... 349
18.2.3.1 High Voltage Supply......................................................... 350
18.2.3.2 Heating Assembly............................................................. 350
18.2.3.3 Syringe Pump.................................................................... 351
18.2.3.4 Collector........................................................................... 351
18.3 Modifications of Electrospinning................................................................. 352
18.3.1 Multi-Jets from Single Needle......................................................... 352
18.3.2 Multi-Jets from Multiple Needles.................................................... 352
18.3.3 Multi-jets from Needleless Systems................................................ 353
18.3.4 Bubble Electrospinning................................................................... 354
18.3.5 Electroblowing................................................................................. 355
18.3.6 Electrospinning by Porous Hollow Tube......................................... 356
18.3.7 Electrospinning by Microfluidic Manifold...................................... 357
18.3.8 Roller Electrospinning..................................................................... 358
18.4 Melt Blowing............................................................................................... 358
18.5 Template Melt-Extrusion.............................................................................360
18.6 Flash Spinning.............................................................................................360
18.7 Bi-Component Spinning.............................................................................. 361
18.8 Other Approaches......................................................................................... 362
18.8.1 Comparisons of different processes.................................................364
18.9 Properties of Nanofibres..............................................................................364
18.9.1 Thermal Properties........................................................................... 365
345
18.9.2 Mechanical Properties..................................................................... 365

18.9.3 Electrical Properties......................................................................... 365
18.10 Applications of Nanofibres........................................................................ 365
18.10.1 Biomedical Applications................................................................ 365
18.10.2 Electronic Applications.................................................................. 366
18.10.3 Nanofibre Sensors.......................................................................... 366
18.10.4 Filter Applications......................................................................... 366
18.10.5 Protective Textile Materials........................................................... 367
18.11 Nanocomposites......................................................................................... 367
18.12 Synthesis of Nanocomposites.................................................................... 368
18.12.1 Melt Intercalation........................................................................... 368
18.12.2 In Situ Polymerization................................................................... 368
18.12.3 Solution Exfoliation....................................................................... 368
18.13 Classification of Nanocomposites.............................................................. 369
18.13.1 Intercalated Nanocomposites......................................................... 369
18.13.2 Flocculated Nanocomposites......................................................... 369
18.13.3 Exfoliated Nanocomposites........................................................... 369
18.14 Characterization of Nanocomposites......................................................... 370
18.15 Properties of Nanocomposites................................................................... 370
18.15.1 Thermal Properties......................................................................... 370
18.15.2 Mechanical Properties................................................................... 371
18.15.3 Electrical Properties....................................................................... 371
18.15.4 Barrier Properties........................................................................... 371
18.15.5 Rheological Properties................................................................... 371
18.16 Conclusion and Future Directions............................................................. 372
References............................................................................................................... 372
18.1 INTRODUCTION
The fabrication of nanofibres has been given much attention by many researchers
in the last three decades. Nanofibres are fibres with diameters of 100 nm or less
(Ramakrishna et al. 2005), which have characteristic features such as extremely
small pore dimensions, large surface-area-to-volume ratio and superior mechanical
properties (Huang et al. 2003). Therefore, nanofibres have a wide range of appli-
cations in areas such as high-performance filtration, tissue engineering, wound
dressing, vascular grafts, energy storage, battery separators, enzyme immobiliza-
tion, electrochemical sensing, composite materials, reinforcements and blood vessel
engineering (Huang et al. 2014; Nayak 2017; Kadam et al. 2016; Patanaik et al. 2007).
The existing fibre spinning technologies for synthetic fibrous materials cannot
produce robust fibres with diameters lower than 2 µm due to technical limitations
(Nayak 2012). Electrospinning is the process widely used for the fabrication of nano-
fibres, as it is simple and suitable for a variety of polymers. Other processes that can
be used for nanofibre fabrication include melt blowing (Nayak et al. 2012a, 2012b),
flash spinning (Xia et al. 2015), bi-component spinning (Chen et al. 2014), force
spinning (Hammami et al. 2014), phase separation (Deka et al. 2010) and drawing
(Suzuki and Arino 2012).
Nanotextiles and Recent Developments 347
This chapter investigates various fabrication techniques used for nanofibres.

Among different fabrication techniques, electrospinning has been covered in detail,
including its variations. In addition, the other fabrication techniques such as melt
spinning, wet spinning, melt blowing, force spinning, drawing and template syn-
theses are also discussed. The properties and applications of nanofibres in different
fields have also been discussed. This chapter also briefly discusses nanocomposites
and their synthesis by various techniques. Characterization, properties and applica-
tions of nanocomposites have also been discussed.
18.2 ELECTROSPINNING
Electrospinning or electrostatic spinning is the most common method used to fabri-
cate nanofibres. The origin of electrospinning as a viable technique for the produc-
tion of nanofibres can be traced back to Formalas patent in 1934 (Formalas 1934).
The work was based on the effect of electrostatic force on liquids, i.e. when a suitably
electrically charged material is brought near a droplet of liquid held in a fine capil-
lary, it forms a cone shape and small jets may be ejected from the tip of the cone if
the charge density is very high.
The schematic of an electrospinning device is shown in Figure 18.1a. Generally,
in electrospinning, a liquid droplet is delivered to the tip of a capillary. When an
electric field is applied, charges accumulate on the surface of the pendant droplet
formed at the tip of the capillary and create an instability that deforms the hemi-
spherical droplet into a conical shape, referred to as a Taylor cone (Pantano et al.
1994; Taylor 1969). At this stage, there is a competition between the Coulombic
repulsion of alike charges favouring droplet distortion and surface tension oppos-
ing droplet division. When the applied electric field strength is sufficiently high, a
liquid jet is continuously ejected from the apex of the cone and travels towards the
grounded plate as a barely visible nanoscale fibre (Figure 18.1b). The high charge
density on the surface of the fine jet leads to electrical instability, making it whip
around rapidly. The jet diameter decreases due to stretching (whipping) and evapo-
ration of the solvent.
FIGURE 18.1 Schematic diagram of (a) electrospinning device (Source: Nayak 2017.
Polypropylene nanofibres: Melt electrospinning versus melt blowing. Springer) and (b) Taylor
cone.
18.2.1 Types of Electrospinning
Electrospinning can be classified into two groups: solution electrospinning and melt
electrospinning, based on the nature of the polymer used (Liu et al. 2010). In the last
two decades, research activities in electrospinning have mainly focused on solution
electrospinning (Watanabe et al. 2011; Bhattarai et al. 2005; Choi et al. 2004; Min
et al. 2004), whereas, there are few works reported on melt electrospinning (Dalton
et al. 2007; 2008; Chen et al. 2007). However, solution electrospinning of polyole-
fins, including polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP), has been limited due to
high solvent resistance and high electrical resistivity (Watanabe et al. 2011). The
following section discusses on both types of electrospinning.
18.2.2 Solution Electrospinning
In solution electrospinning, the polymer is dissolved in a suitable solvent, and the
resultant solution is used for electrospinning. In this method, a high voltage is applied
to the polymeric solution and the collector is grounded. When the charges exceed the
threshold, a fluid jet is ejected from the tip of the needle and forms a Taylor cone. This
jet travels towards the grounded collector and gets deposited on the collector surface.
The nanofibres deposited on the collector are randomly arranged on the surface. The
nanofibres can also be aligned in a specific direction by adopting various techniques.
Figure 18.1a shows the basic setup for a solution electrospinning equipment. The
basic setup used for electrospinning is very simple in construction, which consists of
three major components namely: high voltage power supply, syringe and collector.
Though many researchers use the setup as shown in Figure 18.1a, some researchers
modify to generate a wide variety of fine fibres.
18.2.2.1 High Voltage Power Supply

Normally, direct current (DC) is used as the source of power supply, though there is
feasibility of using alternating current (AC). Very high voltage (usually in the range
of 1–30 kV) is required for electrospinning. The polarity of the electrospinning sys-
tem is arbitrary and can be reversed depending on the polymer type and final product
(Dalton et al. 2007). Free charges are induced to the polymer solution through an
immersed electrode. The charged ions of the polymer solution move in response to
the external applied electric field towards the collector of opposite polarity.
18.2.2.2 Syringe
The syringe or pipette is a very fine capillary tube. It holds the polymer solution into
which a metal electrode is inserted. It is mounted horizontally or vertically on an
adjustable electrically insulating stand. The spinneret is connected to the syringe at
one end. During the spinning process, the syringe pump is used to supply polymer at
a constant and controllable rate (Nayak 2017).
18.2.2.3 Collector
The collector or the collecting surface is used to collect the electrospun fibres.
Surfaces of different geometry and configurations are used to alter the alignment of
nanofibres. The collector is mounted on an insulating stand so that its potential can
be controlled (Nayak 2017).
18.2.2.4 Working Principles of Solution Electrospinning

The polymer solution held in the syringe is electrified by the application of a very
high voltage, and the charges are evenly distributed on the surface. When an electric
field is applied to the end of the capillary tube, a charge is induced on the surface of
the liquid. Now the polymer drop that is held by its surface tension at the tip of the
spinneret experiences an electrostatic repulsion force between the surface charges
and the columbic force exerted by an external electric field (Watanabe et al. 2011;
Bhattarai et al. 2005). As the electric field intensity is increased, the repulsion force
is increased, which distorts the hemispherical liquid drop into a conical form com-
monly known as Taylor cone (Figure 18.1b).
When the electric field reaches a threshold value at which the repulsive electrical
forces overcome the surface tension, a charged jet of the solution is ejected from the tip
of the Taylor cone. As the charged liquid jet is accelerated in the air, it undergoes a cha-
otic motion or bending instability that causes bending and allows the electrical forces
to elongate the jet. In addition, the solvent is evaporated, and its diameter is greatly
reduced from hundreds of micrometres to tens of nanometres. As the jet becomes thin-
ner in the electric field, radial charge repulsion results in splitting of the primary jet into
multiple filaments in a process known as splaying (Choi et al. 2004; Min et al. 2004).
The final fibre diameter is determined primarily by the number of subsidiary jets
formed. The charged jet is attracted by the grounded collector plate and is collected
randomly on its surface. The setup used for melt electrospinning is slightly different
from the solution electrospinning. The following section describes the melt electro-
spinning process.
18.2.3 Melt Electrospinning
In melt electrospinning, the polymer is heated to melt for electrospinning. Melt elec-
trospinning has many advantages over solution electrospinning (Nayak 2017). Melt
electrospinning is preferred where the problems of solvent recovery and toxicity are
a concern. In melt electrospinning, the dissolution of polymers in organic solvents
and the subsequent removal of the solvents are not required. Hence, it is free from
the extra cost of solvents, and complex and expensive solvent-recycling equipment.
While in vitro electrospinning, directly onto cells, is considered, solution elec-
trospinning fails to meet the criteria. This is due to the toxicity of the solvent used
in electrospinning, which needs to be fully removed before in-vitro use (Min et al.
2004). Electrospinning directly onto cells is possible via melt electrospinning as the
fibres contain no residual solvent and are free from toxicity (Dalton et al. 2006).
Melt electrospinning can commercially fabricate fibres of polymers with no
proper solvent at room temperature, such as PE (Deng et al. 2009), PP (Nayak et al.
2012a, 2012b, 2012c; Nayak et al. 2017), polyurethane (PU) (Karchin et al. 2011)
and polyethylene terephthalate (PET) (Hao et al. 2013). In the case of PP, one of
the most widely used polymers in commercial spinning, it is difficult to find a suit-
able solvent at room temperature. Hence, melt electrospinning provides an edge over
FIGURE 18.2 Melt electrospinning equipment for fabrication of nanofibres. (Source: Nayak

2012, PhD Thesis, Fabrication and characterization of polypropylene nanofibres by melt
electrospinning and melt blowing, RMIT University.)
solution electrospinning. Melt electrospinning also favours the production of multi-

component systems such as blends and composites, as in many cases, no common
solvent for all components may exist (Zhou et al. 2006).
Despite these advantages, there has been limited work on melt electrospinning.
This may be due to the limiting constraints associated with the process, such as (1)
the complex equipment used (Nayak et al. 2013); (2) the electric discharge problem
associated with the equipment design (Wang and Huang 2010) and (3) the intrinsic
difficulties associated with the polymer, such as high viscosity and low electrical
conductivity (Nayak et al. 2013). The following section focuses on melt electrospin-
ning (including the components, various configurations, polymers used and fibre
diameters obtained).
The designing of equipment for melt electrospinning is complex compared with
that for solution electrospinning. A melt electrospinning system is composed of
the following components: high voltage supply, heating assembly, syringe pump
(or syringe), temperature controller and collector (Figure 18.2).
18.2.3.1 High Voltage Supply

Very high voltage (usually in the range of 10–30 kV) is required for melt electro-
spinning. Lyons reported that the polarity of the electrospinning system is arbi-
trary and can be reversed depending on the polymer type and final product (Lyons
2004). The same production efficiency can be obtained without the damage to the
extruder by changing the poles. If the spinneret is grounded and the collector is posi-
tively charged, the same electric field strength is created compared with the reverse
approach.
18.2.3.2 Heating Assembly
The heating assembly is designed to melt the polymer to a suitable viscosity that can
be electrospun easily. In all heating assemblies, the major objective is to melt the
polymer by providing heat from various sources such as heating element, heating
gun, laser heating and ultrasound heating (Nayak et al. 2011). The heating assembly
works as a reservoir for the polymer melt. A spinneret is connected to the heating
assembly at one end to produce nanofibres.
18.2.3.3 Syringe Pump
During the melt electrospinning process, a syringe pump is used to pump the poly-
mer melt at a constant and controllable rate through the spinneret.
18.2.3.4 Collector
The collector or the collecting surface is used to collect the electrospun fibres. Surfaces
of different geometry and configurations are used as collectors. The collector is
mounted on an insulating stand so that its electric potential can be controlled. In
melt electrospinning devices, the high voltage is applied to the collector and the
syringe is grounded.
The initial work on melt electrospinning was carried out by Larrondo and Manley
(1981). Generally, the setup for melt electrospinning consists of a provision for melt-
ing the polymer and other parts like solution electrospinning. The polymers for melt
electrospinning can be heated by different means, such as heating ovens (Zhou et al.
2006), heat guns (Khurana, et al. 2003; Dalton et al. 2007), laser melting devices
(Ogata et al. 2007a, 2007b) and electric heating (Lyons et al. 2004). Some of the
devices used for melt electrospinning have been shown in Figure 18.3. The fabrica-
tion of nanofibres of various polymers such as polylactic acid (PLA) (Zhou et al.
2006), polylactide (Ogata et al. 2007a, 2007b), PP (Lyons et al. 2004; Khurana et al.
2003; Dalton et al. 2007), PET (Lyons et al. 2004), (polyethylene glycol)-block-
(poly-ε-caprolactone) (PEG47-b-PCL95) and (poly-ε-caprolactone) (PCL) (Dalton
et al. 2007) by melt electrospinning has been reported by several researchers.
The nozzle size, temperatures of the spinneret and the spinning region (Zhou
et al. 2006), polymer molecular weight (Lyons et al. 2004), shear and extensional
viscosities (Dalton et al. 2006) and the polymer flow rate (Lyons et al. 2004) were
found to be important factors for producing submicron fibres in melt electrospin-
ning. In a majority of cases, the melt electrospun web consists of fibres both in
nanometre and micrometre scales. For example, it has been demonstrated that most
of the melt-blown fibres have diameters in the range of 10–20 µm with some fibres
in 250–500 nm (Khurana et al. 2003), 1–30 µm with some random scattered fibres of
247 nm (Lyons et al. 2003) in the web. The diameter of the melt electrospun fibre is
large in the initial duration of experiment, which decreases substantially after few
seconds (Dalton et al. 2007).
FIGURE 18.3 Some of the devices used for melt electrospinning: (a) Electrical heating
(Source: (Zhou et al. 2006)., (b) LASER heating (Source: Ogata et al. 2007b.))
18.3 MODIFICATIONS OF ELECTROSPINNING
In addition to the needle systems discussed earlier, electrospinning can also be clas-
sified into confined feed system (CFS) and unconfined feed system (UFS) based
on the way the solution or melt is dispensed. In CFS, the polymer solution or melt
is injected at a constant rate, whereas in UFS, it flows unconstrained over the sur-
face of another material. The advantages of CFS are restricted flow rate (needed for
maintaining a continuous stable electrospinning), uniform fibre diameter and better-
quality fibre. However, CFS increases the system complexity (as a control system is
required for each jet or multi-jets) and is prone to clogging. CFS includes the electro-
spinning systems that use a syringe pump, whereas UFS includes different systems
such as bubble electrospinning (Liu and He 2007); electroblowing (Soti et al. 2015);
electrospinning by using: porous hollow tube (Varabhas et al. 2008), microfluidic
manifold (Berdichevsky et al. 2004) and roller electrospinning (Cengiz et al. 2010).
In the following section, various UFSs have been discussed further.
18.3.1 Multi-Jets from Single Needle

Generally, in single needle electrospinning (SNE), a single jet is initiated from the
Taylor cone with the application of electric field. Multi-jets were observed for the
first time by Yamashita et al. (2007) during electrospinning from a single home-
made stainless steel needle with a grooved tip mounted on a glass syringe. Beadless
membranes of polybutadiene were successfully prepared by growing multi-jets at the
needle tip of an SNE setup. The formation of multi-jets on an SNE setup was attrib-
uted to two possible mechanisms: significant discrepancy in electric field distribution
and some degree of solution blockage at the needle tip. In another approach, a curved
collector was used by Vaseashta (2007) for the formation of multi-jets from multiple
Taylor cones in an SNE system.
Multi-jets can be obtained from a single needle by splitting the polymer jet into
two separate sub-jets in its path to the collector (Burger et al. 2006; Paruchuri and
Brenner 2007). Jet-splitting (i.e. a sequence of secondary jets emanating from the
primary jet) has been observed under certain conditions, where fluid jets interact
with the large axial electric field (Huebner and Chu 1971; Taylor 1969; Yarin et al.
2005; Koombhongse et al. 2001). Although the mechanism of jet splitting is yet to
be fully analysed, the experimental investigation of controlled jet-splitting will be a
fascinating challenge for increasing the productivity of SNE systems.
18.3.2 Multi-Jets from Multiple Needles

Some work has been done to increase the productivity of electrospinning using mul-
tiple needle electrospinning (MNE) systems (Teo et al. 2007; Regele et al. 2002; Lee
et al. 2006; Kim et al. 2006). While designing MNE systems, the needle configura-
tion, number of needles and needle gauge are the important factors to be taken into
consideration. Needles can be arranged in linear configuration or two-dimensional
configurations such as elliptical, circular, triangular, square and hexagonal. For
example, a linear configuration with four needles has been designed to fabricate
nanowebs and to scale-up the production (Bowman et al. 2003). The nanofibres were
unevenly deposited on fibrous substrates because of the distorted electric field on
the multi-needle setup. Similarly, Ding et al. (2004) fabricated biodegradable nano-
fibrous mats by MNE setup with four movable syringes and a rotatable grounded
tubular collector. Uniform thickness of nanofibrous mats with good dispersibility
was achieved. In another attempt, where seven and nine needles were arranged in a
linear configuration, it was observed that the behaviour of central jets and border jets
were different (Theron et al. 2005).
Generally, MNE systems require large operating space and careful design of the
relative spacing between the needles to avoid strong charge repulsion between the
jets. The spacing between the needles depends on nozzle gauge as well as the solu-
tion properties to be electrospun. Non-uniform electric field on needle tips at differ-
ent positions, needle clogging, instability problems (such as dripping or non-working
needles) and uneven fibre deposition are some of the key limitations of MNE systems
(Yang et al. 2010).
18.3.3 Multi-jets from Needleless Systems

Needleless electrospinning (Figure 18.4) systems are becoming popular as the pro-
ductivity can be substantially improved by provoking numerous polymeric jets from
free liquid surfaces (Jirsak et al. 2009). The basic principle of formation of multi-jets
from a needleless system is as follows: the waves of an electrically conductive liquid
self-organize on a mesoscopic scale and finally form jets when the applied electric
field intensity is above a critical value (Niu et al. 2009). The work on needleless elec-
trospinning was reported by Yarin and Zussman (2004).
The work was based on a combination of normally aligned magnetic and electric
fields acting on a two-layer system, where the lower layer was a ferromagnetic sus-
pension and the upper layer was a polymeric solution. Numerous steady spikes of
polyethylene oxide (PEO) were generated at the free surface of the magnetic fluid by
the application of a magnetic field (Yarin and Zussman 2004). With the addition of
the polymer layer and application of high voltage, some perturbations were visible
FIGURE 18.4 Needless electrospinning for fabrication of nanofibres. (Source: Yarin and
Zussman 2004.)
at the free surface of the polymer layer. After a threshold voltage, multiple jets were
ejected towards the grounded electrode, and fibres were collected on a glass slide.
Another needleless electrospinning system for fabricating polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)
nanofibres by using a conical metal wire coil as the spinneret has been reported (Wang
et al. 2009). The needleless approach produced finer nanofibres on a much larger
scale compared with conventional electrospinning. Kumar et al. (2010) developed an
electrospinning setup for the formation of multiple jets with controlled fibre repulsion
using a plastic filter. Apart from increased throughput, this setup reduced fibre repul-
sion when compared with a multi-needle setup. The fibre repulsion was reduced by
controlling emitter voltage and emitter/collector distance. It was found that the plastic
filter setup produced fibres with lower average diameter and better uniformity.
Needleless electrospinning, comprising a rotating disk and a cylinder nozzle, for
the fabrication of PVA nanofibres was reported by Niu et al. (2009). Under identical
operating conditions, the fibres produced from the disk nozzle were finer than those
from the cylinder nozzle. The disk nozzle needed a relatively low voltage to initiate
fibre formation. The cylinder nozzle showed a higher dependence on the applied
voltage and polymer concentration.
18.3.4 Bubble Electrospinning
Liu and He (2007) explored the feasibility of mass production of nanofibres by
bubble electrospinning. The device consisted of a high voltage DC generator, a gas
pump, a vertical liquid reservoir having a top opening, a gas tube installed at the bot-
tom centre of the reservoir, a thin metal electrode fixed along the centre line of the
gas tube and a grounded collector (Figure 18.5). The gas tube and the electrode were
inserted through the bottom of the reservoir and were connected to the gas pump and
DC generator, respectively. One or several bubbles were formed on the free surface
of the solution when the gas pump was turned on slowly. The shape of each bubble
changed from spherical to conical (similar to a Taylor cone (Li and Xia 2004a)) as
FIGURE 18.5 Bubble-electrospinning for fabricating nanofibres. (Source: Yang et al. 2009).
the DC voltage was applied. Multiple jets were ejected from the bubbles when the
applied voltage exceeded a threshold value.
The polymer jets in bubble electrospinning also exhibited an instability stage sim-
ilar to that in the conventional electrospinning. The fibres produced were a mixture
of straight, coiled and helical fibres along with a few beaded and thick fibres. The
number of bubbles was affected by the gas pressure, solution viscosity, nozzle diam-
eter and height between the nozzle tip and liquid surface. Later, Liu and coworkers
(Liu et al. 2008a; Liu et al. 2010; Liu et al. 2008b) have investigated the effect of
applied voltage on fibre diameter and morphology in bubble electrospinning. The
average fibre diameter increased with the applied voltage, which is quite different
from the results in basic electrospinning.
18.3.5 Electroblowing
Electroblowing is an electrospinning process assisted with air blowing. The method
comprises preparation of a polymer solution by dissolving the polymer in a solvent,
feeding the polymer solution through a spinning nozzle applied with high voltage,
injecting compressed air through the lower end of the spinning nozzle and collecting
the fibres in the form of a web on a suitable grounded collector. In electroblowing,
two simultaneously applied forces (an electrical force and an air-blowing shear force)
interact to fabricate the nanofibres from the polymeric fluid. Nanofibres of both ther-
moplastic and thermosetting resins can be produced by electroblowing.
Wang et al. (2005) were one of the first to modify an electrospinning apparatus
by the attachment of an air-blowing system to fabricate nanofibres from hyaluronic
acid (Figure 18.6). In the setup, high positive voltage was supplied between the
spinneret and the grounded collector plate. The air temperature and blowing rates
were achieved by controlling the power output of the heater and the flow rate of air,
respectively. The airflow was also used to control the cooling rate of the fluid jet and
FIGURE 18.6 Electroblowing equipment for nanofibres. (Source: Wang et al. 2005.)
the rate of solvent evaporation. The factors affecting the fibre morphology and diam-
eter were the air-blowing rate, polymer concentration, solution feeding rate, electric
field strength and type of collector.
Arora et al. (2009) produced nanowebs of PP with an average diameter of
850–940 nm by electroblowing. In the setup, compressed and heated air was sup-
plied from air nozzles positioned around the sides of the spinning nozzle. The air
forwarded the newly issued polymeric solution from the nozzle and attenuated to the
nanofibres that were collected on a grounded porous collection belt. Other materials
used in the process were the addition and condensation polymers, such as polyamide
(PA); polyester; polyolefins; polyacetal; polyalkylene sulphide; polyarylene oxide;
polysulphone; cellulose ether and ester; polyvinyl chloride (PVC); polymethyl
methacrylate (PMMA); polystyrene (PS); polyvinylidene fluoride; polyvinylidene
chloride and PVA.
18.3.6 Electrospinning by Porous Hollow Tube

Varabhas et al. (2008) used a polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE) tube with a porous wall
for increasing the productivity of the electrospinning process (Figure 18.7). The tube
containing the pores with an average diameter of 20–40 µm was oriented horizon-
tally. Holes of 0.5 mm diameter, spaced 1 cm apart from each other, arranged in two
rows parallel to the axis of the tube and penetrating 1 mm into the wall were drilled
along the bottom of the tube. To maintain an equal electrical potential in the vicinity
of each hole, a wire electrode made out of a square wire mesh having 5 mm spacing
between the wires was inserted inside the tube.
The porous tube was suspended on the frame of a PVC pipe with an adjustable
distance of 12–15 cm above the grounded aluminium foil collector. The solution
of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) in ethanol (15 wt.%) was pushed at low air pressure
(1–2 kPa) through the tube wall with a voltage of 40–60 kV. During electrospinning,
each hole produced one jet, which finally became a continuous long fibre. As the
jet travelled few centimetres, the bending instability became dominant and the jet
formed an expanding coil. The production rate obtained by this method was about
FIGURE 18.7 Cylindrical porous hollow tube for fabrication of nanofibres. (Source:
Varabhas et al. 2008.)
3–50 times higher than the SNE system that was dependent on the number of rows of
holes, spacing between the holes and the collector geometry (Varabhas et al. 2008).
18.3.7 Electrospinning by Microfluidic Manifold

Srivastava et al. (2007, 2008) designed a microfluidic device to fabricate multi-
component nanofibres and to scale-up the production of electrospinning. A polydimeth-
ylsiloxane (PDMS)-based multilayer microfluidic device capable of spinning several
hollow fibres in parallel order was used to produce nanofibres as shown in Figure 18.8.
Two layers of microchannels (four spinnerets in each layer) were used to flow PVP
solution as a sheath material. An array of spinnerets was used for the fabrication of the
core consisting of heavy mineral oil or pyrrole. Each of the eight-outlet spinneret was
provided at constant pressure by two layers of non-intersecting stacked microchannels
arranged in a branching tree pattern. The sheath polymer solution was introduced
through the microchannels at the bottom layer and the core material was introduced
through the top microchannels. During the electrospinning process, mutually inter-
acting electrified jets underwent bending instabilities and were repulsed from their
neighbours due to Coulombic repulsion. Uniform nanofibre mats were produced at the
rate of 0.1 g/h with an inter-nozzle distance of approximately 8 mm.
Srivastava et al. (2009) also produced bi-component nanofibres using a PDMS-
based multiple outlet microfluidic device capable of spinning eight nanofibres in
parallel. The ability of microfluidic device to synthesize multiphase nanofibres with
controlled distribution of functionalities (which is otherwise difficult to obtain) pro-
vides a useful technology to the next generation of smart materials. Microfluidic
manifold method has many advantages over conventional electrospinning, such as
rapid prototyping, ease of fabrication and parallel electrospinning within a single,
monolithic device. The fabrication of complex networks of microchannels was easily
accomplished using PDMS-based micromoulding technology.
FIGURE 18.8 Microfluidic manifold for fabrication of nanofibres. (Source: Srivastava

et al. 2008.)
FIGURE 18.9 Roller electrospinning for fabrication of nanofibres. (Source: Sasithorn and
Martinová 2014.)
18.3.8 Roller Electrospinning
Fabrication of nanofibres by electrospinning using rotational setup dates back to
1980s (Simm et al. 1979). Roller electrospinning process was first developed by
Jirsak et al. (2009) at Technical University of Liberec (Czech Republic), as shown in
Figure 18.9 (Sasithorn and Martinová 2014). The mechanism of formation of Taylor
cones on the surface of roller was described by Lukas et al. (2008). Cengiz and
Jirsak (2009) studied the effect of tetraethylammoniumbromide salt on the spin-
nability of PU nanofibres by roller electrospinning. The roller electrospinning setup
consisted of a rotating cylinder to spin nanofibres directly from the polymer solution.
An aluminium rotating roller was partially immersed in the PU solution contained
in a PP dish. The rotating roller was applied with high voltage, and the collector was
grounded. It was found that the salt concentration had an important effect on conduc-
tivity, viscosity, fibre diameter and morphology.
Later, Cengiz and coworkers (2010) also investigated the influence of solution
properties on fibre diameter of PVA using the device mentioned earlier. It was found
that the electric conductivity and surface tension of the solution did not affect either
the throughput or the fibre diameter significantly. Molecular weight had an important
influence on spinnability, whereas solution concentration influenced the throughput
and properties of nanofibres.
Apart from the techniques discussed earlier, which are mainly based on the appli-
cation of electrostatic force for the fabrication of nanofibres, several other approaches
such as melt blowing, flash spinning, bi-component spinning, force spinning, phase
separation and drawing are already used for the fabrication of nanofibres. These
techniques are highlighted in the following section.
18.4 MELT BLOWING
Melt blowing is a simple, versatile and one-step process to produce materials in
micrometre and smaller scale (Nayak 2012). The technology of melt blowing was
first developed in 1950s at the Naval Research Laboratory of United States. In melt-
blowing process, a molten polymer is extruded through the orifice of a die. The fibres
are formed by the elongation of the polymer streams coming out of the orifice by
air drag and are collected on the surface of a suitable collector in the form of web
(Nayak 2017). The average fibre diameter mainly depends on the throughput rate,
melt viscosity, melt temperature, air temperature and air velocity (Nayak et al. 2013).
A brief review of the melt-blowing process and the factors affecting the properties
of the web have been reported by various researchers. The schematic of the melt-
blowing equipment has been shown in Figure 18.10.
The extruder is a heated barrel responsible for the melting of the polymer to
achieve appropriate viscosity. The polymer in the form of powder, chips, pellets or
granules is gravity fed from the hopper to the extruder at a certain feed rate and
heated in different heating zones. The rotating screw(s) carries the polymer towards
the die assembly, where it is metred by a metring pump. The metring pump delivers
the polymer melt uniformly and consistently to the die assembly. The die assembly is
responsible for the production of good quality fibres. In this section, the fibre attenu-
ation is achieved by the action of cool air. Subsequently, the fibres are collected as
web and forwarded to the winding section.
The difficulty in fabricating nanofibres in melt blowing is due to the inability to
design sufficiently small orifice in the die and the high viscosity of the polymeric
melt. Nanofibres can be fabricated by special die designs with small orifice, reduc-
ing the viscosity of the polymeric melt and suitable modification of the melt-blowing
setup. For example, Ellison et al. (2007) produced melt-blown nanofibres of different
polymers by a special designed single-hole die with small orifice using the process-
ing conditions used in industry. Similarly, the special die design by Podgórski et al.
(2006) where the polymer nozzles were surrounded by air nozzles produced nanofi-
bres with diameters ranging from 0.74 to 1.41 µm.
Bodaghi and Sinangil (2009) fabricated melt-blown nanofibres by changing the
rheology of the polymers. The melt-blowing apparatus consisted of two extruders
with different barrel diameters to create different shear rates. A spin pack coupled
with both the extruders directed high velocity air towards the melt-blown fibres to
attenuate and split them into nanoscale. The process was suitable for many melt-
spinnable commercial polymers, copolymers and their blends such as polyesters,
FIGURE 18.10 Schematic of the melt-blowing equipment. (Source: Nayak 2012, PhD
Thesis, Fabrication and characterization of polypropylene nanofibres by melt electrospinning
and meltblowing, RMIT University.)
polyolefins (PE and PP), PA, nylons, PU, PVC, PVA and ethylene vinyl acetate. The
melt-blown fibres had significantly reduced average diameters and enhanced surface
area to mass ratio compared with conventional melt-blown fibres. Hills Inc. (West
Melbourne) produced melt-blown nanowebs from low viscosity (or high melt flow
index 1,500–1,800) homopolymers with an average diameter of 250 nm (Willkie
and Haggard 2007). Apart from the low viscosity, smaller diameter orifice with
higher length to diameter (L/D) ratio (500+) and low flow rate assisted in nanofibre
fabrication.
In melt blowing, the sudden cooling of the fibre as it leaves the die can prevent
the formation of nanofibres. This can be improved by providing hot airflow in the
same direction of the polymer around the die. The hot air stream flowing along the
filaments helps in attenuating them to smaller diameter. The viscosity of polymeric
melt can be lowered by increasing the temperature, but there is a risk of thermal
degradation at high temperature.
18.5 TEMPLATE MELT-EXTRUSION
Li et al. (2006) combined the extrusion technology with the template method for
the production of polymeric nanofibres of thermoplastic polymers. In this pro-
cess, the molten polymer was forced through the pores of an anodic aluminium
oxide membrane (AAOM) and then subsequently cooled down to room tempera-
ture. A special stainless-steel appliance was designed to support the thin AAOM,
to bear the pressure and to restrict the molten polymer movement along the direc-
tion of the pores. The appliance containing the polymer was placed on the hot
plate of a compressor (with temperature-controlled functions) followed by the
forcing of the polymeric melt (indicated by arrow). The hot plate was stopped
after 2 h of heating, and the pressure was maintained until the system cooled to
room temperature.
Isolated nanofibres of PE were obtained by the removal of AAOM with sodium
hydroxide/ethanol (20 wt.%). Finally, the nanofibres were broken down from the
bulk feeding film by ultrasonic bath (in ethanol for 5 min) to form isolated fibres.
The diameter of the PE fibres ranged from 150 to 400 nm (diameter of AAOM
pores = 200 nm), and the length of the fibres correspond to the length of the pores in
AAOM (i.e., 60 µm).
18.6 FLASH SPINNING
In flash spinning process, a solution of a fibre forming polymer in a liquid spin agent
is spun into a zone of lower temperature and substantially lower pressure to generate
plexi-filamentary film-fibril strands (Xia et al. 2015). A spin agent is required for
flash spinning, which: 1) should be a non-solvent to the polymer below its normal
boiling point, 2) can form a solution with the polymer at high pressure, 3) can form a
desired two-phase dispersion with the polymer when the solution pressure is reduced
slightly and 4) should vapourize when the flash is released into a substantially low-
pressure zone.
Flash spinning process was described in 1963, and since then, several patents
have been filed. Weinberg et al. (2006) produced nanofibres of polyolefins with fibre
diameter of 3–10 µm and a production rate that is at least two orders of magnitude
higher than the conventional electrospinning using flash spinning. The non-woven
fibrous webs produced had morphologies (i.e. complex interconnecting networks or
webs of large and small polyolefin filaments or fibre-like spider webs) significantly
different than those produced by other technologies.
Flash spinning is more suitable for difficult-to-dissolve polymers such as poly-
olefins and high-molecular-weight polymers. The spinning temperature should be
higher than the melting point of polymer and the boiling point of solvent to affect
solvent evaporation before the collection of the polymer. Flash spinning process
doesn’t produce fibrous webs consisting completely of nanofibres.
18.7 BI-COMPONENT SPINNING
Bi-component spinning is a two-step process that involves spinning two polymers
through the spinning die (which forms the bi-component fibre with island-in-sea
(IIS), side-by-side, sheath–core, citrus or segmented-pie structure) and removal of
one polymer (Naeimirad et al. 2018). Although bi-component fibres of different
cross-sectional shapes and geometries with micrometre diameter can be produced
with the existing fibre-forming techniques, fabricating smaller diameters especially
in nanometres is a real challenge.
The production of webs of IIS structure (nylon 6 island and PLA sea) by spun
bonding process and subsequent removal of sea for the production of micro and
nanofibres have been reported (Fedorova and Pourdeyhimi 2007). Hill Inc. produced
nanofibres of 300 nm diameter from the IIS structure (Alcantar et al. 2000). Lin
et al. (2005) fabricated side-by-side bi-component nanofibres of elastomeric (PUs)
and thermoplastic (polyacrylo nitrile [PAN]) polymers, using a microfluidic device
as the spinneret in electrospinning. The silicone microfluidic spinneret consisted of
three capillary channels: two for the inlet of polymer solutions and the other for the
outlet. They observed self-crimping of PAN after the PU was removed from the bi-
component fibre by dissolving in tetrahydrofuran.
Bi-component spinning can be used for the fabrication of smaller nanofibres by
sacrificing one of the polymer components as well as to create multicomponent nano-
fibres. Several research studies on bi-component polymeric nanofibres of sheath–
core structure by electrospinning process using a coaxial two-capillary spinneret
have been reported (Sun et al. 2003; Zhang et al. 2004; Li and Xia 2004b). The use
of melt-coaxial electrospinning for the fabrication of core–shell nanofibres having
potential for temperature sensors (Li et al. 2009) and composites based on phase
change materials have been investigated (McCann et al. 2006). The segmented-pie
structure forms micro-and nanofibres (diameters 500 nm–2 µm) with non-circular
cross section. A modified coaxial electrospinning process has been developed to
prepare polymer fibres from a high-concentration solution of PVP (Yu et al. 2011).
This process involved a pure solvent concentrically surrounding polymer fluid in the
spinneret and was able to produce fibres with a smooth surface morphology and good
structural uniformity.
18.8 OTHER APPROACHES
In addition to the aforementioned techniques, several other innovative methods
such as template synthesis, self-assembly, phase separation and drawing have been
reported for nanofibre fabrication (Nayak et al. 2012a, 2012b, 2012c). In template
synthesis, nanofibres of polymers, metals, semiconductors and ceramics are formed
within the numerous cylindrical pores of a non-porous membrane (5–50 mm
thickness) by oxidative polymerization accomplished electrochemically or chemi-
cally. In electrochemical synthesis, one surface of a membrane is coated with a
metal film that works as anode for the polymer, whereas in chemical s ynthesis,
the membrane is immersed in a solution of the monomer and its o xidizing agent.
The template synthesis process has been used to prepare nanofibres of PAN, PCL,
polyaniline, carbon nanofibres (CNF), polypyrrole and poly(3-methylthiophene)
(Song et al. 2016).
Self-assembly is a manufacturing method where small molecules are used as
basic building blocks which add up to give nanofibres (Hartgerink et al. 2001). The
small molecules are arranged in a concentric manner, which upon extension in a
normal plane produces the longitudinal axis of nanofibres. In self-assembly, the
final (desired) structure is ‘encoded’ in the shape from small blocks, when com-
pared with traditional techniques (such as lithography), where the desired structure
must be carved out from a large block of matter. Self-assembly is thus referred to
as a ‘bottom-up’ manufacturing technique, whereas lithography is a ‘top-down’
technique. The synthesis of molecules for self-assembly often involves a c hemical
process called convergent synthesis. This process requires standard laboratory
equipment and is limited to specific polymers.
In self-assembly, the shape and properties of nanofibres depend on the molecules
and the intermolecular forces that bring the molecules together. Nanofibres of various
polymeric configurations such as diblock copolymers, triblock copolymers, triblock
polymers (of peptide amphiphile and dendrimers) and bolaform (of glucosamide and
its deacetylated derivatives) can be assembled by this process.
In phase separation, the gel of a polymer is prepared by storing the homogeneous
solution of the polymer at a required concentration in a refrigerator set at the g elation
temperature (Ma and Zhang 1999). The gel is then immersed in distilled water for
solvent exchange followed by the removal from distilled water, blotting with filter
paper and finally transferring to a freeze-drying vessel, leading to a nanofibre
matrix. The phase-separation process was used for the fabrication of nanofibre
matrices of poly-L-lactic acid and blends of poly-L-lactic acid–polycaprolactone
(PCL) (Mo et al. 2002). Although the phase-separation process is very simple, it is
only limited to the laboratory scale.
In drawing process (Xing et al. 2008; Tong and Mazur 2008) a millimetric
droplet of a solution is allowed to evaporate after it is deposited on a silicon diox-
ide (SiO2) surface. The droplet becomes more concentrated at the edge because of
evaporation due to capillary flow. A micropipette is dipped into the droplet near the
contact line with the surface and then withdrawn at a speed of 100 µm/s, resulting in
a nanofibre being pulled out. The pulled fibre is then deposited on another surface
by touching it with the end of the micropipette. From each droplet, nanofibres can
be drawn several times. Nanofibres of sodium citrate were formed by dissolving it
in chloroauric acid through the drawing process (Ondarcuhu and Joachim 1998).
The drawing process is suitable for viscoelastic materials that can undergo strong
deformations while being cohesive enough to support the stresses developed dur-
ing pulling. This process is simple but limited to laboratory scale as nanofibres are
formed one by one.
Reneker et al. (2003) fabricated nanofibres by using pressurized gas, where an
expanding gas jet supplied the mechanical force required to create nanofibres. In
this process, a polymeric solution or melt is fed into an annular column having an
exit orifice and subjected to the action of a gas jet that pushes the material through
the orifice forming the fibres. After the fibres are ejected from the orifice, solidifi-
cation can occur in many ways, such as cooling, chemical reaction, coalescence or
solvent removal. The polymers used in this process include nylon, polyolefins, PA,
polyesters and fluoro-polymers. Various factors affecting the fibre diameter are
the temperature of the gas jet, flow rate of the gas and flow rate of the polymeric
material.
Recently, nanofibres of a wide range of materials were fabricated by a new
process called force spinning (Lozano and Sarkar 2009, 2014). In this process,
the electric field of electrospinning is replaced by centrifugal force. The process
involves heating a fibre-forming material in a heated structure and rotating the
heated structure (with at least one nozzle) at very high speed to extrude nanofibres
of the material. Rotational speed of the heated structure, nozzle configuration, col-
lection system and temperature are the key factors governing the geometry and
morphology of the nanofibres. The limitations of electrospinning process, such as
very high electric field, low productivity and high cost of production, are eliminated
in force spinning. Force spinning also broadens the selection of materials as both
conductive and non-conductive materials can be spun into nanofibres. Several solid
materials can be melted and directly spun into nanofibres without any chemical
preparation. Also, the process is free from extra process of solvent recovery as no
solvent is used.
A new jet-blowing technique was used for the fabrication of micro and nanofibres
of polymers with high melt viscosity such as PTFE and PMMA (Sen et al. 2005). In
the process, the mixture of a polymer and a pressurized gas was blown through the
aperture of a nozzle having two segments with different diameters. Polymeric fibres
having diameter in the range of 10 nm–50 µm were produced by this method.
Huang et al. (2012) produced nanofibres by melt spinning, where a polymeric
melt of at least one thermoplastic polymer was supplied to the inner surface of a
heated rotating distribution disc having a forward fibre discharge edge. The melt
is then distributed into a thin film and attenuated by hot gas to produce polymeric
nanofibres. The process of nanofibre (diameter >100 nm) production by rapid expan-
sion of a supercritical solution (RESS) into a liquid solvent (RESSLS) was developed
by Meziani et al. (2005). The RESSLS process is the modification of the traditional
RESS process used for the production of polymeric particles and fibres (Matson
et al. 1987a, 1987b; Petersen et al. 1987).
18.8.1 Comparisons of different processes

Table 18.1 summarizes the relative merits and demerits of various processes employed
for nanofibre fabrication. The table also highlights the potential for scale-up, repeat-
ability and the ease of control of fibre dimensions by these processes.
18.9 PROPERTIES OF NANOFIBRES
Electrospun nanofibres possess noticeable differences in their thermal, mechanical
and electrical properties when compared with normal fibres (Patanaik et al. 2007).
This section highlights the properties of nanofibres.
TABLE 18.1
Comparison of Various Nanofibre Fabrication Techniques
Control on
Manufacturing Scope for Fibre
Process Scaling-up Repeatability Dimension Advantages Disadvantages
Electrospinning Yes Yes Yes Long and Solvent recovery
(Solution) continuous fibres issues, low
productivity, jet
instability
Electrospinning Yes Yes Yes Long and Thermal
(Melt) continuous fibres degradation of
polymers, electric
discharge problem
Melt blowing Yes Yes Yes Long and Polymer limitations,
continuous fibres, thermal
high productivity, degradation of
free from solvent polymers
recovery issues
Template No Yes Yes Easy to change Complex process
synthesis diameter by using
different
templates
Drawing No Yes No Simple process Discontinuous
process
Phase No Yes No Simple equipment Only work with
separation required selective polymers
Self-assembly No Yes No Easy to get smaller Complex process
nanofibres
Force spinning Yes Yes Yes Free from very Requirement of
high voltage, high temperature
eco-friendly at times
Source: Nayak et al. (2012b).
18.9.1 Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of nanofibres can be analyzed by differential scanning
calorimetry (DSC). Zhou et al. (2006) observed that electrospun nanofibres of Poly-
L-Lactide Acid (PLLA) possess lower crystallinity, melting temperature (Tm) and
glass transition temperature (Tg) than semi-crystalline PLLA resins. The low crys-
tallinity can be attributed to the high rate of evaporation and rapid solidification
before their collection onto the collector. The decrease in Tg and Tm is due to the
large surface area to volume ratio of nanofibres with air as plasticizer. The lower heat
of fusion and melting temperature of PEO nanofibres when compared with the PEO
powder was attributed to the decreased crystallinity after electrospinning.
18.9.2 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of nanofibres such as tensile strength, elongation and modu-
lus are affected by the surface morphology, pore size and its distribution. The tensile
strength of PVA fibre aggregate was found to increase with the increasing weight percent-
age of glyoxal to PVA while the elongation decreased (Ding et al. 2002). Dabirian et al.
(2007) measured the mechanical properties of the yarn by Zwick 1446–60 and observed
that the yarn treated with boiling water under tension showed higher strength and lower
strain, which is because of the increase in degree of crystallinity in the treated samples.
18.9.3 Electrical Properties
The electrospun nanofibres containing carbon nanotubes (CNTs) have superior elec-
trical properties (high energy densities and low driving voltages), as reported by
Baughman et al. (1999). The nanocomposites of ether/clay (organically modified)
exhibit ionic conductivity, which is several orders of magnitude higher than that of
the corresponding clay. The intercalation of electroactive polymers into clay miner-
als can further improve the conductivity (Hitzky et al. 1995).
18.10 APPLICATIONS OF NANOFIBRES
The nanofibres with high surface area and numerous pores have enormous applica-
tions in tissue scaffolds, nanocomposites, protective clothing, filtration, electronics and
(Patanaik et al. 2007; Huang et al. 2003; Ramakrishna et al. 2005).
18.10.1 Biomedical Applications
Yoshimoto et al. (2003) used the biodegradable PCL in electrospinning and found
that the PCL scaffolds provide an environment that supports mineralized t issue
formation and may be used for the treatment of bone defects. The degummed
silk fibroin nanofibre non-wovens were applied for wound dressing and found to
be favourable for cell attachment, growth and proliferation (Min et al. 2004). In
addition, the biomedical applications such as wound dressing (Li et al. 2002) and
scaffolds for tissue engineering (Ma et al. 2003) of nanofibres have been studied.
Gibson et al. (2001) produced electrospun fibres containing pH-adjusting com-

pound for use in wound dressing or protection from contamination. Electrospun
fibre mats were produced from PLA, polyethylene co-vinyl acetate and their blend
(50:50), and the potential of the mats were also explored as drug delivery vehicles
using tetracycline hydrochloride as a model drug. Huang et al. (2000) produced
collagen-containing nanofibres and non-woven fabrics that have potential applica-
tion in wound healing, tissue engineering and as haemostatic agents.
18.10.2 Electronic Applications
Kim and Yang (2003) found that the performance of the capacitors produced
by carbonization of electrospun PAN fibre can be improved by controlling the
activation temperature, the pore density and the structure. Choi et al. (2003)
investigated that the porous surfaces produced by electrospinning are good
matrices for holding polymer electrolytes and can be used in the fabrication of
high-performance lithium batteries. Kessick et al. (2004) prepared helical coils
composed of polyaniline and PS by electrospinning for electrical applications.
Conducting nanofibres with the potential for applications in micro and optoelec-
tronics such as nanowires, LEDs, photocells etc. have also been investigated
(Norris et al. 2000). Ziegler et al. (2001) developed a hybrid solar cell using elec-
trospun conductive polymers doped with photovoltaic dyes and nanocrystalline
semiconductor particles.
18.10.3 Nanofibre Sensors
Aussawasathien et al. (2005) observed the improvement in sensitivity of the sen-
sors produced from nanosurfaces for humidity sensing, hydrogen peroxide and
glucose sensing. Liu et al. (2004) fabricated gas sensors based on individual polyani-
line nanofibres and established that these sensors and their assemblies have a great
potential for the sensing technology. It was observed that the CNT-based sensors
demonstrated 35 times increase in the strain-sensing ability for only 0.05 wt.% of the
nanotube. Wang et al. (2002) have generated fluorescent polymer film sensors useful
for the detection of explosives by electrospinning process.
18.10.4 Filter Applications
The electrospun nanosurfaces are well known in the filtration industry for their high
filtration efficiency for small particles because of the nanoscale fibre diameter and
high specific area to volume ratio (Patanaik et al. 2007). The suitability of PA-66
nanofibre coating for filtering applications was evaluated by Heikkila et al. (2007),
who found that even a lowest weight of PA-6,6 nanofibre coating (0.50 g/m2) improved
the filter efficiency and removed about 90% or more from all aerosol particles
regardless of the substrate material. Graham et al. (2002) studied the application
of electrospun nanofibres in pulse-clean cartridges for dust collection and cabin air
filtration of mining vehicles.
18.10.5 Protective Textile Materials

For protective clothing applications, the nanofibre webs could be directly applied to
garment systems (Gibson et al. 2001). The U.S. Army Natick Soldier Center investi-
gated the potential of nanofibre webs in protective clothing. It was found that nano-
fibre webs of nylon 6,6, polybenzimidazole, PAN and PU provided good aerosol
particle protection, without any change in their moisture vapour transfer properties
(Gibson et al. 2002). Protective clothing for agricultural workers was developed using
the electrospun PP webs and laminates produced via melt-electrospinning (Lee and
Obendorf 2006). The layered composite material was incorporated with electrospun
nanofibres and utilized as protective clothing (Graham et al. 2004).
18.11 NANOCOMPOSITES
Polymer nanocomposites are a new class of reinforced hybrid materials that are formed
by the dispersion of nanoscale clay particles throughout a polymer matrix (Gilman
1999; Patanaik et al. 2007; Ray and Okamoto 2003). Nanocomposites consist of an
organic polymer matrix embedded with inorganic particles, which have at least one
of the dimensions in the nano range (Giannelis 1996). The particles may be spheri-
cal (metallic or ceramic), fibrillar (CNT) or lamellar. The polymer nanocomposites
combine the concept of both composites and nanomaterials. Though nanocomposites
can include porous media, colloids, gels and copolymers, mainly it is considered to
mean the solid combination of nano-dimensional phases differing in properties due
to dissimilarities in structure and chemistry. There is the presence of nanocomposites
in nature, such as the structure of abalone shell, tooth, nacre and bone.
The technology of nanocomposites involves the use of very small amount of
nanofillers (Ray and Okamoto 2003; Patanaik et al. 2007). The addition of nanofill-
ers can strongly impact the macroscopic properties of the polymer nanocomposite.
The properties of nanocomposites are quite superior to conventional composites
as nanoscale organic–inorganic materials are mixed on a nearly molecular level in
the former. In nanocomposites, there is a substantial improvement in the following
properties (Wang and Pinnavaia 1998; Kojima et al. 1993; Ray and Okamoto 2003;
Patanaik et al. 2007) when compared with the base polymer as well as conventional
filler counterparts:
• Improved mechanical properties (e.g. strength, modulus and dimensional

stability);
• Reduced permeability to gases, water and hydrocarbons;
• Improved thermal stability and heat distortion temperature (HDT);
• Reduced thermal expansion coefficient;
• Enhanced flame retardancy;
• Reduced smoke emissions;
• Improved chemical resistance;
• Better surface appearance;
• Higher electrical conductivity and
• Improved optical clarity.
18.12 SYNTHESIS OF NANOCOMPOSITES
In nanocomposites, the reinforcing material can be made up of particles such as
exfoliated clay particles, short fibres such as CNT or long fibres such as electros-
pun fibres. The area of the interface between the matrix and reinforcement phases
of nanocomposites is typically an order of magnitude greater than that of conven-
tional composites. As the reinforcement surface area is very large, small amount of
nanoscale reinforcement can produce significant changes in the properties of com-
posites. The mass fraction or percentage by weight of nanoparticulates (nanofill-
ers) can be very low in the order of 0.5%–5% (Ray and Okamoto 2003; Patanaik
et al. 2007).
In general, the nano reinforcement is dispersed into the polymer matrix during
manufacturing process. Accordingly, there are three basic methods of synthesiz-
ing polymer nanocomposites, namely melt intercalation, in situ polymerization and
exfoliation (Weimer et al. 1999; Carrado and Xu, 1998) which are discussed later:
18.12.1 Melt Intercalation
It is mainly suitable for thermoplastic polymers and polar polymers such as polysi-
loxanes, polyethers and PS. In this method, the molten polymer matrix is inserted
into the layered silicate structure in a regular fashion. The mixture of polymer and
layered silicate is subjected to annealing under shear above the softening point of the
polymer. In this method, no solution is required, and it is compatible with the current
industrial processes such as extrusion and injection moulding. This method is suit-
able for polymers that were earlier not suitable by in situ polymerization or solution
exfoliation (Ray and Okamoto 2003).
18.12.2 In Situ Polymerization

In this method, a layered silicate is formed in an aqueous polymer solution
by swelling of the layered silicate within the monomer solution followed by
polymerization. The polymer formation occurs between the intercalated sheets.
Generally, polymerization is initiated by various means such as heat or radia-
tion, d iffusion of a suitable initiator or catalyst fixed through cationic exchange
(Ray and Okamoto 2003).
18.12.3 Solution Exfoliation
It is suitable for epoxy/clay nanocomposites. In this method, a silicate is intercalated
by an initiator or catalyst, and nanocomposites are formed upon the introduction
of a monomer. Here, the polymer is soluble in a suitable solvent, and the silicate
layers are swellable in solvents such as water, chloroform or toluene. The polymer
chain intercalation and displacement of the solvent within the interlayer of the sili-
cate occurs when the polymer and layered silicate solutions are mixed (Morgan and
Gilman 2003; Alexandre and Dubois 2000). The polymer layered silicate nanocom-
posite is formed by solvent removal. In these nanocomposites, the clay content is
very low when compared with melt intercalation. Also exfoliation eliminates both
the entropic and enthalpic barriers that are associated with intercalation. The disad-
vantage of exfoliation is the easy dispersion of layered silicates in various solvents
due to the weak forces that stack the layers (Morgan and Gilman 2003; Alexandre
and Dubois 2000).
Due to the large improvement in the properties by adding a small amount of
inorganic nanofillers, the synthesis and characterization of nanocomposites have
drawn the attention of several researchers in the last two decades (Morgan and
Gilman 2003; Alexandre and Dubois 2000; Patanaik et al. 2007; Ray and Okamoto
2003). Nanometre-thin layered materials such as montmorillonite (MMT) clays,
synthetic 2:1 alumino-silicates, metal phosphates, transition metal chalcogenides
and complex oxides are often used to form polymer nanocomposites (Giannelis et
al. 1998). The only important to polymer industry is natural/synthetic layered clays
such as MMT or hectorite. The MMT clays have been used often as fillers in nano-
composites, where the matrix is a synthetic polymer such as polyimides, PAs, meth-
acrylates and PS. The large surface area of MMT clays provides a higher interfacial
region in the nanocomposite, and the enhancement of tensile and thermal properties
occurs at a very low percentage of the clay filler material (Okamoto et al. 2000; Fu
and Qutubuddin 2000).
18.13 CLASSIFICATION OF NANOCOMPOSITES
The nanocomposites can be divided into three categories according to the strength
of interfacial interactions between the polymer matrix and layered silicate, such as
intercalated nanocomposites, flocculated nanocomposites and exfoliated nanocom-
posites, which are discussed here (Ray and Okamoto 2003; Patanaik et al. 2007).
18.13.1 Intercalated Nanocomposites
In this class of nanocomposites, the polymer matrix is inserted into the layered sili-
cate structure in a crystallographically regular fashion so as to swell the spacing
between the platelets. Generally, these nanocomposites are interlayered by a few
molecular layers of polymer, and the properties are very similar to ceramics.
18.13.2 Flocculated Nanocomposites
These nanocomposites are very similar to intercalated nanocomposites. Sometimes,
in this class of composite, the silicate layers are flocculated because of hydroxylated
edge–edge interaction of the silicate layers.
18.13.3 Exfoliated Nanocomposites
In exfoliated nanocomposites, depending upon clay loading, the individual clay lay-
ers are separated in a continuous polymer matrix. The clay content of this class of
nanocomposite is much lower than intercalated nanocomposite.
18.14 CHARACTERIZATION OF NANOCOMPOSITES
The macroscopic morphology and surface texture of nanocomposites are mainly
investigated by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron micros-
copy (TEM), wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD) and small angle X-ray scatter-
ing (SAXS) (Patanaik et al. 2007; Ray and Okamoto 2003). SEM is very simple
and most widely used for morphological analysis. Though TEM is used by many
researchers as an essential tool for qualitative analysis, structural defect analysis
and spatial distribution study, it is time consuming and does not provide quantita-
tive information. WAXD is also widely used to study the structure by monitoring
the position, shape and intensity of basal reflections. WAXD does not provide much
information regarding the spatial distribution or any structural defects in nanocom-
posites. DSC is used to analyze the thermal behaviour of nanocomposites (Solarski
et al. 2008). The molecular structure of nanocomposites can be characterized by
various techniques such as nuclear magnetic resonance, Fourier transform infra-
red, SAXS and optical birefringence. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and water
contact angle measurement techniques can be used for the analysis of chemical
properties.
18.15 PROPERTIES OF NANOCOMPOSITES
The properties of the nanocomposite depend upon the clay and polymer combi-
nation, the characteristics of the nanofiller and polymer as well as the structure
of the composite produced. The nanocomposites possess noticeable differences
in their thermal, mechanical, barrier and electrical properties when compared
with traditional composites (Ray and Okamoto 2003; Patanaik et al. 2007).
The optimal structure of a nanocomposite for one physical property may not be
the best for another physical property. This section highlights the properties of
nanocomposites.
18.15.1 Thermal Properties
The thermal properties of nanocomposites can be analyzed by DSC. From the
weight loss on heating the nanocomposites, the thermal stability can be calculated.
The heat resistance of nanocomposites on external loading can be measured from
the HDT. The dependence of HDT on clay content has been investigated by several
researchers (Solarski et al. 2008; Kojima et al. 1993). Choi et al. (2003) observed a
300% increase in thermal conductivity of epoxy nanocomposites at room tempera-
ture with the addition of 3 wt.% single-walled nanotube (SWNT) and it was further
increased by 10% when aligned magnetically. It was suggested that the multiwalled
nanotube (MWNT) have the highest potential to improve the thermal conductivity of
nanocomposites because of their relatively low interfacial area and the existence of
shielded internal layers as reported by Gojny et al. (2006). The nanocomposites with
good thermal conductivity have multiple applications, such as printed circuit boards,
thermal interface materials, heat sinks, connectors and high-performance thermal
management systems.
18.15.2 Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of nanocomposites, such as tensile strength, elongation
and modulus, are affected by the surface morphology and the material used for pro-
duction. Fornes et al. (2001) observed that the stiffness of nanocomposites increased
substantially by the addition of MMT. They also found that with the increase in
clay content the ductility of PAs gradually decreases. Dalton et al. (2003) achieved
substantial improvement in strength of nanocomposites by reinforcing CNTs into
the structure. The tensile modulus of PE nanocomposite was increased from 0.65 to
1.25 GPa by adding 5 wt.% SWNT with an aspect ratio of 380 (Haggenmueller et al.
2003). The improvement of mechanical properties of polymer nanocomposites can
be attributed to the good affinity between the polymer and nanofiller along with the
high rigidity and high aspect ratio of nanofillers.
18.15.3 Electrical Properties
The electrical properties of nanocomposites depend on several factors, such as aspect
ratio, dispersion and alignment of the conductive nanofillers in the structure. The
nanocomposites containing CNTs have superior electrical properties (high energy
densities and low driving voltages) (Baughman et al. 1999). The nanocomposites
of ether/clay (organically modified) exhibit ionic conductivity that is several orders
of magnitude higher than that of the corresponding clay. The electrical conductiv-
ity increased by several orders of magnitude with a very small loading (0.1 wt.% or
less) of nanotubes to the nanocomposite, without altering other properties such as
optical clarity, mechanical properties and low melt flow viscosities. The conductive
nanocomposites have found applications in many fields such as electrostatic dissipa-
tion, electrostatic painting, electromagnetic interference shielding, printable circuit
wiring and transparent conductive coating. (Ray and Okamoto 2003).
18.15.4 Barrier Properties
The nanocomposites have very good barrier property against gases because of their
high aspect ratio and by the creation of a tortuous path that retards the progress of the
gas molecules through the matrix resin. Inside the nanocomposite structure, the pres-
ence of the filler introduces a tortuous path for diffusing penetrants. The permeability is
reduced because of the longer diffusive path that the penetrants must travel in the pres-
ence of filler. The polyimide nanocomposites containing a small fraction of layered sili-
cate exhibit barrier property against small gases such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, helium,
nitrogen and ethyl acetate vapours (Ray and Okamoto 2003). Xu et al. (2001) observed a
drastic reduction in the water vapour transmission through the PU urea sheet.
18.15.5 Rheological Properties
Krishnamoorti and Giannelis (1997) were the first to describe the rheological
properties of in situ polymerized nanocomposites with end-tethered polymer chains.
They showed the flow behaviour of PCL/nylon 6 nanocomposites was signifi-
cantly different from the corresponding neat matrices. They have also studied the
thermo-rheological properties of the nanocomposites from the behaviour of matrices.

The viscoelastic properties of nanocomposites are important in relation to composite
processing and composite dynamics and microstructure analysis (Moniruzzaman
and Winey 2006). Galgali et al. (2001) have observed a dramatic decrease in the
creep compliance of the nanocomposite (compatibilized PP and 6 wt.% MMT) from
the dynamic oscillatory response. Also, they showed a three-order of magnitude
drop in the zero shear viscosity beyond the apparent yield stress of the nanocompos-
ites (compatibilized PP and 9 wt.% MMT).
18.16 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Over the last two decades, there has been tremendous growth in the fabrication tech-
niques for nanofibrous materials because of their unique features and many useful
applications. There are several techniques such as electrospinning, melt blowing, bi-
component spinning, force spinning and flash spinning that can be used for the fabrica-
tion of nanofibres for smart textile applications. Electrospinning is the most widely and
versatile process to fabricate nanofibres. It is going to bring about hundreds of billions of
dollars of market impact on new materials within a decade. Research and development
will slowly break down the barriers for use of nanofibres in various fields. In addition,
the advent of electrospinning makes it possible to bring the traditional textile sector to
a level of high-technological industry. However, there is a need of intense cooperation
between people from various disciplines such as textile technology, chemical technol-
ogy, biotechnology, polymer science and material science to explore these possibilities.
This chapter has discussed about the production methods used to fabricate nano-
fibres for various applications. Among the several processes, electrospinning is the
most popular technique used for producing nanofibres. Fundamental analysis of
these fabrication techniques is needed to develop nanofibres with desired proper-
ties on a commercial scale. Some of the techniques are still in their infancy, and
much research is required for standardization and commercialization. Although
electrospinning is so far the only method with potential for commercial production,
the major issue yet to be resolved is how to substantially scale-up the production to
match the demands from a range of potential markets. In the future, there will be
wider applications of nanofibres in smart textiles due to their superior properties.
The polymer nanocomposites are very important in the field of material science
for the past two decades. Even though the development of this promising technique
is just in its infancy, it has an emerging future in various applications. Polymer nano-
composites have a great potential marking it as a vibrant area of work in the recent
years. The improvement and application of nanocomposites will depend upon how
effectively we can handle the challenges.
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Index
A protective, 103
sensors, 50, 326, 327, 366
Abrasion resistance, 11, 39, 44, 147, 217, 242, Areal density, 239
318–320, 322, 323 Attenuates, 46, 274, 356, 359, 363
Acetates, 18, 22 Attractive materials, 5, 271
Acids, 6, 7, 9, 22, 128, 137, 160, 162, 165, 171, Automatic start mark prevention, 82
172, 174, 175, 182, 196, 209, 210, 223, Automobiles, 18, 104, 112, 143, 144, 146, 198, 326
258, 259, 261, 295, 304, 321, 351, 355, Auxetic textile, 138
362, 363, 365 Auxochrome, 170
Acrylic, 11, 22, 25, 28, 54, 115, 136, 171, 172,
211, 223, 252, 258, 320, 322, 323
Adipic acid, 258 B
Advancements in Computer Aided Ballistic applications, 147
Manufacturing (CAM), 275 Banned chemicals, 260
Aerobic fermentation process, 259 Base, 58, 73, 90, 95, 99, 124, 149, 162, 172, 174,
Aerosol particles, 366 196–198, 258, 281, 286, 325, 334,
Aerospace, 18, 138, 146, 148, 292, 302, 307, 332 341, 367
Agglomeration, 22, 261, 304 Basic patterns, 76–77, 132
Aggrotech, 317 Bending instability
Airflow dyeing process, 184 Rigidity, 102, 145
Air permeability, 91, 102, 117, 120, 202, 245, 321 Biocompatibility, 10, 21, 316
Applications Biocomposites, 292–307
biomedical, 21, 365–366 Biodegradable/biodegradability, 9, 10, 21, 104,
protection, 103 209, 210, 215, 261, 292, 293, 303, 305,
Aromatic amines, 260 308, 316, 317, 319, 353, 365
Alkalis, 6, 9, 259, 321 Biodegradation
Alkylphenol ethoxylates (APEOs), 259, 260 in soil, 303
Alternative chemicals in compost, 303–304
processes, 260 in aqueous medium, 304–305
Alumina Silica, 11 Bio-PDO (1,3-propanediol), 259
Amorphous, 6, 9, 163, 304 Biopolymers, 10
Anisotropic, 147 Bleaching, 154, 159, 162–163, 165, 166, 261
Antimicrobial finishes, 149, 211, 212 Block printing, 189
Anionic softeners, 209 Blow room, 47–48
Apparel industry Braid carrier, 140
products, 264 Braided fabrics
production, 257, 264, 281 two dimensional (2D), 131–133, 135–138, 143,
Appearance, 3, 4, 9, 27, 40, 43, 68, 69, 72, 119, 144, 146, 148
127, 157, 163, 202–205, 242, 243, 280, three dimensional (3D), 132–135, 137–141,
283, 318, 319, 341, 367 143, 146–148
Application of CAD biaxial, 137, 138, 143
in dyeing and printing, 286 triaxial, 138
in fabric structures, 283–285 Braider bobbin, 132
in garment manufacturing, 284, 286 Breaking extension, 10, 65, 120, 145
in yarn manufacturing, 283 load, 10, 227, 230, 232, 239
Applications Bubble electrospinning, 352, 354, 355
biomedical, 21, 365–366 Building block, 18, 362
electronic, 366 Buildtech, 318, 324, 325, 328
filter, 366 Bursting strength, 104, 239, 241–242, 320
filtration, 366 Body scanning technology
insulations, 110 3D, 281–283, 288
381
382 Index
C 2D braided composites, 138, 143, 146, 148

Computer Aided Design (CAD), 143, 148, 191,
CAD/CAM 263, 264, 270–274, 276, 278–284,
disadvantages of, 287 286–288, 336
benefits of, 287 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), 143,
in textile and garment industries, use in, 148, 270, 271–281, 284, 286, 287
276–280 Compressibility, 102, 103
Calendering, 202–204 Compression moulding, 294, 295, 297, 299,
friction, 203 301, 302
Capillaries, 26, 102, 114, 145, 347–349, 361, 362 Computational techniques, 143, 149
Caprolactam, 258 Contaminated, 261, 319
Cartesian technique, 132 Continuous form, 17, 18
Carbon, 7, 8, 12, 36, 79, 93, 100, 136, 137, 146, Contoured structures, 40
292, 308, 318, 321–323 Commodity fibres, 17, 18, 30
Carbon nanofibres (CNFs), 304, 306, 362 Coulombic repulsion, 347, 357
nanospheres, 136 Cortex, 5
nanotubes (CNT), 136, 137, 298, 365 Course, 79, 90, 91, 93, 97, 98, 236, 237, 281
Carboxyl (-COOH) groups, 259 Creep, 10, 28, 372
Carding, 46, 48–49, 111 Crimp, 5, 9, 23, 64, 69, 73, 138, 204, 237, 284,
Cationic softeners, 208–209 361
Cellulose acetate Corrosion printing, 190
triacetate, 25 Cross-sectional shapes, 20, 140, 284, 361
Cellulose chain, 4, 210 Crystalline
Cellulosics, 18, 211 phase, 26
Ceramic, 5, 6, 8, 11, 39, 73, 132, 136, 197, semi, 5, 9, 365
362, 369 Crystallinity, 7, 9, 26, 29, 164, 293, 304, 365
Characterization techniques, 29, 293 Crystallite orientation
Charged material, 347 size, 26
Chemical bonding, 125, 126, 194 Customization, 94, 281, 336–340
Chemical finishing, 202, 206–215
Circular weft-knitting machines, 94
Clay, 365, 367–371 D
Closed-loop recycling, 258 Damage tolerant materials, 132
Clothing manufacturing, 262 Defense, 302, 316
Clothtech, 318–319 Deformation rate, 26
Coarse, 22, 33, 34, 42, 46, 47, 53–55, 95, 101, Degree of crystallinity, 9, 26, 365
102, 134 Degumming, 154, 159–162, 165
Colour Delamination, 138, 144, 148, 303
fastness, 170, 174, 175, 192, 222, 261 Demand for materials, 18
fastness testing, 248–255 Denier, 22, 54, 56, 98, 226, 228
selection, 286 Density
Coloration, 71, 170, 176, 185, 216 low, 26, 292, 297, 323
Colouring chemicals, 261 high, 8, 39, 117, 127, 297, 321
Comber, 51 Depolymerizing, 258
Comfort, 3, 10, 11, 37, 91, 103, 149, 194, 195, 222, Designers, 64, 83, 195, 198, 263, 264, 270–273,
245–248, 321, 322, 337–341 275–280, 287, 332, 335, 336
Common Threads Garment Recycling Design for disassembly, 264
Program, 258 Desizing, 40, 154, 157–158, 162, 165, 261
Complex shapes, 142, 148 Devoré printing, 191
Composite Die, 19, 115, 358–361
green, 296–298 Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 305,
hybrid, 292, 298–299 365, 370
materials, 76, 92, 143, 307, 346 Digital printing, 191–194, 286
processes, 143, 323, 372 Dimethyl terephthalate (DMT), 258, 259
3D axial braided composites, 135 Dimensional stability, 12, 18, 143, 144, 164, 179,
3D braided composites, 132, 138, 143, 146, 204, 238, 320–322
147, 148 Dip coating, 195, 199
Index 383
Discharge wastewater, 261 Elongation, 6, 111, 147, 196, 227, 230, 232, 239,
Discolouration, 22, 23 358, 365, 371
Dissolution, 19, 22, 23, 172, 173, 299, 349 Embossing, 126, 196, 203–204
Distinct fine structure, 18 End use requirements, 20, 143
Dope concentration, 22, 24 Energy absorption, 146
Draw frame, 42, 50, 57 consumption, 52, 83, 182, 183, 218, 262, 307
Drawing, 7, 9, 18, 23, 26, 29, 81, 113, 114, 185, efficient, 149, 262, 340
188, 189, 192, 275, 280, 281, 287, 346, efficiency measures, 263
347, 358, 362–364 loss, 262
Drug encapsulations, 21 use, 257, 262–263
Dry laid, 110–112, 127 Engineering applications, 2, 17, 92, 104
Dye aggregation or agglomeration, 261 Evenness testing of yarn, 233–234
Dyeing Environmental footprints
fabric, 175, 178–180 impacts, 13, 209, 257, 297
fibre, 175–176, 178 issues, 22, 257, 264
garment, 180–181 Environmentally friendly textile
methods of, 175–181 apparel production, 262–263
shorter cycle, 263 Enzyme degradation of biocomposites, 305–307
yarn, 176–178 Enzymatic methods, 159
Dyes Epoxy, 136, 146, 147, 294, 295, 299, 302,
acid, 172, 175, 261 368, 370
azo, 172, 174, 260, 261 Extrusion, 7, 18–23, 25, 29, 116, 296, 301,
basic, 172 302, 360
direct, 172 Extensibility, 5, 10, 65, 91, 93, 120
disperse, 171, 173, 182, 260, 262
metal complex, 175 F
mordant, 174–175
reactive, 174, 183, 184, 194, 260, 261 Fabric(s)
sulphur, 171, 175, 183 industrial, 22, 86
synthetic, 170, 171 production, 73, 100, 111, 262
vat, 173, 175, 183 strength, 239–242
Dye-surfactant micelle dyeing process, 261 structure, 64, 70, 86, 92, 103, 104, 118, 137,
Dyneema®, 29, 323 138, 143, 164, 212, 283–284
Fabrication techniques, 143, 347, 364, 372
E Failure mechanism, 143, 147
Fashion designers, 198, 263, 276, 280
Easy-care finishes, 210 Fatigue loading, 146
Eco Circle program, 258 Fermentation process, 21, 173, 259
E-control dyeing process, 181, 184–185 Fibres
Effluent, 13, 159, 160, 165, 166, 175, 176, 182, alginate, 7
184, 185, 218, 261 animal, 3, 5, 191
E-glass, 135, 148 bamboo, 13
Elasticity, 5, 8, 12, 92, 93, 101, 102, 104, 125, basalt, 6
164, 194 bast, 4
Elastic recovery, 10, 91, 92, 145 bi-component, 111–112, 115, 125, 361
Elastomeric, 8, 25, 104, 361 cellulose, 4, 5, 112, 158, 173, 194, 210, 304
Electric conductivity, 358 ceramic, 6, 8, 11, 136
Electric discharge problem, 350 chitosan, 26
Electrochemical dyeing, 183–184 commodity, 17, 18
Electrolyte, 261, 366 cotton, 11, 42, 48, 135, 154, 158, 163, 172,
Electronic textile (E-textile), 10, 332, 337, 340 182, 224, 226, 228
Electrospinning diameter, 349, 352, 355, 358, 359, 361, 363,
coaxial, 361 366
single-jet, 352 elastane, 260
multi-jets, 352–353 fine, 326, 348
needleless, 353–354 fineness, 53, 54, 223–226, 228
roller, 352, 358 formation, 18–20, 24, 26, 354
384 Index
Fibres (cont.) Flax, 3, 4, 17, 34, 112, 135, 183, 294, 296, 297,
green, 13, 21 299, 300, 305, 317, 319, 322
hollow, 19, 26, 135, 357 Flexibility, 2, 7, 33, 34, 52, 64, 71–73, 92, 94,
Identification of, 223 100, 101, 114, 147, 149, 192, 193, 195,
inorganic, 2 196, 199, 216, 287, 302, 307, 318, 328,
length, 3, 135, 226–228 333
length testing, 226–227 Flow rate, 351, 352, 355, 360, 363
micro, 212 Fluid form, 19
morphology, 355, 356, 358, 361 Flyknit, 264
multi-component, 19 Foam application, 207–208
natural, 3–6, 17, 18, 29, 102, 135, 154, 170, Force spinning, 346, 347, 358, 363, 372
184, 194, 199, 292, 293, 296–299, Functional groups, 19, 210
303, 317 Fracture, 6, 136, 147
nylon 6, 7, 13, 258 Friction
nylon 6.6, 7, 146 forces, 10, 45, 50
optical, 104, 339
plant, 3–5, 332 G
polyester, 100, 135, 145, 182, 189, 258, 259,
295, 324 Garment(s)
aliphatic, 20 production (pre-consumer solid waste), 263
polyester and cotton blend, 157, 163, 264 Gas sensors, 366
polypropylene, 71, 135, 211, 317 Gelation, 362
polystyrene (PS), 296 Generation of wastewater, 257, 261–262
poly(trimethylene terephthalate) (PTT/ Geotech, 319, 324
triexta), 259 Geotextiles, 113, 120, 124, 315, 319, 324, 325
polyurethane (PU), 147, 195, 196 Glass, 5, 6, 26, 93, 100, 124, 135, 147, 237,
rayon, 6–7, 18, 27, 194, 223 252, 273, 299, 318, 321, 337, 352,
regenerated, 18, 154 354, 365
silk, 5, 10, 154, 159, 172, 305, 365 Global warming, 29
specialty/high performance, 8, 17, 18, 22, 28, Glucose, 4, 165, 259, 366
29, 73, 75, 93, 104, 135, 147, 316 Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, 262,
strength, 36, 163, 135, 227–228 297, 307
sustainable, 21 Graphene
trilobal, 135 graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs), 136, 137, 148
Fibrils, 4, 5, 163, 296 Grounded collector, 348, 349, 354, 355
Fibroin, 5, 365
Filament(s) H
diameter, 24
fine, 19, 20 Hairiness testing of yarn, 235–236
formation, 17–30 Hazardous chemicals, 257, 259–261
number, 24, 25 Heat distortion temperature (HDT), 367, 370
profiled, 20 Heat-setting
Filler, 137, 296, 298, 367, 369, 371 transfer, 19, 173
Filtration, 11, 22, 110, 115, 116, 124, 128, Heterogeneous, 147
136, 217, 319, 320, 325, 326, 346, Hexamethylene diamine, 258
365, 366 High salt content, 261
Fine granules, 22 High-tech, 18, 223, 255, 331, 333, 372
Finishing High voltage power supply, 348
functional agents, 50, 206, 210, 259 Home furnishings, 27–29, 120, 279, 286, 337
mechanical, 202–206, 127 Hometech, 320
process, 153, 163, 164, 188, 202–217 Hydrocarbon solvent, 262
Fixation, 174, 184, 185, 189, 190, 252, 261 Hydroentanglement, 112, 115, 116, 122–123
Flame retardants Hydrogen-bonding, 262
halogenated, 213 bonds, 4, 170, 182, 210
non-halogenated, 213–214 Hydrolyzed, 174, 259, 307
Flash spinning, 117 Hydrophobic polymers, 262, 292
Flat and circular braid, 132 Hydroxyl (-OH) groups, 4, 7, 210, 259
Index 385
I Man-made fibre(s)
industry, 6–8, 18
Immersion printing, 196–198 Manufacturer Restrictive Substance List
Impact (MRSL), 260
loading, 146 Manufacturing sectors, 29, 262
Implants, 21, 22, 195, 332 Marker making, 263
Industrial applications, 10, 29, 76, 116, 193, 320 Mass transfer, 20, 26
areas, 131, 146 Maypole technique, 132
Industrial textiles, 86, 94, 137, 316 Mechanical
Industry 4.0, 29, 336 bonding, 117–125
Indutech, 320–321, 325 finishing, 127, 202–206, 127
Injection moulding, 296, 299, 301, 368 properties, 2, 9, 17, 26, 29, 70, 92, 99, 101,
Intelligent textile, 13, 331 103, 137, 147–149, 292–295, 298, 299,
Interaction, 25, 66, 193, 211, 245, 275, 281, 336, 302, 307, 316, 365, 371
369 treatment, 5
Interlayer region, 138 Medtech, 321, 326, 327, 328
Intertwining, 132, 134, 137, 138–142, 146 Medulla, 5
Intralaminar region, 132 Melt blowing, 115–116, 346, 347, 350, 351,
Island-in-sea (IIS), 361 358–360, 372
Melt compounding, 291, 300–302
J Melting point, 22, 125, 361
Melt intercalation, 368, 369
Jacquard woven 3D Fabrics, 75, 76 Melt spinning, 6, 18–22, 25, 26, 29, 113, 258,
Jamming 347, 363
maximum, 134 Membrane, 11, 26, 211, 333, 352, 360, 362
minimum, 134 Mercerization, 163–164
Jet, 26, 42, 60, 67, 122, 123, 178, 179, 184, Microchannels, 357
347–349, 352, 355, 356, 363 Microencapsulation, 215, 216
charged, 349 Micro-factories, 335, 336
Microfluidic device, 357, 361
K Micromechanics, 147, 149
Microstructure, 372
Knitting, 2, 40, 64, 90–105, 110, 123, 124, 264, Mobiltech, 321–322, 326–328
273, 316–319, 321–324, 326, 333 Modulus, 5, 10, 12, 13, 29, 69, 73, 91, 101, 102,
terminologies, 90–91 104, 122, 135, 136, 142, 145, 147, 293,
294, 296, 298, 299, 365, 371
L Moisture absorption
management, 102
Landfill, 263, 322 Molecule, 4, 5, 7, 9, 18, 148, 170, 171, 175, 183,
Latent heat of evaporation, 23 208–211, 213, 216, 259, 260, 303,
Large scale deformation, 18 362, 371
Layered silicate, 368, 369, 371 Molecular weight, 11, 19, 20, 28, 29, 173, 293,
Life-cycle, 257, 274 305, 351, 358, 361
Liquid composites moulding, 302 mobility, 26
Long chain molecules, 4, 7, 18, 210 Monomer(s), 8, 71, 136, 258, 259, 293, 306, 362,
Low exhaustion, 261 368
Low extrusion pressure, 25 vinyl, 22
Low liquor-ratio dyeing process, 179, 261, 262 Montmorillonite (MMT), 257–259, 262, 299,
Low/no-water textile processing, 261 369, 371
Lustre, 69, 70, 159, 163, 164, 202–204 Multiaxis 3D braiding, 142, 149
Lyotropic liquid crystalline polymers Multiaxial warp-knitted fabrics, 99–100
(LLCPs), 26 Multi-colour weft selection, 79, 80
Multidirectional, 132, 146, 148
M Multilayer structures, 104
yarn path, 135
Machine parameters, 20, 48, 92 Multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs),
Macrostructure, 5 136, 137
386 Index
N Plasma treatment, 216–217

Polar forms, 132
Nano additives, 148 Polluting industries, 257
Nanocomposites Polyacrylonitrile (PAN), 7, 28–29, 136, 182, 316,
epoxy, 368, 370 321, 323, 361, 362, 366, 367
exfoliated, 369 Polyamide, 7, 112, 114, 116, 135, 136, 172, 182,
flocculated, 369 192, 195, 196, 211, 260, 296, 319, 363
intercalated, 369 Polycaprolactone (PCL), 362
Nanofibres Polycarbonate, 136, 300
carbon (CNF), 136, 137, 362 Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS), 210, 357
core-shell, 361 Polyethylene, 7, 8, 11, 28, 29, 114, 117, 125, 126,
multi-component, 357 128, 136, 147, 296, 317, 319, 348,
uniform, 357 360, 371
Nanofibrous materials, 372 Polyethylene oxide (PEO), 353, 365
Nanofillers, 298, 299, 367, 369–371 Polylactic acid (PLA), 20, 21, 128, 182, 259, 296,
Nanowebs, 137, 353, 356, 360 300, 303–307, 316, 351, 366
Napthol, 172, 174 Polymer
Natural cellulose, 6, 7, 18 homo, 360
fillers, 296, 298 laid, 110, 113–117
fibre reinforced composites, 318 matrix, 296–300, 303, 367–369
Near-net shape manufacturing, 132 matrices, 292
Needle-punching, 117–121 melts, 20, 114, 115, 350, 351, 359
Needles, 44, 79–81, 90, 91, 93–95, 97–99, 101, natural, 10, 18, 303
117–121, 123–125, 127, 352, 353 strands, 19
Nanoyarns, 137 synthesis, 18, 258
Non-toxicity, 21, 182 Polymerization
Nonwoven, 110, 202, 295, 321 addition, 18, 19, 356
condensation, 18, 19, 259, 356
O copolymerization, 19
in-situ, 368, 371
Oekotech, 322 ring-opening, 259
Olefin, 28, 114, 258 Polymerized, 258, 371
Out-of-plane properties, 143 Polyolefin, 7–8, 135, 258, 322, 348, 361, 363
Polytetrafluroethylene (PTFE), 356
P Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), 22, 25, 198, 295, 299,
354, 356, 358, 360, 365
Packtech, 322–323 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC), 214, 318, 356, 360
Para-aramid, 8, 136, 137, 141, 142 Polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP), 356, 357, 361
Pattern(s), 9, 68, 69, 76–79, 83, 85, 126, 132–135, Poor levelling problems, 261
137, 140, 176, 178, 189–191, 193, Pore size, 115, 326, 365
196–198, 203, 204, 208, 263, 264, Porous surfaces, 366
270–272, 274, 276–278, 280, 281, 283, Post-consumer products, 258
284, 286, 287, 335, 339, 357 solid waste, 363–364
cutting techniques, 263 Pultrusion, 138
printed, 270, 271 Pre-consumer, 258, 263
Peptide chains, 5 Preforms
Phase change, 11, 327, 361 multidirectional 3D braided, 132
Piezoresistive fabric sensors, 339 Preparatory chemical processes, 153–166
Pigments, 5, 158, 162, 170, 189, 190, 194, 252, 259 Preparatory process, 65–66, 153, 154, 157, 158,
Pilling, 11, 43, 44, 157, 164, 205, 243–245 160–162, 164
Petrochemicals, 258, 259 Prepreg, 136
Phase separation, 346, 358, 362 Printing, 21, 57, 126, 127, 153, 157, 162, 173,
Physiochemical processes, 18 188–199, 261, 286, 336
Plastic bottles, 71 3D, 21, 195–196, 197, 198, 199, 328, 334
post-consumer, 258 Process parameters, 20, 115, 216
Plasticization effects, 262 Product design, 17, 264, 270, 277, 279
Platelets, 369 life cycle, 257, 274
Index 387
Production cost, 78, 262, 273, 286, 297, 301, 307 Self-assembly, 362, 364
Project Jacquard, 335 Selvedge, 80, 84, 179
Property (properties) Serviceability tests, 243–244
barrier, 137, 371 Sewing process, 91, 97, 263, 274, 286, 318
chemical, 316, 370 Shear rates, 259
dielectric, 294 Shear/shearing, 70, 76, 78, 100, 101, 112, 115,
electrical, 326, 365, 371 127, 147, 154, 160, 190, 205, 300, 301,
mechanical, 9, 17, 26, 29, 70, 92, 99, 101, 103, 351, 359, 368, 372
136, 137, 147–149, 222, 292–295, 298, Short length, 3, 17
299, 302, 307, 316, 365, 371 Shrinkage, 75, 121, 164, 204, 210, 237, 238, 331
physical, 9, 207, 370 Shuttleless looms, 66–68, 84
rheological, 23, 371–372 Shuttle looms, 64, 66–68
thermal, 365, 369, 370 Side-by-side, 111, 114, 115, 140, 250, 361
Protech, 323, 327 Significant effect, 26, 101
Protective materials, 22, 367 Singeing, 40, 127, 154, 157, 164, 205–206
Silicone softeners, 210
Q Simple/complex geometries, 138, 301
Single layer, 75, 138
Quantity, 17, 50, 188, 207, 246, 259, 261 Single walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs),
Quenching conditions, 26 136, 137
Quick style change, 81, 85 Sizing, 40, 64–66, 197
Small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS), 370
R Smart fabrics, 326, 332, 334, 340, 326
Smart production system, 30
Ramie, 5, 17, 302, 317 Smart textiles, 198, 331–341
Rate of evaporation, 24, 365 Snagging, 243
Rate of diffusion, 24, 183 Softeners, 127, 208–211
Rayon, 6–7, 18, 27, 194, 223 Solid form, 19
Reactive groups, 174, 212, 260 waste, 257, 263–264
Recycled Solidification, 20, 24, 126, 363, 365
plastic materials, 258 Solution dry spinning, 18, 19, 23–26
polyester, 258, 324 wet spinning, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25
Recycle/reuse, 4, 71, 110, 175, 182, 258, 262, 263, Solution exfoliation, 368–369
264, 301, 324 Solvent
Regenerated silk fibres (RSF), 10 casting, 299–301
Renewable resources, 20, 259, 324 recovery, 22, 23, 349, 363
Repellent finishes, 214–215 Spacer fabrics, 100–104, 112
Resist printing, 190–191 Spectra®, 29, 323
Resource depletion, 257–259 Spray application, 208
Responsible manufacturing system, 30 Spirality angles, 4
Rigid composite, 131, 132, 146 Spin line stress, 26
Risks, 103, 105, 208, 260, 340, 360 Spinning
Roving frame, 51–52 air-jet, 33, 34, 42–45
bath, 20, 25
S bi-component, 19, 346, 358, 361
compact, 36–41
Sanforising, 204 condition, 9, 26
Scaffolds, 148, 365 electrostatic (electro spinning), 28, 137,
Scanning electron microscopy (SEM), 293, 300, 346–359, 361–366, 372
303, 304, 306, 307, 370 friction, 33, 45–47
Scouring, 154, 158–159, 161–165, 216, 261 gel, 18, 28–29
agents, 259 ring, 33–36, 41–43, 51–53, 56, 60
Screen printing, 189 rotor, 34, 41–42, 60
localized, 189 speed, 23, 25, 53, 114
rotary, 189–190 Spinneret, 6, 7, 19, 22, 24–26, 29, 113, 114, 117,
Seamless knitting technology, 96–97 176, 348–351, 354, 355, 357, 361
Sericin, 5, 159 holes, 20
388 Index
Specialty chemical products, 259 Terephthalic acid (TPA), 259

Sportech, 324, 327 Testing
Spunbonding, 113–116 of fibres, 223–228
Sustainability, 30, 292, 326 of yarns, 228–236
Surface tension, 197, 214, 347, 349, 358 of fabrics, 236–255
Surfactants, 112, 207, 209, 211, 261 of yarn count and twist, 228–229
non-ionic, 259 Textile production, 30, 257, 258, 261, 262, 339
Supercritical carbon dioxide (CO2), 262 waste recycling, 110, 264
dyeing technique, 182, 185 Textile printing, 188, 191–195
Superhydrophobic self-cleaning surfaces, 337 Textile reinforced composites, 291–302
Supply chains, 192, 260, 261, 277 Textiles, performance of, 17, 316
Starch, 158, 259, 299, 300, 303, 306 Theoretical model, 70
Stiffness, 7, 9, 91, 93, 101, 125, 132, 143, 145, Thermal bonding, 113, 125–126, 295
146, 318, 371 Thermodynamic equilibrium, 26
Stitch bonding, 78, 123–125 Thermoplastic matrix, 136
Strength, 3–6, 8–11, 13, 22, 25, 29, 34–36, 46, Thermo-physiological clothing, 103
60, 64, 65, 72, 83, 100, 101, 104, 111, Thermoset matrix, 136
113, 116, 117, 120, 122, 123, 125, 132, Thickness, 2, 49, 53, 56, 58, 73, 74, 91, 99–101,
134–136, 138, 142, 143, 145–147, 158, 104, 111, 127, 136–138, 140–143, 148,
163, 194, 202, 205, 212, 216, 222, 227, 195, 202, 205, 215, 222, 224, 237–238,
228, 230, 232, 233, 239–242, 261, 246, 353
293–297, 299, 317, 318, 327, 333, 340, Throughput, 354, 358
347, 350, 356, 365, 369, 371 rate, 359
Strong, 6, 10, 18, 26, 49, 51, 77, 86, 92, 116, 126, Tissue engineering, 148, 346, 365, 366
135, 158, 159, 163, 165, 210, 216, 273, Toluene, 260, 262, 368
279, 353, 363, 367 Toxic chemicals, 261
Structural components Toxicity, 21, 182, 211, 213, 349
composite, 132, 143, 146, 148 Transmission electron microscopy (TEM), 370
integrity, 100, 146 Translate the fibre property, 17
parameters, 26, 92, 101 Twist, 35, 36, 38, 41–46, 53, 56, 59, 72, 91, 222,
properties, 236–237 228, 229, 245, 283, 284
Structures
modification, 19, 163 U
textile, 18, 138, 143, 331
Sutures, 21, 148, 315, 316 Ultra-high molecular weight polyethylene
Swelling tendency, 26 (UHMWPE), 29, 111
Synthetic fibres, 317, 319, 320–324 Ultrasonic dyeing technique, 183
leather, 127 Ultraviolet (UV) protection, 202, 212
Unit cells, 70, 132, 134, 135, 139–142, 149
T structures, 90
Unused fabrics, 263
Taylor cone, 347–349, 352, 358 Use of CAD in textile industry, 273
Technical applications, 17, 73, 75, 93, 103, 296 UV light resistance, 145
garments, 128, 315
Technical textiles, 75, 99, 127, 131, 315–328, V
335, 336
Thermal conductivity, 8, 102, 137, 245–246, 324, Van der Waals forces, 9, 170
370 Vapour pressure, 24, 183
Temperature Variability, 22, 232, 234, 282
glass transition (Tg), 165 Vectran® (thermotropic liquid crystalline
melting (Tm), 29, 126, 365 polymer or TLCP), 20, 22
Template syntheses, 347, 362 Virtual reality, 275, 334, 336
Tenacity, 10, 12, 29, 43, 117, 120, 160, 227, 230, 232 Viscosity, 6, 23, 29, 67, 190, 195, 207, 350, 351,
Tensile, 4–6, 10, 73, 101, 111, 122, 134, 135, 138, 355, 358–360, 363, 371, 372
145, 147, 205, 216, 231, 232, 241, 293, Voids, 26
369 Volatile organic compounds, 182, 260, 302
Tensile testing of yarn, 230–233 Volume fraction, 142, 143, 299
Index 389
W Wool, 5, 29, 34, 71, 93, 95, 154, 156, 160–163,

170–172, 174–176, 182, 183, 211, 212,
Wales, 91, 236 223, 254, 255, 261, 264, 318, 320,
Warp, 59, 64, 65, 67–77, 81–85, 101, 124, 138, 322–324
140, 141, 176, 204, 237, 241, 284, 294, Wound dressing, 148, 211, 315, 337, 346, 365, 366
295 Woven fabrics
knitting, 90, 91, 97–104, 123 multiaxial, 76–79
Warping, 64, 65 structures, 86, 283
Warp-knitted structures, 90, 97–104 triaxial, 76–79
3D knitted structures, 99
Water use, minimize, 261
Wastewater, 257, 261, 262
X
Waterless dyeing technology, 262 X-ray, 370
Water use, 157, 261
pollution, 181, 217, 261
Y
repellency, 5, 208, 210, 217
Weave Yarn
plain, 68, 69, 72 carriers, 93, 132, 138
sateen, 69–70 conductive, 10
twill, 69 fancy, 56–59
Weaving formation, 33–60
air jet, 67, 85 interlacements, 64, 69, 132, 237
multiphase, 84, 85 manufacturing processes, 34, 47–53, 60, 283
projectile, 67–68 numbering system, 53–55
rapier, 67 number of yarn sets, 132, 133
water jet, 67 orientation, 132, 133, 143
Web bonding, 117–126 spun, 157, 47–53, 58, 65, 98, 157
Web formation, 110–117 staple, 43, 205, 206
Weft, 59, 64–69, 71–74, 76, 79, 83–85, 124, 237, type and formation, 132
241, 284, 285 Yield point, 10
knitting, 90, 92–94, 104 stress, 10, 372
Weft-knitted structures, 92–97 strain, 10
Weight reduction, 146
Wetting agents, 159, 161–163, 184 Z
Wicking, 245, 248, 339
Wide angle X-ray diffraction (WAXD), 370 Zero Discharge of Hazardous Chemicals (ZDHC)
Winding, 33–36, 39, 42, 57, 64–66, 113, 359 program, 260, 261
Wire‒rope, 145, 147 Zero Waste Fashion Design (ZWFD), 263, 264
Wet laying, 112 Zero waste garments, 264
Wet processing, 165, 181, 204, 218, 257, 261–263 patterns, 263
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Fibres to Smart ­Textiles

Care and Maintenance of Textile Products Including

For more information about this series, please visit: www.crcpress.com/

© 2020 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Printed on acid-free paper

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-138-33251-5 (Paperback)

Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks,

Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data

Names: Patnaik, Asis, author. | Patnaik, Sweta, author.

Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at

and the CRC Press Web site at

Chapter 1 Textile Fibres and Recent Developments..............................................1

Chapter 2 Filament Formation and Recent Developments.................................. 17

Chapter 3 Yarn Formation and Recent Developments......................................... 31

Chapter 4 Fabric Formation and Recent Developments...................................... 63

Chapter 5 Knitting and Recent Developments..................................................... 89

Chapter 6 Non-Woven Fabrics: Technology, Applications and Recent

Chapter 7 Braiding and Recent Developments.................................................. 131

Chapter 8 Preparatory Chemical Processes and Recent Developments............ 153

Chapter 9 Dyeing and Recent Developments.................................................... 169

Chapter 10 Printing and Recent Developments................................................... 187

Chapter 11 Finishing Processes and Recent Developments................................ 201

Chapter 12 Testing of Fibres, Yarns and Fabrics and Their Recent

Chapter 13 Recent Developments to Reduce Environmental Impacts of

Chapter 15 Recent Developments in Textile-Reinforced Composites and

Chapter 16 Technical Textiles and Recent Developments................................... 315

Chapter 17 Smart Textiles and Recent Developments......................................... 331

Chapter 18 Nanotextiles and Recent Developments............................................ 345

Dr Sweta Patnaik has completed her Bachelor in Engineering in textile engineer-

Elisângela Bezerra das Neves Naveen V. Padaki

Huantian Cao Osei Ofosu

Subhas V. Naik Teboho C. Mokhena

1.6.7 Bemberg Microporous Membrane ...................................................... 11

1.2.1 Classification Based on the Length of Fibres

1.2.2 Classification Based on the Origin and Source of Fibres

FIGURE 1.1 Textile fibres’ classification.

1.3.1.2 Other Cellulosic Fibres

1.3.3 Mineral Fibres (Ceramics and Basalt)

1.4.5.1 CeraTex® Ceramic Fibres

1.5 FIBRE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES,

polymeric structure. The polymeric structure consists of atoms linked together by

1.6.1 Regenerated Silk Fibres

1.6.2 Shape Memory Materials

1.6.3 Cell Solution® Polymer

1.6.4 Ultra-High Molecular Weight PE

1.6.7 Bemberg Microporous Membrane

1.6.9 TEIJIN CONEX Fibres

1.6.11 Japan KBS Belltron Fibres

1.6.12 Total Heat® Fibres

1.6.13 Graphene Nylon Fibres

1.6.14 Copper Nylon Fibres

1.6.15 Coffee Ground Nylon Fibres

1.6.17 Lyocell Bamboo Fibres

1.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Aoshen spandex. 2018. www.ldzaspandex.com (accessed October 29, 2018).

MIT. 2018. How to build regenerated silk fibers. https://materialdistrict.com/article/build-

1. Conversion of polymer into a fine hair-like continuous form having a dis-

of modification of molecular weight distribution and type, choice and incorpora-

2.2 SPINNING/EXTRUSION AND THEIR

FIGURE 2.1 Flow diagram of melt spinning process.

FIGURE 2.2 General features of melt spinning process.

FIGURE 2.3 Cross section of profile filaments.

Fibres to Smart Textiles

1.6.7 Bemberg Microporous Membrane ...................................................... 11

1.2.1 Classification Based on the Length of Fibres

1.2.2 Classification Based on the Origin and Source of Fibres

1.3.1.2 Other Cellulosic Fibres

1.3.3 Mineral Fibres (Ceramics and Basalt)

1.4.5.1 CeraTex® Ceramic Fibres

1.5 FIBRE MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURES,

1.6.1 Regenerated Silk Fibres

1.6.2 Shape Memory Materials

1.6.3 Cell Solution® Polymer

1.6.4 Ultra-High Molecular Weight PE

1.6.7 Bemberg Microporous Membrane

1.6.9 TEIJIN CONEX Fibres

1.6.11 Japan KBS Belltron Fibres

1.6.12 Total Heat® Fibres

1.6.13 Graphene Nylon Fibres

1.6.14 Copper Nylon Fibres

1.6.15 Coffee Ground Nylon Fibres

1.6.17 Lyocell Bamboo Fibres

1.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

2.2 SPINNING/EXTRUSION AND THEIR

2.3 FUTURE TRENDS AND MARKET STATUS

3.3.2.5 W ider Width.......................................................................... 49

3.5.6 Spiral or Corkscrew Yarn.................................................................... 58

3.2 YARN FORMATION TECHNIQUES

3.2.1.1 Various Components of a Ring Frame

3.2.2.2 RoCoS-Magnetic Compacting System

3.2.2.3 CompACT3 System of Zinser

3.2.2.5 Advantages of Compact Spinning

3.2.2.6 Disadvantages of Compact Spinning

3.2.4.1 Murata Vortex Spinning

3.2.4.2 Rieter Jet Spinning

3.3 DEVELOPMENTS IN RING-SPUN YARN

3.3.1.1 Automatic Bale Opener

3.3.1.2 Compact Blow Room Line

3.3.1.3 Mote Knife with Suction in Place of Grid Bars

3.3.1.4 Improved Mixing/Blending of Raw Material

3.3.1.5 Online Parameter Settings

3.3.2.4 Magnetic Flats – MAGNATOP

3.3.2.6 Rieter Integrated Grinding System (IGS-Top and IGS-Classic)

3.3.2.7 Trützschler Carding Setting Measurement System T-Con

3.3.2.8 T-LED – The New Remote Display

3.3.3 Development in Draw Frame

3.3.3.3 Tension Measuring System

3.3.3.4 Short-Term Auto Levellers

3.3.3.5 Simple and Automatic Adjustment of Drafting Zone Widths

3.3.3.6 Use of Microwave Sensors

3.3.3.8 High Production Speed

3.3.4.2 Two Twin Drive

3.3.5 Development in Roving Frame

3.3.5.2 Higher Flyer Speed

3.3.5.3 Individual Motor Drive

3.3.5.5 Sliver Stop Motion

3.3.6 Development in Ring Spinning System

3.3.6.2 New Drive Concept

3.3.6.3 Multi-Motor Drive System Rieter FLEXIdraft

3.3.6.4 Zinser OptiStep and OptiStart

3.3.6.5 Automated Cop Transport

3.4 YARN NUMBERING SYSTEM

3.4.3 Yarn Count Conversion

3.5.6 Spiral or Corkscrew Yarn

3.6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION