3.

1 Introduction to computers
A computer is a electronic device which accepts data from the user and produces the
desired output.

Characteristics of computer:

SPEED: Computer process data at an extremely fast rate.

•ACCURACY: Computer gives result with high degree of accuracy.

reliablitiy •STORAGE : Computer has the capacity to store mass volume

of data with appropriate format.

•DILIGENCE: Computer never feels bored and it can work for hours and
hours without any break and creating error.

•VERSATILITY: Computers are multipurpose. A Computer can perform

completely different types of work at the same time.

•POWER OF REMEMBERI

Evolution of computer (abstract only)

1.Abacus(-2500BC):This is a handheld device made of beads stungon rods in a frame. The rods
correspond to positions of the digits while the beads correspond to the digits.

2.Napierís Bone(2500BC):This was invented by JohnNapierís(1550-1617). This

consistsofsmallrodswithappropriatemarkingsonthem.Itisamechanicalaidtocomputationthatconsistsofnin
esuchrods(calledbones)withoneforeachdigit1through9.Healsoinventedlogarithmswhichmadepossibletod
odivisionandmultiplicationbyperformingadditionandsubtraction.3.SlideRule(1600AD)byWilliamOughtred
(1575-
660):Heinventeditin1622butannounceditin1632thisconsistofrulesonwhichmarkingsrepresentlogarithms
ofnumbersandalsopermitscalculationinvolvingexponents,trigonometricfunctions,etc.4.Pascalmechanical
calculator(1600)orNumericalwheelcalculator:-BlaisePascal(1623-
1664)in1642inventedthefirstaddingmachinecalledPascaline.Thebrassrectangularboxusedeightmoveable
dialstoaddandsumupofeightfigureslongusingbase10.Itcanperformallthefourarithmeticoperationwithprev
iousunheardspeed.5.Leibnitzmechanicalmultiplier(1600):In1694GottfriedWilhemVonLeibnitz(1646-
1716)improveduponthepascalinebycreatingamachinethatcanalsomultiplyusingasystemofdialsandgear.6
ColmarísCalculator(1820)byCharlesXavierThomasdeColmar:Thispresentedamorepracticalapproachtoc
omputing.7Punched-Cardmachine(Jacquardísloom)
(1801):JosephMarieJacquard.8Mechanicalcomputer:CharlesGabbage(1792-
1871)Fatherofthecomputer.Differenceenginepoweredbysteamandlargeaslocomotivethemachinehasasto
redprograman

§ Generation of computers § Classification of computer

§ Applications 3.2 Components of computers § Hardware
(different types of hardware components) § Software
(System Software, Application Software, E-accessibility
Software) (Open source, freeware and proprietary software)
§ Peripherals (working of keyboard and laser printer) 3.3
Computer Network (Concept Only) § Basics § Categories §
Protocols (Application layer) § Advantages. 3.4 Methods of data
processing (concepts only) § Single user programming § Multi
programming § Real-time processing

Functional Units of Digital System

o A computer consists of five main components namely, Input unit, Central Processing
Unit, Memory unit, Arithmetic & logical unit, Control unit and an Output unit.

Input unit

o Input units are used by the computer to read the data. The most commonly used
input devices are keyboards, mouse, joysticks, trackballs, microphones, etc.
 o Example of Input Devices are: Keyboard, Mouse, Hard-disk, Floppy-disk, CD-ROM, etc.

Central processing unit(CPU)

o Central Processing Unit is like a brain of computer

o CPU carries out the instructions given by a computer program by performing the
basic arithmetic, logical, control and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the
instructions.

Arithmetic and Logical Unit(ALU): It performs arithmetic operations like addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division and also the logical operations like AND, OR, NOT
operations.

Control Unit(CU): Control Unit generates Control signals by which it controls the

operations of all             parts of computer. The control unit is also known as the nerve
center of a computer system

Memory unit

o The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area in which programs are kept
which are running, and that contains data needed by the running programs.

Primary Memory: Primary Memory hold data and application temporarily. Example of Primary storage
devices include: Magnetic Core Memory, Cache Memory, RAM, ROM, etc.
Secondary Memory(Auxiliary Memory): Secondary Memory hold data and instruction for                   
permanent basis.Example of Secondary Storage devices include: Hard-Disk, Floppy-Disk,                      
Flash Memory, etc.

Output Unit

o The primary function of the output unit is to send the processed results to the user.
Output devices display information in a way that the user can understand.
o Output devices are pieces of equipment that are used to generate information or any
other response processed by the computer. These devices display information that
has been held or generated within a computer.
o example of an output device is a monitor, Printer, Plotter, etc
Store Program Control Concept

The term Stored Program Control Concept refers to the storage of instructions in

computer memory to enable it to perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently.

The idea was introduced in the late 1940s by John von Neumann who proposed that a
program be electronically stored in the binary-number format in a memory device so that
instructions could be modified by the computer as determined by intermediate
computational results.

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) was the first computing system
designed in the early 1940s. It was based on Stored Program Concept in which machine use
memory for processing data.

Stored Program Concept can be further classified in three basic ways:

Von-Neumann Model

Von-Neumann proposed his computer architecture design in 1945 which was later known
as Von-Neumann Architecture. It consisted of a Control Unit, Arithmetic, and Logical
Memory Unit (ALU), Registers and Inputs/Outputs.

Von Neumann architecture is based on the stored-program computer concept, where

instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory. This design is still used
in most computers produced today.

A Von Neumann-based computer:

o Uses a single processor
o Uses one memory for both instructions and data.
o Executes programs following the fetch-decode-execute cycle
General Purpose System

The General Purpose Computer System is the modified version of the Von-Neumann
Architecture. In simple words, we can say that a general purpose computer system is a
modern day architectural representation of Computer System.

The CPU (Central Processing Unit) consists of the ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit), Control
Unit and various processor registers.

The CPU, Memory Unit and I/O subsystems are interconnected by the system bus which
includes data, address, and control-status lines.

Parallel Processing

Parallel processing can be described as a class of techniques which enables the system to
achieve simultaneous data-processing tasks to increase the computational speed of a
computer system.

A parallel processing system can carry out simultaneous data-processing to achieve faster
execution time. The primary purpose of parallel processing is to enhance the computer
processing capability and increase its throughput.

A parallel processing system can be achieved by having a multiplicity of functional units

that perform identical or different operations simultaneously. The data can be distributed
among various multiple functional units.

Flynn's Classification of Computers

M.J. Flynn proposed a classification for the organization of a computer system by the
number of instructions and data items that are manipulated simultaneously.

The sequence of instructions read from memory constitutes an instruction stream.

The operations performed on the data in the processor constitute a data stream.

Flynn's classification divides computers into four major groups that are:
1. Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)
2. Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)
3. Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)
4. Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)
SISD

SISD stands for 'Single Instruction and Single Data Stream'. It represents the

organization of a single computer containing a control unit, a processor unit, and a memory
unit.

Instructions are executed sequentially, and the system may or may not have internal
parallel processing capabilities.

SIMD

SIMD stands for 'Single Instruction and Multiple Data Stream'. It represents an

organization that includes many processing units under the supervision of a common
control unit.

All processors receive the same instruction from the control unit but operate on different
items of data.

MISD

MISD stands for 'Multiple Instruction and Single Data stream'.

MISD structure is only of theoretical interest since no practical system has been
constructed using this organization.

In MISD, multiple processing units operate on one single-data stream. Each processing unit
operates on the data independently via separate instruction stream.

MIMD

MIMD stands for 'Multiple Instruction and Multiple Data Stream'.

In this organization, all processors in a parallel computer can execute different instructions
and operate on various data at the same time.

In MIMD, each processor has a separate program and an instruction stream is generated
from each program.
What is an Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between computer

hardware components and the user.

Types of Operating System (OS)

Following are the popular types of Operating System:

 Batch Operating System

 Multitasking/Time Sharing OS
 Multiprocessing OS
 Real Time OS
 Distributed OS
 Network OS
 Mobile OS

Batch Operating System

Some computer processes are very lengthy and time-consuming. To speed the same
process, a job with a similar type of needs are batched together and run as a group.

The user of a batch operating system never directly interacts with the computer. In this
type of OS, every user prepares his or her job on an offline device like a punch card and
submit it to the computer operator.

Multi-Tasking/Time-sharing Operating systems

Time-sharing operating system enables people located at a different terminal(shell) to use

a single computer system at the same time. The processor time (CPU) which is shared
among multiple users is termed as time sharing.

Real time OS

A real time operating system time interval to process and respond to inputs is very small.
Examples: Military Software Systems, Space Software Systems are the Real time OS
example.
Distributed Operating System

Distributed systems use many processors located in different machines to provide very fast
computation to its users.

Network Operating System

Network Operating System runs on a server. It provides the capability to serve to manage
data, user, groups, security, application, and other networking functions.

Mobile OS

Mobile operating systems are those OS which is especially that are designed to power
smartphones, tablets, and wearables devices.

Some most famous mobile operating systems are Android and iOS, but others include
BlackBerry, Web, and watchOS.

Functions of Operating System

Below are the main functions of Operating System:

Fu
nctions of Operating System

In an operating system software performs each of the function:

1. Process management:- Process management helps OS to create and delete

processes. It also provides mechanisms for synchronization and communication
among processes.
2. Memory management:- Memory management module performs the task of
allocation and de-allocation of memory space to programs in need of this resources.

3. File management:- It manages all the file-related activities such as organization

storage, retrieval, naming, sharing, and protection of files.

4. Device Management: Device management keeps tracks of all devices. This module
also responsible for this task is known as the I/O controller. It also performs the
task of allocation and de-allocation of the devices.

5. I/O System Management: One of the main objects of any OS is to hide the

peculiarities of that hardware devices from the user.

6. Secondary-Storage Management: Systems have several levels of storage which

includes primary storage, secondary storage, and cache storage. Instructions and
data must be stored in primary storage or cache so that a running program can
reference it.

7. Security:- Security module protects the data and information of a computer system
against malware threat and authorized access.

8. Command interpretation: This module is interpreting commands given by the and

acting system resources to process that commands.

9. Networking: A distributed system is a group of processors which do not share

memory, hardware devices, or a clock. The processors communicate with one
another through the network.

10. Job accounting: Keeping track of time & resource used by various job and users.

11. Communication management: Coordination and assignment of compilers,

interpreters, and another software resource of the various users of the computer
systems.