Structure of

Computer
Reporter: ENGANA
 Structure of Computer
• The structure of a computer refers to the organization and arrangement of its
major components, each playing a specific role in the overall functionality
of the system. The basic structure of a computer typically includes the
following components:
Computer types, Functional units, Basic operational concepts, Von- Neumann
Architecture, Bus Structures, Software, Performance, Multiprocessors and
Multicomputer, Data representation, Fixed and Floating point, Error detection
and correction codes.
Computer Types
Reporter: ENGANA
• Microcomputer
• Minicomputer
• Mainframe computer
• Supercomputer
 Microcomputer

is also known as PC (Personal Computer). - This is the most

common type found in homes, schools, Business offices
etc., It is the most common type of desk top computers with
processing and storage units along with various input and
output devices.
Microcomputer can be classified into 2 types:

• Desktop
• Portables
Example of Dekstop

Workstation
Example of portable
Minicomputer
A minicomputer is a medium-sized computer. That is more
powerful than a microcomputer. These computers are usually
designed to serve multiple users simultaneously (Parallel
Processing). They are mostly used in small business
companies and more expensive than microcomputers.
Examples of Minicomputers

VAX PDP-11
 Mainframe (Enterprise) computer

Computers with large storage capacities and very high speed of processing (compared to
mini- or microcomputers) are known as mainframe computers. They support a large
number of terminals for simultaneous use by a number of users like ATM transactions.
They are also used as central host computers in distributed data processing system.
Examples of Mainframe computer

IBM 370 S/390

 Supercomputer

Supercomputers have extremely large storage capacity and computing speeds which are
many times faster than other computers. A supercomputer is measured in terms of tens of
millions Instructions per second (mips), an operation is made up of numerous instructions.
The supercomputer is mainly used for large scale numerical problems in scientific and
engineering disciplines such as Weather forecasting and space exploration. Supercomputers
are the most expensive type of computer.
Example of Supercomputer

IBM DEEP BLUE PARAM(INDIA) SUMMIT(USA)

Functional Units
Reporter: ENGANA
 Functional units

A computer consists of five functionally independent main parts

input, memory, arithmetic logic unit (ALU), output and control unit.
An input device receives high-level language code, which is then
stored in memory or processed immediately by the CPU. The
stored program in memory guides processing steps, converting
the source code into machine language (object program). The
control unit coordinates these actions, and the results are sent to
the outside world via output devices.
Input unit

Computers accept coded information through input units. The most common
input device is the keyboard. Whenever a key is pressed, the corresponding letter
or digit is automatically translated into its corresponding binary code and
transmitted to the processor.
Input devices images:

Keyboard Mouse Joystick

Scanner
 Memory Unit

The function of the memory unit is to store programs and data. There are two
classes of storage, called primary and secondary.
Word - is a set of binary digits (bits) that represents the unit of data in our memory. It is treated as a single unit
of data each word. The word is defined by its word length, which specifies the number of bits it contains and
each unique memory address typically corresponds to a single word in memory.

Register ­- It is a special, high-speed storage area within the CPU. All data must be represented in a register
before it can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be multiplied, both numbers must be in
registers, and the result is also placed in a register. (The register can contain the address of a memory location
where data is stored rather than the actual data itself.) It stores data for quick processing.

Cache memory - Cache memory serves as a high-speed intermediate between the CPU (Central Processing
Unit) and the main RAM (Random Access Memory) in a computer system. Its primary purpose is to store
frequently used instructions and data to enhance the overall speed and performance of the system.
 Primary and secondary
Primary memory – is a fast memory that operates at electronic speeds. Programs must be stored in this
memory while they are being executed.

• RAM (Random Access Memory) - RAM is volatile memory, meaning it loses its content when the power is turned off. It is used
to store data and programs that are actively being used or processed by the computer.

• ROM (Read Only Memory) - It is a type of non-volatile memory that retains its content even when the power is turned off.

Secondary Memory - This is used where large amounts of data and programs have to be stored,
particularly information that is accessed infrequently.

Examples of secondary memory: Magnetic disk, floppy disk, solid state drive (SSD), and optical disk
(cd-rom’s).
 RAM
IMAGE
 Secondary memory images

Magnetic Disk Floppy Disk Solid State Drive (SSD)

CD ROM’s
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Most computer operations are executed in the arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) of the
processor. Any arithmetic or logic operation, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, or comparison of numbers, is initiated by bringing the required operands into the
processor, where the operation is performed by the ALU.
 Output Unit

These actually are the counterparts of input unit. Its basic function is to
send the processed results to the outside world.
Examples of output unit

Printer Speaker Monitor

 Control Unit

is the nerve center that sends signals to other units and senses their states. The actual timing signals
that govern the transfer of data between input unit, processor, memory and output unit are
generated by the control unit.
 The operation of a computer can be summarized as follows:

• The computer accepts information in the form of programs and data through an input unit and
stores it in the memory.

• Information stored in the memory is fetched under program control into an arithmetic and logic
unit, where it is processed.

• Processed information leaves the computer through an output unit.

• All activities in the computer are directed by the control unit.

Basic Operational
Concepts
Reporter: ENGANA
Basic Operational Concepts
To perform a given task an appropriate program consisting
of a list of instructions is stored in the memory. Individual
instructions are brought from the memory into the
processor, which executes the specified operations. Data to
be stored are also stored in the memory.

Examples: - Add LOCA, R0

This instruction adds the operand at memory location LOCA, to
operand in register R0 & places the sum into register. This
instruction requires the performance of several steps,

1. First the instruction is fetched from the memory into the processor.
2. The operand at LOCA is fetched and added to the contents of R0
3. Finally the resulting sum is stored in the register R0
The preceding add instruction combines a memory access
operation with an ALU Operations. In some other type of
computers, these two types of operations are performed by
separate instructions for performance reasons.

• Load LOCA, R1
• Add R1, R0
Transfers between the memory and the processor are
started by sending the address of the memory location to
be accessed to the memory unit and issuing the
appropriate control signals. The data are then transferred
to or from the memory.
The program counter (PC)
This is another specialized register that keeps
track of execution of a program. It contains the
memory address of the next instruction to be
fetched and executed.
The instruction register (IR)
Holds the instructions that are currently being executed.
Its output is available for the control circuits which
generates the timing signals that control the various
processing elements in one execution of instruction.

Besides PC and IR, there are n-general purpose registers

R0 through Rn-1.
The other two registers which facilitate
communication with memory are:
1. MAR – (Memory Address Register) - It holds the address of the
location to be accessed.
2. MDR – (Memory Data Register) - It contains the data to be
written into or read out of the address location.
Operating steps are
1. Programs reside in the memory & usually get these through
the I/P unit.
2. Execution of the program starts when the PC is set to point
at the first instruction of the program.
3. Contents of PC are transferred to MAR and a Read Control
Signal is sent to the memory.
4. After the time required to access the memory elapses, the
address word is read out of the memory and loaded into the MDR.
5. Now contents of MDR are transferred to the IR & now the
instruction is ready to be decoded and executed
6. If the instruction involves an operation by the ALU, it is necessary
to obtain the required operands.
7. An operand in the memory is fetched by sending its address to
MAR & Initiating a read cycle.
8. When the operand has been read from the memory to the MDR, it is
transferred from MDR to the ALU.
9. After one or two such repeated cycles, the ALU can perform the
desired operation.
10. If the result of this operation is to be stored in the
memory, the result is sent to MDR.
11. Address of location where the result is stored is sent to
MAR & a write cycle is initiated.
12. The contents of PC are incremented so that PC points to
the next instruction that is to be executed.
Normal execution of a program may be preempted (temporarily interrupted)
if some devices require urgent servicing, to do this one device raises an
Interrupt signal. An interrupt is a request signal from an I/O device for
service by the processor. The processor provides the requested service by
executing an appropriate interrupt service routine.

The Diversion may change the internal stage of the processor its state must
be saved in the memory location before interruption. When the interrupt-
routine service is completed the state of the processor is restored so that the
interrupted program may continue
Bus Structures
Reporter: STOESSEL
Bus Structure

• a set of conductors that carry data,

address, and control signals within a
computer system.
 • Data Bus
Types of
Buses: • Address Bus
• Control Bus
Data Bus

• data bus is responsible for transmitting

data between the CPU, memory, and
input/output devices.
Address Bus

• address bus carries information about

the memory location or I/O port where
data needs to be read from or written
to.
Control Bus

• control bus carries control signals that

coordinate and regulate the activities
of various components.
Von- Neumann
Architecture
Reporter: STOESSEL
Architecture

• the complex or carefully designed

structure of something.
Von- Neumann Architecture
• refer to any stored-program computer
in which an instruction fetch and a
data operation cannot occur at the
same time
• Von-Neumann computer architecture
design was proposed in 1945.
Fixed Program
Computers

Their function is very specific

and they couldn’t be
reprogrammed.
Stored Program
Computers

These can be programmed to

carry out many different tasks,
applications are stored on them,
hence the name.
John von Neumann

• a Hungarian-American mathematician,
physicist, computer scientist, engineer and
polymath.

Born: December 28, 1903

Died: February 8, 1957

John von Neumann

• Described as the scientific genius who

pioneered the modern computer, game
theory, nuclear deterrence, and more.

• Father of Game Theory

Software
Reporter: ANDRES
Software
Software comprises the entire set of programs,
procedures, and routines associated with the operation of
a computer system. These actions are executed in order to
perform functions such as:
• Receiving and interpreting user commands
• Entering and editing application programs and storing them as files in
secondary storage devices
• Running standard application programs such as word processors,
spread sheets, games etc…
Types of software

1.Application Software

2.System Software
Application Software

Application software allows end users to

accomplish one or more specific (not directly
computer development related) tasks. Typical
applications include:
• Business Software
• Computer games
• Telecommunications
System Software
System software consist of programs that control the
operations of the computer and its devices. It includes
a combination of the following:

• Device drivers
• Utilities
• Operating systems
• Windowing system
• Servers
Types of System Software
1.Operating System

2.Utility Program
OPERATING SYSTEM
An operating system (OS) is the fundamental
software that acts as the interface between the user
and the computer hardware. It manages all the
computer's resources and provides common services
for programs to run smoothly.
Example:
• Windows • Linux OS
UTILITY PROGRAM
Utility Program is a program specifically designed to
help manage and tune system or application
software.
Example:

• Anti-virus • Compression Tools

Performance
Reporter: ANDRES
PERFORMANCE
Performance refers to the effectiveness and efficiency
with which a system accomplishes its designated tasks.
It's essentially a measure of how well your computer
system handles the workload you throw at it.
How does it work?
Key Aspects of Computer Performance

• Speed: This encompasses various factors like:

• Processing speed: Measured in GHz or MHz, it indicates
how fast the CPU can execute instructions.

• Memory access time: Refers to the time it takes for the

CPU to access data stored in RAM.

• Storage access time: Similar to memory access time, but

for data stored on hard drives or SSDs.
 PROCESSOR CLOCK
Processor circuits are controlled by a timing signal called
clock. The clock designer the regular time intervals
called clock cycles. To execute a machine instruction, the
processor divides the action to be Performed into a
sequence of basic steps that each step can be completed
in one clock cycle.
2.Throughput: This is the amount of work a system can
complete in a given unit of time.
3.Response time: This is the time it takes for a system to
react to a user's input or request.
4.Resource utilization: This refers to how efficiently the
system utilizes its available resources (CPU, RAM, storage,
etc.) to complete tasks.
BASIC PERFORMANCE
EQUATION
The basic performance equation is a fundamental
concept in computer science, especially in the field of
computer organization and performance analysis. It
relates the total execution time of a program to three
key factors:
• Number of instructions (N): This represents the total number of
instructions your program needs to execute.
• Cycles per instruction (CPI): This reflects the average number
of clock cycles required to execute one instruction. Different
instructions typically have different CPIs based on their
complexity.
• Clock rate (R): This is the number of clock cycles per second
that the processor can execute. Higher clock rates allow for
faster execution of individual instructions.
• Execution time (T) = N * CPI / R
PIPELINING AND
SUPERSCALAR OPERATION
RISC AND CISC
OPTIMIZING PERFORMANCE
There are various ways to optimize your computer's
performance, such as:
• Upgrading hardware components
• Regularly updating software and drivers
• Closing unnecessary background processes
• Defragmenting your hard drive (for HDDs)
• Disabling startup programs you don't use
• Monitoring resource usage and identifying bottlenecks
Multiprocessors &
Multicomputer
Reporter: ANDRES
MULTIPROCESSORS
A multiprocessor is a computer system that houses two or
more central processing units (CPUs) working together to
simultaneously execute multiple tasks or programs.
MULTICOMPUTER
A multicomputer, also known as a
distributed computer system, is a
collection of multiple independent
computers connected through a
network that work together to solve
a common problem.
COMPARISON BETWEEN
MULTIPROCESSOR AND
MULTICOMPUTER
Data
Representation
Reporter: PELAGIO
Data Representation

• refers to the form in which data is

stored, processed, and transmitted.
Digitization

• the process of converting information,

such as text, numbers, photo, or
music, into digital data that can be
manipulated by electronic devices.
Binary Digit
Numeric data consists of numbers
that can be used in arithmetic
operations.
ASCII
(American Standard Code for Information Interchange)
Exteded ASCII
Unicode
Fixed and Floating
Point
Reporter: PELAGIO
Fixed-Point Representation
allocates a specific number of bits for the
integer and fractional parts of a number.
have a fixed structure with a designated
number of bits for the whole and fractional
parts.
 Integers
Real Numbers
 • Floating-Point Representation allows • Floating-point numbers consist of a
the position of the decimal point to sign bit, exponent, and mantissa,
vary, providing flexibility in allowing for a dynamic range of
representing a wide range of values. numerical values.

m – mantissa r – radix(.) e – exponent

Error Detection and
Correction Codes

Reporter: PELAGIO
Error

• Data are transmitted in the

network

• The data can be corrupted during

transmission.

• Transmission error
Types of Error

• Bit Error

2. Burst Error
Bit Error or Single Error
Burst Error
2 or more bits in the data unit have changed
Error Detection
• Error detection means to decide
whether the received message data
is correct or not without a copy of
the original message
• To detect or correct errors, we need
to send some extra bits with the
data
• The extra bits are called as
redundant bits
Redundancy
Error Correction
It can be handled in two ways:

1. Receiver can have the sender

retransmit the entire data unit

2. The receiver can use an error-

correcting code which automatically
corrects certain errors