02 Computer Organization

Topic 2: Computer Organization
Topic 2: Computer Organization 2 / 164

2.1 Computer Organization – Computer architecture
2.1.1: Outline the architecture of the CPU, the functions of the ALU, the CU and the registers within the CPU
COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE
2.1.1: Outline the architecture of the CPU, the functions of the ALU, the
CU and the registers within the CPU
Reproduce a block diagram showing the relationship between the
elements of the CPU, input and output and storage. The memory
address register (MAR) and memory data register (MDR) are the only
ones that need to be included.
Computer Architecture
Computer systems consist of hardware and software components.

They follow the concept of input, process, output and storage model.
That means that:
1 a computer gets some data as input.
2 process it in a requested manner.
3 outputs the result.
4 during the process, other data apart from the inputted may be
needed. This data exist in the storage of the computer system and
will be used during the processing phase.
Furthermore, any new information that may arise from the processing
phase may also be saved in the storage.
Question:
Imagine we have a digital camera which is a sort of computer system.
In order to take a picture the system follows the input, process, output
and storage model.
Explain how this model works.
A block diagram describing the input-output process model:

Input Devices: keyboard, sensor, digital camera button etc

Output Devices: monitor, speakers, printer etc
Data or instructions are processed by the computer system. It may
be the case that other data or instructions, apart from the input are
necessary during processing. These exist in the storage and may be
loaded and used.
Output is also saved on the storage (memory).
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Data or instructions are processed by the central processing unit (CPU).

CPU is a hardware component of a computer system and can perform:
basic arithmetic,
logical and
input/output operations
in order to process data from input devices into useful information.
CPU is also referred as processor or chip.
CPU can retrieve data only from the input or primary memory of the
computer system.
Any data information that is to be saved or retrieved from a storage
medium (hard disk, DVD etc) first has to pass through the primary
memory in order to be accessed by the CPU.
CPU contains the:

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Control Unit (CU), which in turn contains:
Memory Address Register (MAR)
Memory Data Register (MDR)
Control Unit (CU)
is responsible for the operation of the CPU.

controls the retrieval of instructions from the primary memory
controls the sequence of the execution of these instructions
is responsible for:
providing the ALU with the data that needs to be processed
providing the instruction of how the data should be processed.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

It performs the basic arithmetic, logical operations (ADD, SUBTRACT,
AND, OR, NOT).
Cores
Sometimes an ALU is referred to a as core, hence computers with dual

core technology have two ALUs to process different calculations
simultaneously.
Since ALU is doing the most important operations in a CPU, a CPU core
is like a CPU’s brain.
In the old days, CPU had just one core. Today, CPUs have been two and
18 cores, each of which can work on a different task.
A core can work on one task, while another core works a different task,
so the more cores a CPU has, the more efficient it is. Many processors,
especially those in laptops, have two cores, but some laptop CPUs (known
as mobile CPUs), such as Intel’s 8th Generation processors, have four.
CU contains various registers.
Register
It is a small storage location that can hold data. Registers are the
smallest and fastest units of memory in a computer system and are used
to store the information that CPU is working on at the exact moment.
The basic registers in CU are:

MAR (Memory Address Register)
MDR (Memory Data Register)
MAR (Memory Address Register)
It holds the memory address of the data to be used by the ALU, so

that the ALU can fetch the corresponding content from the memory
and process it accordingly.
It holds the memory address of where the data that has been
processed need to be stored.
In order to communicate with the primary memory, a connection is
necessary. This connection is accomplished by the Memory
(Address) Bus
Primary Memory
It is the only storage directly accessible from the CPU. It cosists of RAM
(Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory).
MDR (Memory Data Register)
holds the data that is to be used by the ALU.

is closely related to MAR, since whichever memory address location
MAR is holding, the corresponding data will be loaded onto the
MDR for processing by the ALU.
after the processing has taken place, the ALU places the result onto
the MDR and that data is copied to the memory address location in
RAM specified by the MAR.
The connection between the MDR and the RAM is accomplished by the
Data Bus.
More registers . . .
Program Counter: Stores the address of the next instruction.

Instruction Register: Stores the current instruction being processed.
Accumulators: A set of general purpose registers used for storing
temporary intermediate results of the CPU’s calculations.
Block Diagram
The following block diagram shows the relationship between the elements
of the CPU, input and output and storage.
Questions
Describe the function of the data bus found in a PC.
Outline the function of the ALU.
2.1.2: Describe primary memory
2.1.2: Describe primary memory.
Distinguish between random access memory (RAM) and
read-only-memory (ROM), and their use in primary memory.
Primary Memory
Primary Memory
is the only storage that is directly accessible by the CPU.
holds data that is currently running on the computer system.
holds instructions that are currently running on the computer
Primary memory consists of:

RAM (Random Access Memory)
ROM (Read-Only Memory)
RAM (Random Access Memory)
stores the executing program instructions and any data is needed.

is general purpose storage area (data can be stored and
over-written).
is volatile (when the power is switched off all memory disappears).
data can be written and read very quickly.
acts as temporary storage and working space for the operating
system and its applications.
instructions and data are stored in unique memory locations and
each location has an address as well as content
Content
It is where instructions and data reside
Address
It is used by the CU to find, retrieve and access the data in order to send
it to the ALU for processing.
ROM (Read-Only-Memory)
holds instructions and data in unique memory locations -every

location has an address as well as content.
is used to store permanent instructions and data that cannot be
changed and are used to boot and operate the computer.
data and instructions cannot be over-written.
is used to store programs and instructions that do not need to be
updated or changed:
BIOS (Basic Input Output System) contains the instructions
necessary to boot the computer.
how the computer reads input and writes output.
Primary Memory
Question
Identify some differences between ROM and RAM found in a PC.
RAM vs. ROM

2.1.3: Explain the use of cache memory.
Explain the effect of cache memory in speeding up the system as well as
being able to explain how it is used.
RAM has two main types:

SRAM (Static RAM) is faster but more expensive than DRAM.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) is preferred for the main RAM of a
computer system.
A small amount of SRAM is placed between the main RAM and the
processor and is called Cache Memory.
RAM has two main types:

SRAM (Static RAM) is faster but more expensive than DRAM.
DRAM (Dynamic RAM) is preferred for the main RAM of a
computer system.
A small amount of SRAM is placed between the main RAM and the
processor and is called Cache Memory.
Cache Memory
is a smaller and faster RAM (SRAM)
holds the information from RAM that is more actively used and
accessed more frequently.
lies between CPU and main memory.
is used by the CPU to reduce the average memory access times.
there are 3 different types of cache memory: L1, L2, L3.
Cache Memory Levels
Level 1 (L1) Cache is extremely fast but relatively small, and is usually
embedded in the processor chip (CPU).
Level 2 (L2) Cache is often more capacious than L1; it may be located
on the CPU or on a separate chip or coprocessor with a
high-speed alternative system bus interconnecting the
cache to the CPU, so as not to be slowed by traffic on the
main system bus.
Level 3 (L3) Cache is typically specialized memory that works to improve
the performance of L1 and L2. It can be significantly
slower than L1 or L2, but is usually double the speed of
RAM. In the case of multicore processors, each core may
have its own dedicated L1 and L2 cache, but share a
common L3 cache. When an instruction is referenced in
the L3 cache, it is typically elevated to a higher tier cache.
Question
Since cache memory is faster, why don’t we make all main memory out
of cache memory?
Cache Memory
How does cache memory work?

Request made from the CPU.
Cache is checked for the data.
If found -data returned from cache (cache hit).
If not -information returned from main memory (cache miss).
The above actions speeds up the process.
If the data do not exist in the cache memory, the data are first copied to
the cache and then used.
The processor writes to the main memory through cache memory.
Cache Memory
Question
State some differences between Cache Memory and RAM.
Memory Types
2.1.4: Explain the machine instruction cycle.
Include the role of data bus and (memory) address bus.
Machine Instruction Cycle
Computer programs are stored in the primary memory as series of

instructions in machine code.
Instructions and necessary data have to be moved from the primary
memory into the CPU in order to operate the computer program.
The following steps are followed:
Fetch the instruction from the primary memory to the control unit
Decode instruction in control unit
Execute instruction
Store the result of the execution and check for next instruction
Machine Instruction Cycle

Machine Instruction Cycle - Fetch

Fetch the instruction from primary memory to control unit
CPU is responsible for knowing which instruction is next to be operated.

To do that it sends the appropriate address through the memory address
bus to the primary memory.
The instruction that resides in the specific address is then copied into the
data bus and sent to the control unit.
The following steps take place:
Obtain next instruction from memory.
Load instruction into instruction register (IR or CIR, i.e. Current
Instruction Register).
MAR is loaded with instruction pointer.
Instruction is loaded through MDR.
Increment program counter (PC)
Machine Instruction Cycle - Decode

Decode instruction in control unit
The decoder interprets the instruction. During this cycle the

instruction inside the IR (instruction register) gets decoded.
Decoding an instruction allows the CPU to be aware of any
additional data that are necessary for the execution of the
instruction.
Any required data that need to be loaded from the primary memory
in order to execute the instructions are fetched.
The address of these data are placed into the memory address bus.
The data from these addresses are received by the CPU through the
data bus.
Machine Instruction Cycle - Execute & Store
Execute Instruction
ALU executes the instruction using the necessary data that have been
loaded and calculates the result.
Store the Result of Execution

After executing the instruction and computing the result, CPU
stores the result in the primary memory.
It specifies the address where the result will reside in the primary
memory, using the memory address bus.
Sends the data through the data bus.
The CPU then checks for the next instruction and repeats the steps
described above by fetching, decoding, executing the next instruction and
storing the result.
Questions
Draw a block digram showing the basic components of the CPU and
how they interact with memory.
Outline the four phases of the machine instruction cycle.
Compare the roles of the Memory Address Register and the Memory
Data Register.
2.1 Computer Organization - Secondary Memory
2.1.5: Identify the need for persistent storage.
SECONDARY MEMORY
LINK: Consequences of data loss. Why do we need storage?
Why do we need storage?

Persistent Storage is only possible in secondary memory.

Secondary Memory
a relatively slow memory.
may be written to (just like RAM).
non-volatile (just like ROM) -contents of the memory are not wiped
if power is lost, but are persistent.
has relatively high capacity to hold data compared to primary
memory.
Secondary Memory
When a computer starts, RAM is empty.

Instructions and data (such as the operating system) need to be
copied into the RAM in order for the computer system to run.
These are copied from the secondary memory (which provides
persistent storage to computer systems).
If secondary memory did not exist a computer system would be
unable to store instructions and data persistently.
Secondary Memory
Without the availability of secondary memory only ROM would be

able to store programs and instructions. Since ROM cannot be over-
written, a computer would only be able to perform fixed operations
and any user data would have to be re-inputted every time the user
wished to use them. This would be acceptable for simple devices
such as calculators.
CPU can only access the volatile primary memory that is relatively
fast but moderate in capacity. The primary memory is connected to
the non-volatile secondary memory that is relatively slower but has
higher capacity to hold data.
Secondary Memory
Devices
Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

CD
DVD
USB Flash drive
Floppy disk
Magnetic tape
Flash memory cards
ZIP drive
Virtual Memory
is the use of secondary memory as if it was primary memory.
is a common part of most operating systems.
provides a big benefit for users at a very low cost.
Secondary memory is required to hold information that may not be

needed all the time or may be too large to fit as a whole in primary
memory. This makes secondary memory a necessity in most computer
systems.
By creating virtual memory the operating system makes it easier for
programs to reference memory because they don’t need to worry about
the complications of the underlying physical structure of memory and
disk.
Virtual memory is an example of abstraction.
Memory (primary & secondary)
Questions
State some differences between primary and secondary memory.
Explain the advantages of virtual memory.
2.1: Computer Organization – Operating systems and application systems
2.1.6: Describe the main functions of an operating system.
OPERATING SYSTEMS & APPLICATION

SYSTEMS
The Operating System (OS)
Operating System (OS)
is a software that controls the computer’s hardware resources and

provides services for computer programs.
it acts as an intermediary between software applications (programs)
and computer hardware.
The main services of an OS are:

Peripheral communication
Memory management
Resource monitoring and multitasking
Networking
Disk access and data management
Security
Operating System: Peripheral Communication
Peripheral Devices
All hardware components of a computer system that reside outside the
CPU. Examples: keyboard, monitor, mouse, printer, microphone etc.
The operating system is responsible for:

communicating directly with the hardware
providing an interface between hardware devices and applications.
allows for applications to use hardware devices in a trouble-free
manner
Operating System: Memory Management
An operating system is responsible for all the memory that is available in

a computer system.
It is also has to ensure that there are no conflicts of memory usage
between all the currently running programs and processes.
That means that:
it manages how the memory is used by applications.
it ensures that one application does not interfere with memory that
is being used by some other applications. Obviously, if an
application interferes with another application’s memory, the latter
may stop functioning or its data may be affected or overwritten.
This can sometimes involve using virtual memory where a part of the disk
drive is used as primary memory. (This might have drawbacks as the
speed of a hard disk is slower than main memory)
Operating System: Memory Management
Multi-tasking: keeping the memory space of each process safe from

other running processes.
Multi-user: keeping the memory space of each user safe from other
users.
Allocating and deallocating memory for each process.
Paging: Dividing virtual memory into equal-sized blocks (pages).
Paging allows the operating system to allocate non-contiguous
chunks of memory to the same process, thus reducing fragmentation
problems.
Operating System: Resource monitoring and multitasking
An application running on a computer system takes up resources:

amount of memory the application is occupying.
how much processor time it needs in order to function properly.
The operating system is responsible for the efficient allocation of
resources so that an application can run as effectively as possible.
Multitasking
Multiple applications may run on a computer system, appearing as
they are performing tasks simultaneously.
Computer systems always have fewer CPUs than the number of
tasks they have to perform.
Applications must share CPU time to accomplish their goal.
This is known as multitasking and it is a core OS service.
Operating System: Networking
An operating system:
manages connections to and interconnections with networks of other
computer systems so as to allow the sharing go resources (files,
printers etc)
acts as an intermediary between applications and networks, allowing
operations to interact with networks in a straightforward manner.
Operating System: Disk Access & Data Management
An important function of an operating system is its ability to access data

stored in memory and disks. Data is stored using files, which are
structured in a way to:
make better use of the available space
provide reliability
provide fast access times
The operating system is responsible for:
keeping track of these files
keeping track of which files are being used by which applications so
that an application does not overwrite files of another application
coordinating the transfer of data from the disk to the primary
memory and vice versa
Common File Systems: NTFS, FAT, FAT32
Operating System: Security
The operating system is also responsible for the overall security of the
computer system.
Methods:
provide some form of identity to the user that will allow his
authentication (username & password)
magnetic cards
biometric data
use of log files that keep trace of the activity of any user in the
computer system. Anything that a user does is recorded so that
unauthorized users and activities may be discovered.
Operating System: Security
User Management: login with password

System of privileges, determining which user or process can do what
– e.g. delete files, shut down the system etc.
Permissions for files and directories – e.g. read-only
Memory management: keeping one process’s or one user’s memory
space separate from another’s
Built-in firewall
Operating System
Examples of operating systems:

Windows
OS X
Linux
UNIX
Android
iOS
Questions
Outline the main functions of an operating system.
Outline how the operating system ensures that files are only
accessed by allowed users.
In what ways can an operating system improve information security
in a computer?
2.1.7: Outline the use of a range of application software.

SYSTEMS
Word processors, spreadsheets, DBMSs, email, web browsers, CAD,
graphic processing software
Software Applications
A computer system has the ability to run software applications that have
been installed by the manufacturer to complete some predefined tasks.
Example: Digital Camera
consists of both hardware and software components
follows the input-process-output and storage model
software components are preloaded and complete predefined tasks
software components can only be altered by receiving their updated
versions from the manufacturer
Software Applications
Computer systems allow the user to install a large number of software

applications.
Main software applications of a computer system:
Word processors
Spreadsheets
Database Management System (DBMS)
Web browsers
Email
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
Graphic Processing Software
Word processors
A software application that is used for the production of any sort of
document. Includes tools for:
composition
editing
formatting
possibly printing
Word Processing Applications

Microsoft Word, Apple Pages.
Spreadsheets
A software application that is used for the organization and analysis of

data.
Data is represented as cells, organised in rows and columns.
Cells may contain numbers, text or results of formulas. They support:
Fundamental arithmetic operations
Mathematical functions
Financial & statistical operators
Display of graphical data
Spreadsheet Applications
Microsoft Excel, Numbers, OpenOffice Calc
Database
It is an organised collection of data.
Data are stored in some sort of table and the are organized in
records (i.e. rows) and fields (i.e. columns)
A key feature of a database is the unique or primary key: a specific
field that uniquely identify each record.

A software application that manages (creates, stores, modifies, updated,
extracts information, queries) databases and is designed to provide an
interface between users and a database (e.g. MySQL, MS Access)
Question
A school has a database with all the information about the students.
Suggest 5 fields that this database could have. Suggest a primary
(unique) key.
Question
A school has a database with all the information about the students.
Suggest 5 fields that this database could have. Suggest a primary
(unique) key.
Student ID F. Name L.Name Tel. Num. E-mail

1234 Tom Jones 210 1234567 tom@example.com
. . . . .
. . . . .
. . . . .
A primary key could be either student ID (preferred), e-mail or phone

number.
Web Browsers
A web browser is a software application used to access, retrieve and

present content on the World Wide Web.
Content may be web pages, images, videos etc identified by a URI
(Uniform Resource Identifier)
The web browser uses the URI to connect to the appropriate web
server and request the wanted information.
Examples
Google Chrome, Internet Explorer, Safari, Mozilla Firefox.Software
applications
Email (1/2)
A software application that allows the exchange of digital messages

from a single author to one or more recipients.
Author and recipient do not need to be online simultaneously to
exchange the email.
The author sends the email to recipient’s email server. When the
latter connects to the server, they will receive the message.
Email software applications can be:
web-based (Google GMail)
as a software that is installed on a personal computer system
(Microsoft Outlook)
Email (2/2)
Email consists of:

the envelope
the header
the body
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for an email to be
transferred from the author to the recipient. This protocol communicates
delivery parameters using the message envelope. (A protocol is a set of
agreed upon rules that are used by computers during communication)
The message header contains information about the sender and
recipient(s) addresses, the subject field and a date/time stamp.
The body contains the actual message.
Question
State one advantage and one disadvantage of webmail over a mail
application that is installed on a person’s computer.
Question
State one advantage and one disadvantage of webmail over a mail
application that is installed on a person’s computer.
Answer
Webmail is accessible from any computer device that has a web browser.
It is also safer, since it can be tuned to require password at each
connection.
On the other hand webmail is usually slower, is not displayed nicely on all
devices and the user needs more time to connect to it.
Computer Aided Design (CAD)
It is a software application that assists engineers to:

create
analyse
optimize a design
Is used in many fields to increase the productivity of the designer and the
quality of the resulting design. Examples: automotive, shipbuilding,
architectural design
May convey more than just shape information: Materials, dimensions etc.
Example: Autodesk AutoCad
A software that allows a user to manipulate visual images on a computer.

User can edit an image with the use of books in various ways such as:
selecting
moving
cropping
scaling
erasing
Example: Corel Draw, Adobe Photoshop
A software that allows a user to manipulate visual images on a computer.

User can edit an image with the use of books in various ways such as:
selecting
moving
cropping
scaling
erasing
Example: Corel Draw, Adobe Photoshop
State some differences between a Spreadsheet software application and a

Database Management System.
State some differences between a Spreadsheet software application and a

Database Management System.
A Database Management System . . .

. . . could be used for various data associations that cannot be
created with spreadsheets.
. . . manages databases with much more data than a spreadsheet and
serves a lot of users.
. . . preserves data integrity easier.
A spreadsheet . . .
. . . can be used to produce charts and graphs using automated
software tools.
. . . can hold a limited amount of information.
. . . usually serves the needs of a single person.
. . . perform a lot of mathematical functions and perform data
analysis.
2.1.8: Identify common features of applications

SYSTEMS
Some features are provided by the applications and some by the
operating system. This improves usability for a wide range of users.
Common Features of Applications
Software applications typically include a graphical user interface (GUI) to

allow the user to interact with them in a number of ways, instead of just
typing commands.
GUI includes components such as:
graphical icons
visual indicators
toolbars
menus
dialogue boxes
Graphic User Interface (GUI)
Toolbar is a GUI element on which buttons, icons, menus or other

input/ output elements are placed.
Menu is a GUI element that displays a list of commands that can
be chosen by the user to perform various functions.
Dialogue Box is a GUI element that is used to communicate information
to the user and allow him to respond by choosing an
option from a list of specific choices.
GUIs provide ways that allow users to understand and interface
with computer systems in a more direct and natural way
than CLIs. GUIs are described using the acronym WIMP
which stands for Windows, Icons, Menus and Pointers.
A Dialogue Box
Command Line Interfaces (CLI)

A command line interface (CLI) is place in the computer where
commands can be typed in, like the one shown below.
Early software applications operated only with CLIs. Later software

applications took advantage of GUIs
Question
State the Pros & Cons of GUI and CLI

Command Line Interfaces (CLI)
(+) Easier to implement by a programmer

(+) Requires less memory to run
(+) Can be run on computer systems without graphical
monitor
(+) Quicker to type in a command than to use the mouse
-experienced users may find it useful
(-) Users need to remember specific commands -hard for new
users to use
Graphical User Interphases (GUI)
(+) Users do not need to remember specific commands -easier

for new users to use
(+) Users use icons to remember commands
(+) Commands are grouped in menus and toolbars
(-) More complex to implement by a programmer
(-) Requires more memory
(-) Requires a graphical monitor and a pointing device

Since GUI elements can be found in almost every software
application, it would be a waste of time for every software
application programmer to have to go through implementing these
common GUI elements over and over again for every separate
software application.
Some common GUI elements, such as toolbars, menus, dialogue
boxes, windows etc are provided by the operating system, so that
the programmer only needs to state their existence.
Advantages:
it saves time from the programmer -you don’t have to reinvent the
wheel
improves usability since all these features are displayed n a familiar
way across all software applications
Therefore application programmers make use of abstract GUI
components in order to design graphical users interfaces more
efficiently.
If something looks similar between various applications, such as window

and the red, yellow and green buttons, or the way menus work, it’s
probably coming from the OS.
Question
Define the terms toolbars, menus, dialogue boxes, graphical user

interface (GUI) and command line interface (CLI).
The above improve usability for a wide range of users. What are the
benefits?
2.1.9: Define the terms bit, byte, binary, denary/decimal, hexadecimal.
BINARY REPRESENTATION
Decimal Representation
The decimal number system is a positional system that uses ten digits
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) to represent any number.
The digits in the decimal number system can be used with a decimal
separator to represent a fractional part, as well as plus/minus sign (+/-)
to indicate whether the number represented is grader or less than zero.
The position of each digit within a number provides the multiplier by
which that digit is multiplied.
The multiplier is always a power of ten.
Apart from the decimal number system there exist a couple of other
useful number systems that are widely used in computer science:
Binary system (base-2)
Hexadecimal System (base-16)
Binary Representation
The Binary System is a positional system that uses two digits (0 and 1)
to represent any number.
Has 2 as its base (base-2 system).
Is the most widely used system in computer science.
Numbers represented in this system are known as binary numbers.
The position of each digit within a number determines the multiplier with
which that digit is multiplied.
The multiplier is always a power with a base of 2 and an exponent that
increases by one compared with the exponent of the position to its right
(starting with 20 ).
Bit
Computers use binary - the digits 0 and 1 - to store data.

A binary digit, or bit, is the smallest unit of data in computing.
A bit is always equal to 0 or 1.
Byte
Bits can be grouped together to make them easier to work with.

A group of 8 bits is called a byte.
Relationship between ‘normal’ numbers (denary) and binary

How to convert from binary to decimal
The base is often written in the right bottom corner, i.e.

(11011001)2 = (217)10 .
How to convert from decimal to binary (1st Method)
Assume that we wish to convert 23 to binary.


We create a table with all the powers of 2 not surpassing 23 and we put
a 1 in the first column.
16 8 4 2 1
1

We create a table with all the powers of 2 not surpassing 23 and we put
a 1 in the first column.
16 8 4 2 1
1
We calculate 23 − 16 = 7. We put a 0 to all the remaining powers

surpassing 7 and a 1 to the fist power not surpassing 7, i.e. to 4
16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1
We calculate 7 − 4 = 3. We now put a 1 to the first power not

surpassing 3, i.e. to 2
16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1
We calculate 4 − 3 = 1 and we put a 1 to the final power of 2, i.e. 1.
16 8 4 2 1
1 0 1 1 1
How to convert from decimal to binary (2nd Method)

Question
Conversions
Binary numbers → Decimal numbers
Decimal numbers → Binary numbers
Addition in Binary
Addition in binary is an analogue of the well known addition method in
decimal. All one has to know by heart are the following:
(1)2 + (1)2 = (10)2 (1)2 + (1)2 + (1)2 = (11)2 .
So, each time we have to add 1 and 1 we have 0 in the result and 1 in
the carry. Also when we add 1, 1 and 1 we have 1 in the result and 1 in
the carry.
The follwoing addition shows that x + y = z, where
x = (111)10 = (1101111)2 , y = (54)10 = (110110)2 and
z = (165)10 = (10100101)2 .
Carry 1 1 1 1 1 0
x 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
y 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
z 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Binary number system and negative numbers
Two’s complement is the way most modern computers represent signed

binary numbers.
The main advantage of this representation is that addition, subtraction
and multiplication are carried out easily.
MSB
The Most Significant Bit (MSB) is the bit position in a binary number
having the greatest value. It is the leftmost bit.
LSB
The Least Significant Bit (LSB) is the bit on the right, which gives us
what we call the units value.
If LSB = 1 then the number is odd.

If LSB = 0 then the number is even.
Binary Representation and negative numbers: 2’s

complement
Question
Conversions
Positive number to its negative equivalent.
Negative number to its positive equivalent.
Fractions
In the binary system and in the decimal system the radix point is used to
separate the fractional from the whole part.
Binary Representation (Fractions)

How to convert decimal fractions to binary

Question
Conversions
Positive decimal fraction to binary.
Binary fraction to decimal.
Hexadecimal Number System

The Hexadecimal number system . . .
. . . is a positional system that uses 16 digits
(0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F) to represent any number.
. . . it has sixteen as its base.
. . . is used in computer science.
Numbers represented in this system are known as hexadecimal numbers.

Since it’s a positional system, the position of each digit within a number
provides provides the multiplier by which that is digit is multiplied.
The multiplier is always a power of sixteen and is calculated at every
position in the same way as in the binary system.
How to convert hexadecimal numbers to decimal?

As usual :)
(A57F )16 =
(A · 163 + 5 · 162 + 7 · 161 + F · 160 )10 =
(10 · 163 + 5 · 162 + 7 · 161 + 15 · 160 )10 =
(42367)10 .
How to convert hexadecimal numbers to decimal?

As usual :)
(A57F )16 =
(A · 163 + 5 · 162 + 7 · 161 + F · 160 )10 =
(10 · 163 + 5 · 162 + 7 · 161 + 15 · 160 )10 =
(42367)10 .
Remember
(A)16 = (10)10 = (1010)2

(B)16 = (11)10 = (1011)2
(C )16 = (12)10 = (1100)2
(D)16 = (13)10 = (1101)2
(E )16 = (14)10 = (1110)2
(F )16 = (15)10 = (1111)2
How to convert decimal numbers to hexadecimal?

Question
Conversions
Hexadecimal numbers → Decimal numbers
Decimal numbers → Hexadecimal numbers
Hexadecimal digits and binary numbers
(0)16 = (0)10 = (0000)2

(1)16 = (1)10 = (0001)2
The correspondance to the right, (2)16 = (2)10 = (0010)2
between hexadecimal digits and (3)16 = (3)10 = (0011)2
binary numbers can be easily ver- (4)16 = (4)10 = (0100)2
ified. (5)16 = (5)10 = (0101)2
(6)16 = (6)10 = (0110)2
This correspondance is very use-
(7)16 = (7)10 = (0111)2
ful when one wants to convert
(8)16 = (8)10 = (1000)2
from binary to hexadecimal and
(9)16 = (9)10 = (1001)2
vice versa. (A)16 = (10)10 = (1010)2
Observe that since there are 16 (B)16 = (11)10 = (1011)2
different hexadecimal digits, we (C )16 = (12)10 = (1100)2
need 4 bits to represent all of (D)16 = (13)10 = (1101)2
them. (E )16 = (14)10 = (1110)2
(F )16 = (15)10 = (1111)2
How to convert from binary to hexadecimal

Let b = (1110001011)2 be a binary number that we wish to convert to
hexadecimal.
One method is to convert b to decimal first and then convert it
hexadecimal. But this takes too long . . .
A much faster method consists of the following 4 steps:
1 Moving from right to left we divide the number in 4-bit parts. So,
we have:
0011 1000 1011
2 Since b has 11 bits we add one 0 to the left.
3 Each 4-bit part of b is hexadecimal digit. It holds (1011)2 = (B)16 ,
(1000)2 = (8)16 and (0011)2 = (3)16 .
4 Thus we have:
b = (1110001011)2 = (0011 1000 1011)2 = (38B)16

Conversions from binary to hexadecimal
Verify that the following holds:

(1100001)2 = (0110 0001)2 = (61)16
(1011100)2 = (0101 1100)2 = (5C )16
(11111)2 = (0001 1111)2 = (1F )16
How to convert from hexadecimal to binary
The conversion from hexadecimal to binary is very easy. We simply

replace each hexadecimal digit with the corresponding 4-bit binary
number.
For example we have:
(A11)16 = (1010 0001 0001)2

(F 23)16 = (1111 0010 0011)2
(BB9)16 = (1011 1011 1001)2
BE CAREFULL: Each hexadecimal digit has to be replaced by a 4-bit

binary number, even if the hexadecimal digit is smaller than 9.
2.1.10: Outline the way in which data is represented in the computer.
BINARY REPRESENTATION
To include strings, integers, characters and colours. This should include
considering the space taken by data, for instance the relation between the
hexadecimal representation of colours and the number of colours
available.
TOK, INT Does binary represent an example of a lingua franca?
S/E, INT Comparing the number of characters needed in the Latin
alphabet with those in Arabic and Asian languages to understand the
need for Unicode.
Data Representation
Computer systems are binary systems, meaning that there are only
two possible values that they can represent -the values 0 and 1.
These two values can be represented by a single bit.
In order to represent more complex data, sequences of bits are used.
The length of binary digit sequences determines the possible number
of different representations that can be achieved.
By using n bits we can represent 2n different values.
Data Representation
In order for computer systems to communicate effectively and exchange

information, data must be consistent and similar.
That is why standard formats exist. Some of these standards are:
Integers (two’s complement method, sign-and-magnitude-number
representation)
Characters (ASCII, Unicode)
Strings (UTF-8)
Colours (RGB)
Data Representation -Integers
If we use 8 bits to represent an integer, there can be 256 different

representations. This would allow us to represent all the unsigned
positive integers from 0 to 255 (256 different numbers)
Negative integers can be represented using the two’s complement method
(see last section).
Sign-and-magnitude number representation

This method represents a number’s sign by allocating the MSB as a sign
bit. As we use 8 bits to represent an integer number, only 7 bits remain
for the magnitude.
MSB is set to:
0 for a positive number
1 for a negative number
Data Representation -Characters
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is a

character encoding scheme originally based on the English alphabet.
ASCII is used to represent text in computer systems.
ASCII uses 7 bits to represent each character which means that it can
achieve 128 different representations (128 different characters).
It holds
the latin alphabet (lower case and capital letters),
the decimal numbering system (0-9)
space characters
punctuation characters like
!, ^, &, *, (, ), ;, ‘, :, \,
etc.
There are other character-encoding schemes available that allow

traditional characters to be represented.
This allows non-English characters, graphic symbols and mathematical
symbols to be represented.
The most widely known character-encoding scheme is Unicode.
Question
Why is the Unicode character encoding scheme needed?
There are other character-encoding schemes available that allow

traditional characters to be represented.
This allows non-English characters, graphic symbols and mathematical
symbols to be represented.
The most widely known character-encoding scheme is Unicode.
Question
Why is the Unicode character encoding scheme needed?
Answer
See next slides :)
For Arabic and Asian languages, there’s not enough room in a 128 set, or
even in a full 256 extended ASCII set to fit all the characters. There are
tens of thousands of Chinese characters, for example.
So, Arabic and Asian languages and indeed a whole bunch of other kinds
of languages demand more than 256 characters.
So we now have computers which work with UNICODE, which can
represent thousands of characters. UNICODE uses 16 bits per character.
In UNICODE, two bytes (16 bits) are read for each character, which
means that there are 216 = 65, 536 different combinations.
Data Representation -Strings
In a computer system a string is a sequence of characters.

If UTF-8 encoding system is used, each character will consists of 8 bits.
A 5 letter word will need 5 × 8 = 40 bits to be represented.
UTF-8
UTF-8 stands for Unicode Transformation Format-8-bit. It is a
variable-width character encoding used for electronic communication.
Data Representation - Colour
Monitors use pixels to display information and have a specific display

resolution, such as 1024 × 768.
A pixel is the smallest controllable element in a display of a picture
represented on the screen.
Every pixel may have only one colour at any moment.
Each colour is made up of a combination of shades of Red, Green and
Blue (RGB)
Each pixels stores information about its state and colour in a memory
location.
There are many ways to represent and store an individual colour -ex. RGB
Colours -Hexadecimal RGB
Hexadecimal RGB colour values specify the amount of red, green and blue
light that need to appear at a pixel, in order to produce a specific colour.
By combining different shades of red, green and blue a large variety of
colours can be displayed.
Each colour value is represented as a hexadecimal value of two digits that
may take up values from 00 to FF.
In order to describe a colour value in this way, a six-digit hexadecimal
number is needed, ex. 4E54F2.
The first two hexadecimal digits represent the red colour
the next two the green colour
the last two the blue colour
Examples of Colours
black: 00 00 00
red: FF 00 00
green: 00 FF 00
blue: 00 00 FF
white: FF FF FF
Colours (24 bit colour model)

Make your own color!
Go to the following link and make your own color!

http://www.cknuckles.com/rgbsliders.html
Data Representation -Colours

For every hex digit added to the colour model, there are 16 times more
colours available. It’s as simple as that :)
. . . Except that color models generally don’t go up by one hex digit, they
go up by two. And that makes sense, since the standard for working with
data is the byte and the byte is usually 8 bits, i.e. that which can be
represented by 2 hex digits, not 1.
So the most common colour models (8-bit colour, 16-bit colour, and 24-
bit colour) each go up in the number of colours possible by a factor of
256:
8-bit colour (i.e. two hex values colour) can represent 256 different
colours.
16-bit colour (i.e. four hex values colour) can represent 65, 536
(which is 256 x 256)
24-bit colour (i.e. six hex values colour) can represent 16,777,216
(which is 256 x 256 x 256)
IB Style Exam Question

Outline the way in which data is represented in the computer includeing
strings, integers, characters and colours.

All data is represented on a computer in a binary way. In the RAM of a

computer this binary representation is in the form of open circuits (the 1s
of the binary code) and closed circuits (the 0s of the binary code).
On hard drives, the binary representation is in the form of little regions
that have one level of magnetism or another.
IB Style Exam Question (cont’d)


So all data are translated into binary form.

Strings (i.e. sequences of characters) are encoded one character at a
time, with each character having a certain standard binary code.
The original coding system for this was called ASCII, and in it,
capital A, for example, had the standard 8 binary digit
representation of 0100 0001.
Integers are able to be stored simply as the binary equivalent of their
decimal value. So written in an integer context, the decimal number
6 would be (in an 8 bit form) 0000 0110.
For colours, it depends on the colour model, but using the common
RGB model, one byte is used for each of the red (R), green (G) and
blue (B) values. Red would then be 1111 1111 0000 0000 0000
0000. Since this model uses three bytes per pixel, it is referred to as
24-bit color.

Discuss the space taken by data, for instance the relation between the
available.

available.
The number of bits used per character or number or colour determines
the number of characters/numbers/colours which can be represented.
With all data, each extra bit (binary digit) which is used to represent
individual characters/numbers/colours doubles the number of
characters/numbers/colours available.
But since computers work with groups of 8 bits usually, we tend to think
of the influence of having an extra 8 bits used per thing. And so an extra
8 bits will double the initial number of colours etc. 8 times, or increase it
by a factor of 28 , or 256.

available.

available.
In the example of colour, we usually work with hexadecimal values, in
fact, and 8 binary digits are equivalent to two hex digits. So when a
colour model goes from 8 bit colour (for example FF) to 16 bit colour
(for example, the colour 33FF), to 24 bit colour (for example, the colour
AA33FF) - that is to say with every two addition hex digits, 162 or 256
more colours can be represented. So the number of colours available in
those models thereby is 2561 , 2562 , and 2563 , which equals
256 × 65.536, and is over 16 million.
So 24 bit colour can represent over 16 million different colours.

Compare the number of characters needed in the Latin alphabet with
those in Arabic and Asian languages to understand the need for Unicode.

The number of characters needed in the Latin alphabet is way smaller

than those needed for Arabic and Asian languages. We only need the
basic A-Z characters 0-1 numbers and common punctuation symbols to
be able to store Latin characters as with the English language.
Arabic and Asian languages and other world languages would need
thousands and thousands of characters to be represented; think about
how Chinese dialects have tens of thousands of pictograms in their
language.


Remembering that computers are made to work primarily with groups of

8 bits (a byte), one group of 8 bits would be enough for Latin character
languages such as English. The number of characters which could be
represented by 8 bits is 28 , or 256. ASCII, the original computer character
set now uses exactly that, so it represents the most common 256 Latin
characters and symbols. To go up into the thousands of available
representations, it makes sense to stick with the 8 bit groupings model,
and so with 16 bits, 21 6 (65.536) different characters can be represented.
And this is exactly what the standard UNICODE code set contains.

Does binary represent an example of a lingua franca?

Does binary represent an example of a lingua franca?
A lingua franca is a language which most people around the world can
understand.
So, yes, binary, in a way does represent a lingua franca, in so far as the
computers most people around the world use are able to interpret the
character codes sets ASCII and UNICODE
Chuck Norris’s Keyboard

2.1.11: Define the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, XOR
SIMPLE LOGIC GATES

2.1.11: Define the Boolean operators: AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR,
XOR
LINK Introduction to programming, approved notation sheet.
Simple Logic Gates

Computer systems are made up of electrical circuits and use the binary
system to represent and store data.
In order to do so, electrical circuits have beed designed to receive one or
more binary numbers as their inputs and produce a single output, which
is another binary number.
The logical operations of these circuits are governed by the rules of
Boolean logic.
There are six Boolean operators available:
AND
OR
NOT
NAND
NOR
XOR
The Gate AND

A AND B is also denoted by the symbol A · B
The truth table of AND is
A B A·B
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Remember
A AND B is 1 if A = B = 1
A AND B is 0 if at at least one of A, B is 0
The Gate OR
A OR B is also denoted by the symbol A + B
The truth table of OR is
A B A+B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Remember
The symbol + here does not denote addition in the usual way!
A OR B is 0 if A = B = 0
A OR B is 1 if at at least one of A, B is 1
The Gate NOT
NOT A is also denoted as A.

The truth table of NOT is
A A
0 1
1 0
Remember
NOT A is the inverse of A.
The Gate NAND

NAND means that we perform an AND and then a NOT. Thus
A NAND B = NOT (A AND B).
A NAND B is also denoted as A · B. The truth table of NAND is
A B A·B
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Remember
A NAND B is 0 if A = B = 1
A NAND B is 1 if at at least one of A, B is 0
The Gate NOR

NOR means that we perform an OR and then a NOT. Thus
A NOR B = NOT (A OR B).
A NOR B is also denoted as A + B. The truth table of NOR is
A B A+B
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
Remember
A NOR B is 1 if A = B = 0
A NOR B is 0 if at at least one of A, B is 1
The Gate XOR

A XOR B is also denoted as A ⊕ B
The truth table of XOR is
A B A⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
Remember
A XOR B is 1 if A 6= B
A XOR B is 0 if A = B
Order of Operations
NOT takes precedence,
then AND, and NAND,
and finally OR, NOR, and XOR in order from left to right.
Hence,
NOT A AND B OR C
is actually
((NOT A) AND B) OR C .
It is easier to understand the precedence if we use the alternative

notation. That is to represent
NOT A AND B OR C
as
A · B + C.
In terms of programming . . .
The logic gate is on (meaning it has electricity flowing through it) when:
AND: Both input switches are closed. At the programming level,
both statements must be true for an AND statement to
evaluate to true. (a && b) in Java
OR: one input switch or the other is closed. At the
programming level, one of the 2 statements are true (if the
OR statement evaluates to true). (a||b) in Java.
NAND: At least one switch is not closed. !(a && b) in Java.
NOR: Both switches are not closed !(a||b) in Java
NOT: the input is not on (or the gate is turned off if its input
was on). Not gate stops flow of electricity if it was flowing
before, and makes electricity flow if it wasn’t. At the
programming level, the statement is not true. !(a) in Java.
XOR: one switch is closed, but not both. At the programming
level, one statement or the other can be true. (a ˆ b)
in Java.
2.1.12: Construct truth tables using the Boolean operators.
SIMPLE LOGIC GATES

LINK: Thinking Logically
Convert sentences to Boolean expressions
1 Maria won’t go to school if it’s cold and raining or she has not done
her homework.
C=it’s cold
R = it’s raining
H = she has done her homework
C AND R OR NOT H = C · R + H
2 If the airplane is late and there and no taxis at the airport, we will
have to cancel our meeting tomorrow.
L=the airplane is late
T = there are taxis at the airport
L AND NOT T = A · T
1 If it’s hot or sunny, but not both, we’ll go for a walk.

H = it’s hot
S = it’s sunny
H XOR S = H ⊕ S = H · S + S · H
2 If it rains, or it does not rain and is very cloudy, I will need an
umbrella.
R = it rains
C = is very cloudy
R OR (NOT R AND C ) = R + R · C
Constructing Truth Tables
When we have a boolean expression with n variables, the truth table will
have 2n rows.
Does this sound familiar?
Is there a connection between truth tables and representation of data?
A AND B OR C
A B C A·B A·B +C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
(A OR B) AND C
A B C A + B (A + B) · C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1
A OR B XOR C
A B C A + B (A + B) ⊕ C
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0
A XOR B AND C
A B C B · C A ⊕ (B · C )
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 0
A AND B OR NOT C
A B C C A·B A·B +C
0 0 0 1 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 1 0 1 1
A NOR B OR C
A B C A+B A+B +C
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1
A XOR B NAND C
A B C B ·C A⊕B ·C
0 0 0 1 1
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1
0 1 1 0 0
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 1
Construct a truth table for the following expressions
1 X = A OR B AND C
2 X = A AND B AND C
3 X = (A OR B) AND C
4 X = (NOT A OR B) AND NOT C
5 X = A XOR B OR C
6 X = (A XOR B) AND C
7 F =A·B ·C +A·B ·C +A·B ·C
8 F =A·B ·C +A·B ·C +A·B ·C +A·B ·C
A chemical factory is equipped with three safety mechanisms. These

safety mechanisms are used to warn the local authorities for a potential
accident. If safety mechanism A or safety mechanism B are in OFF
position and if safety mechanism C is in the ON position, then there is no
reason to worry about an upcoming accident.
Construct a truth table for this scenario.
Truth tables / Boolean Operators
An alarm system has three inputs Q, W and R, and one output I. When
signal at Q is false then the output at I is the same as input signal R.
When the signal at Q is true then the output at I is the same as input
signal W.
Construct a truth table for this scenario.
2.1.13: Construct a logic diagram using AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR gates.
SIMPLE LOGIC GATES

2.1.13: Construct a logic diagram using AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR,
and XOR gates.
The gate should be written as a circle with the name of the gate inside it.
LINK: Thinking logically, connecting computational thinking and program
design, introduction to programming
Logic Gates
A variety of electrical circuits is used to build a computer system.

Electrical circuits require binary inputs and produce a single binary
output.
Electrical circuits are constructed using the Boolean operators and
are implemented by logic gates.
A logic gate is a real electrical circuit that simulated a specific
Boolean operator.
There are six logic gates, as there are six Boolean operators.
Logic Gates
All logic gates have a single output on the right.

NOT gate has a single input on the left, whereas all other gates have two
inputs, indicated by the two lines on the left of the cycle.
A AND B OR NOT B
(NOT A OR NOT B) XOR (C XOR D)

Exercises
Create a logic diagram for the following statements:

1 Maria won’t go to school if it’s cold and raining or she has not done
her homework.
2 If the airplane is late and there are no taxis at the airport, we will
have to cancel our meeting tomorrow.
3 If it’s hot or sunny, but not both, we’ll go for a walk.
4 If it rains, or it does not rain and is very cloudy, I will need an
umbrella.
Exercises
Draw the logic diagram for the following expressions:

1 (A OR B) AND (C XOR D)
2 (A AND B) OR (C AND NOT A)
3 (A AND NOT B) OR NOT C
4 (A OR NOT B) AND NOT (C XOR D)
5 (A AND B) OR (NOT A XOR B)
Resources
Dimitriou Kostas, Hatzitaskos Markos, Core Computer Science for

the IB Diploma Program, Express Publishing, 2015
shorturl.at/iyXY9
shorturl.at/hIX46
shorturl.at/giI23
https://bit.ly/3oGnDhx
https://bit.ly/3ebzAHs
https://bit.ly/2HKrMAw
https://bit.ly/37MUyLw

02 Computer Organization

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Topic 2: Computer Organization

Topic 2: Computer Organization 2 / 164

Computer systems consist of hardware and software components.

A block diagram describing the input-output process model:

Input Devices: keyboard, sensor, digital camera button etc

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Data or instructions are processed by the central processing unit (CPU).

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU contains the:

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

Control Unit (CU)

is responsible for the operation of the CPU.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

Sometimes an ALU is referred to a as core, hence computers with dual

CU contains various registers.

The basic registers in CU are:

MAR (Memory Address Register)

It holds the memory address of the data to be used by the ALU, so

MDR (Memory Data Register)

holds the data that is to be used by the ALU.

Program Counter: Stores the address of the next instruction.

Primary memory consists of:

RAM (Random Access Memory)

stores the executing program instructions and any data is needed.

holds instructions and data in unique memory locations -every

RAM vs. ROM

RAM has two main types:

RAM has two main types:

Cache Memory Levels

How does cache memory work?

Machine Instruction Cycle

Computer programs are stored in the primary memory as series of

Machine Instruction Cycle

Machine Instruction Cycle - Fetch

CPU is responsible for knowing which instruction is next to be operated.

Machine Instruction Cycle - Decode

The decoder interprets the instruction. During this cycle the

Machine Instruction Cycle - Execute & Store

Store the Result of Execution

Why do we need storage?

Persistent Storage is only possible in secondary memory.

When a computer starts, RAM is empty.

Without the availability of secondary memory only ROM would be

Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

Secondary memory is required to hold information that may not be

Memory (primary & secondary)

OPERATING SYSTEMS & APPLICATION

Operating System (OS)

is a software that controls the computer’s hardware resources and

The main services of an OS are:

Operating System: Peripheral Communication

The operating system is responsible for:

Operating System: Memory Management

An operating system is responsible for all the memory that is available in

Operating System: Memory Management

Multi-tasking: keeping the memory space of each process safe from

Operating System: Resource monitoring and multitasking

An application running on a computer system takes up resources:

Operating System: Networking

Operating System: Disk Access & Data Management

An important function of an operating system is its ability to access data

Operating System: Security

Operating System: Security