Components of a Computer

A computer consists of three main components

1. Input/Output(I/O) Unit.
2. Central Processing Unit(CPU).
3. Memory Unit.

Input Unit

The Computer accepts Coded information through input unit by the user. It is a device that is
used to give required information to the computer. e.g., keyboard, mouse, etc.

Output Unit

The output sends the processed results to the user. It is Mainly used to display the desired
results to the user. It is mainly used to display the desired result to the user as per input
instruction. e.g , video monitor, printer and plotter, etc.

Central Processing Unit(CPU)

The central processing unit consists set of register, arithmetic and control circuits, which
together interpret and execute instructions in assembly language. The primary functions of the
CPU are

1. The CPU transfers instructions and input data from main memory to registers. ie.,
internal memory.
2. The CPU executes the instructions in the stored sequence.
3. When necessary, CPU transfers output data from registers to main memory.
Central Processing Unit (CPU) is often called the brain of computer. The CPU is fabricated as a
single Integrated Circuit(IC) chip and is also known as Microprocessor . A CPU controls all the
internal and external devices and performs arithmetic and logic operations. The CPU consists of
three main subsystems; Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), Controls Unit(CU) and registers.

Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)

The arithmetic logic unit contains the electronic circuitry that executes all arithmetic and logical
operations on the available data. It is used to perform all arithmetic calculations (addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division) and logical calculation (<,>.+, AND, OR, etc). Logical unit
performs comparison of numbers, letters and special characters. ALU uses registers to hold the
data that is being processed.

Registers

Registers are special purpose and high speed temporary memory units. Registers are not
referenced by their address, but are directly accessed and manipulated by the CPU during
execution. Essentially, they hold the information that the CPU is currently working on. Registers
store data, instructions, address and intermediate results of processing.

 The number and sizes of registers vary from processor to processor.

Control Unit(CU)

Control Unit coordinates with the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the
computer to carry out stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the
registers. It organises the processing of data and instructions.

To maintain the proper sequence of processing data, the control unit uses clock inputs. The
basic function of control unit is to fetch the instruction stored in the devices involved in it and
accordingly generate control signals.

Memory Unit

Memory is that part of the computer, WHich holds data and instructions, Memory is an integral
component of the CPU. The memory unit consists of Primary memory and Secondary.

Primary Memory

Primary memory or main memory of the computer is used to store the data and instructions
during
execution of the instructions. The primary memory is of two types; Random Access
memory(RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).

Random Access Memory (RAM) It directly provides the required information to the processor.
RAM is a volatile memory. It provides temporary storage for data and instructions. RAM is
classified into two categories.
1. Static Random Access Memory (SRAM).
2. Dynamic Random Access Memory(DRAM).
Read only Memory (ROM) It is used for storing standard processing Programs that permanently
reside in the computer. Generally, designers program ROM chips at the time of manufacturing
circuits. ROM is a non-volatile memory. It can only be read not written.

ROM is classified into three categories

1. Programmable ROM(PROM).
2. Erasable Programmable ROM(EPROM).
3. Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM (EEPROM).

Secondary Memory

Secondary memory, also known as secondary storage or auxiliary memory, is used for storage
data and instructions permanently e.g. hard disks, CDs, DVDs, etc.

Microprocessor

The microprocessor is the controlling element in a computer system and is sometimes referred
to as the chip. Microprocessor is main hardware that drives the computer.

It is a targe Printed Circuit Board (PCB), Which is used in all electronic systems such as
computer, calculator, digital system etc. The speed of CPU depends upon the type of
microprocessor used.
 Intel 40004 was the first microprocessor to contain all of the components of a CPU on a
single chip with a 4-bit bus width.
 Some of the popular microprocessors are intel, Dual core, Pentium IV, etc.

Parallel Processing
 Parallel processing is a term used to denote a large class of techniques that are used to provide
simultaneous data-processing tasks for the purpose of increasing the computational speed of a
computer system.

 The purpose of parallel processing is to speed up the computer processing capability and increase its
throughput, that is, the amount of processing that can be accomplished during a given interval of time.

 The amount of hardware increases with parallel processing, and with it, the cost of the system
increases.

 Parallel processing can be viewed from various levels of complexity. o At the lowest level, we
distinguish between parallel and serial operations by the type of registers used. e.g. shift registers and
registers with parallel load o At a higher level, it can be achieved by having a multiplicity of functional
units that perform identical or different operations simultaneously.

 Fig. 4-5 shows one possible way of separating the execution unit into eight functional units operating
in parallel.

o A multifunctional organization is usually associated with a complex control unit to coordinate all the
activities among the various components.

 There are a variety of ways that parallel processing can be classified.

o Internal organization of the processors

o Interconnection structure between processors

o The flow of information through the system

 M. J. Flynn considers the organization of a computer system by the number of instructions and data
items that are manipulated simultaneously.

o Single instruction stream, single data stream (SISD)

o Single instruction stream, multiple data stream (SIMD)

o Multiple instruction stream, single data stream (MISD)

o Multiple instruction stream, multiple data stream (MIMD)

SISD

 Represents the organization of a single computer containing a control unit, a processor unit, and a
memory unit.

 Instructions are executed sequentially and the system may or may not have internal parallel
processing capabilities.

 parallel processing may be achieved by means of multiple functional units or by pipeline processing.

SIMD

 Represents an organization that includes many processing units under the supervision of a common
control unit.

 All processors receive the same instruction from the control unit but operate on different items of
data.

 The shared memory unit must contain multiple modules so that it can communicate with all the
processors simultaneously

MISD & MIMD

 MISD structure is only of theoretical interest since no practical system has been constructed using this
organization.

 MIMD organization refers to a computer system capable of processing several programs at the same
time. e.g. multiprocessor and multicomputer system

 Flynn’s classification depends on the distinction between the performance of the control unit and the
data-processing unit.

 It emphasizes the behavioral characteristics of the computer system rather than its operational and
structural interconnections.

 One type of parallel processing that does not fit Flynn’s classification is pipelining.

 We consider parallel processing under the following main topics:

o Pipeline processsing

 Is an implementation technique where arithmetic suboperations or the phases of a computer

instruction cycle overlap in execution.

o Vector processing

 Deals with computations involving large vectors and matrices.

o Array processing

 Perform computations on large arrays of data.

RISC and CISC

 Important aspect of computer – design of the instruction set for processor.

 Instruction set – determines the way that machine language programs are constructed.

 Early computers – simple and small instruction set, need to minimize the hardware used.

 Advent of IC – cheaper digital software, instructions intended to increase both in number of

complexity.

 Many computers – more than 100 or 200 instructions, variety of data types and large number of
addressing modes.

Complex Instruction Set Computers (CISC)

 The trend into computer hardware complexity was influenced by various factors:

o Upgrading existing models to provide more customer applications

o Adding instructions that facilitate the translation from high-level language into machine
language programs

o Striving to develop machines that move functions from software implementation into
hardware implementation

 A computer with a large number of instructions is classified as a complex instruction set computer
(CISC).

 One reason for the trend to provide a complex instruction set is the desire to simplify the compilation
and improve the overall computer performance.

 The essential goal of CISC architecture is to attempt to provide a single machine instruction for each
statement that is written in a high-level language.
 Examples of CISC architecture are the DEC VAX computer and the IBM 370 computer. Other are 8085,
8086, 80x86 etc.

The major characteristics of CISC architecture

 A large number of instructions– typically from 100 to 250 instructions

 Some instructions that perform specialized tasks and are used infrequently

 A large variety of addressing modes—typically from 5 to 20 different modes

 Variable-length instruction formats

 Instructions that manipulate operands in memory

 Reduced speed due to memory read/write operations

 Use of microprogram – special program in control memory of a computer to perform the timing and
sequencing of the microoperations – fetch, decode, execute etc.

 Major complexity in the design of microprogram

 No large number of registers – single register set of general purpose and low cost

Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC)

A computer uses fewer instructions with simple constructs so they can be executed much faster within
the CPU without having to use memory as often. It is classified as a reduced instruction set computer
(RISC).

 RISC concept – an attempt to reduce the execution cycle by simplifying the instruction set

 Small set of instructions – mostly register to register operations and simple load/store operations for
memory access

 Each operand – brought into register using load instruction, computations are done among data in
registers and results transferred to memory using store instruction

 Simplify instruction set and encourages the optimization of register manipulation

 May include immediate operands, relative mode etc.

The major characteristics of RISC architecture

 Relatively few instructions

 Relatively few addressing modes

 Memory access limited to load and store instructions

 All operations done within the registers of the CPU

 Fixed-length, easily decoded instruction format

 Single-cycle instruction execution

 Hardwired rather than microprogrammed control

Other characteristics attributed to RISC architecture

 A relatively large number of registers in the processor unit

 Use of overlapped register windows to speed-up procedure call and return

 Efficient instruction pipeline – fetch, decode and execute overlap

 Compiler support for efficient translation of high-level language programs into machine language
programs

 Studies that show improved performance for RISC architecture do not differentiate between the
effects of the reduced instruction set and the effects of a large register file.

 A large number of registers in the processing unit are sometimes associated with RISC processors.

 RISC processors often achieve 2 to 4 times the performance of CISC processors.

 RISC uses much less chip space; extra functions like memory management unit or floating point
arithmetic unit can also be placed on same chip. Smaller chips allow a semiconductor mfg. to place more
parts on a single silicon wafer, which can lower the per chip cost dramatically.

 RISC processors are simpler than corresponding CISC processors, they can be designed more quickly.
Comparison between RISC and CISC Architectures

cluster
Cluster is a set of loosely or tightly connected computers working together as a unified
computing resource that can create the illusion of being one machine. Computer
clusters have each node set to perform the same task, controlled and produced by
software.

Clustered Operating Systems work similarly to Parallel Operating Systems as

they have many CPUs. Cluster systems are created when two or more
computer systems are merged. Basically, they have an independent computer
but have common storage and the systems work together.

The components of a clusters are usually connected to each other using fast area

networks, with each node running its own instance of an operating system. In most
circumstances, all the nodes uses same hardware and the same operating system,
although in some setups different hardware or different operating system can be used.
For making cluster more efficient there exist two clusters:
 Hardware Cluster
 Software Cluster
Hardware Cluster helps in enable high-performance disk sharing between
systems, while the Software Cluster allows all systems to work together.

Types of Cluster Systems:

Primarily, there are two types of Cluster Systems:
 Asymmetric Cluster: In this type of clustering, all the nodes run the
required applications, and one node is in hot standby mode. The Hot
standby node is used for monitoring the server till it fails, when it fails then it
takes its place.
 Symmetric Cluster: In this type of clustering, all the nodes run applications
and monitor other nodes at the same time. This clustering is more efficient
than Asymmetric clustering as it doesn’t have any hot standby key.

Classification of Clusters:
Computer Clusters are arranged together in such a way to support different
purposes from general-purpose business needs such as web-service support to
 computation-intensive scientific calculation. Basically, there are three types of
Clusters, they are: 
 Load-Balancing Cluster – A cluster requires an effective capability for
balancing the load among available computers. In this, cluster nodes share a
computational workload to enhance the overall performance. For example- a
high-performance cluster used for scientific calculation would balance the
load from different algorithms from the web-server cluster, which may just
use a round-robin method by assigning each new request to a different
node. This type of cluster is used on farms of Web servers (web farm).
 Fail-Over Clusters – The function of switching applications and data
resources over from a failed system to an alternative system in the cluster is
referred to as fail-over. These types are used to cluster database of critical
mission, mail, file, and application servers
 High-Availability Clusters – These are also known as “HA clusters”. They
offer a high probability that all the resources will be in service. If a failure
does occur, such as a system goes down or a disk volume is lost, then the
queries in progress are lost. Any lost query, if retried, will be serviced by a
different computer in the cluster. This type of cluster is widely used in web,
email, news, or FTP servers.

Benefits –
 Absolute scalability – It is possible to create a large clusters that beats the power of
even the largest standalone machines. A cluster can have dozens of  multiprocessor
machines.
 Additional scalability – A cluster is configured in such a way that it is possible to add
new systems to the cluster in small increment. Clusters have the ability to add systems
horizontally. This means that more computers may be added to the clusters to improve
its performance, redundancy and fault tolerance(the ability for a system to continue
working with a malfunctioning of node).
 High availability – As we know that each node in a cluster is a standalone computer,
the failure of one node does not mean loss of service. A single node can be taken down
for maintenance, while the rest of the clusters takes on the load of that individual node.
 Preferable price/performance – Clusters are usually set up to improve performance
and availability over single computers, while typically being much more cost effective
than single computers of comparable speed or availability.