CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

 It is also referred to as the Processor.

 It is the brain of the computer and carries out all the processing.
 It is mounted on a circuit board called mother board (system board)
Parts of CPU
i) Control unit
ii) Arithmetic logic unit(A.L.U)
iii) Main memory(MM)
iv) Auxiliary processors (AP)

i) Control Unit (CU)

 It coordinates all processing activities in the C.P.U as well as input, output and storage
operations
Functions of the control unit
1. Directs the flow of information in the C.P.U, main memory and storage media.
2. Control the instructions the C.P.U will perform next.

ii) Main Memory (Primary Storage)

 Provides storage location for data and instructions accessed by the control unit.
Functions of the main memory
1. Holds data awaiting processing
2. Holds data that has been processed awaiting to be output
3. Holds data being processed
NB: Computer memory can be classified into:
i) Read Only Memory (ROM)
ii) Random Access Memory (RAM)
iii) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 It carries out all the arithmetic and logical operations of the CPU
 The basic arithmetic operations include: addition, subtraction, multiplication and div-
ision.
 Logical operations include: equal to, not equal to, less than, greater than etc.
Functions of ALU
i) Carries out all the mathematical computations in the computer
ii) Carries out all the logical comparison of values
NB: In order for ALU to be able to process data, it has special temporary storage locations
called registers. A register is a special temporary storage location for holding data just
before processing and after processing.

TYPES OF MAIN MEMORY

1. ROM (Read Only Memory)
2. RAM (Random Access Memory)

1. READ ONLY MEMORY

 It is used to store programmed instructions/ data permanently or semi permanently.
 Data and instructions stored in ROM are those required unchanged for a very long time
e.g. booting instructions, computerized fuel pump instructions etc.

Types of ROM
a) MROM (Mask Read Only Memory)
 Once contents are written on it by the manufacture they cannot be changed.
b) PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)
 Allows the user to alter it only once after the content is written on it.
c) EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 The content stored in the memory can be erased by exposing them to ultra violet (UV)
light and then reprogrammed for another use.
d) EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory)
 This type of ROM can be erased and programmed using electricity e.g. BIOS

Characteristics of ROM
1. Can only be read but cannot be written on it unless it is a special type of ROM
2. It is non-volatile i.e. its content is not lost when the computer is switched off
 3. Stores permanent instructions from the manufacturer
2. RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY
 It is most common type of main memory
 It is called random access memory because its content can be read directly regardless of
the sequences in which it is stored.
NB: The content in RAM is held temporarily and therefore, the content is lost once the
computer is turned off.
Types of RAM
a) SRAM (Static Random Access Memory)
 It is a very fast memory and holds its content as long as there is power.
 It is more expensive than DRAM.
b) DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
 Holds its content for short time, even when power is on. To maintain its content, it must
be refreshed severally per second.

Characteristics of RAM
1. Data can be read (retrieved/ opened) & written (stored) in it.
2. It is volatile (temporary) storage because its content is lost when the power is switched
off.
3. Its content is user defined i.e. the user dictates what is to be contained in RAM.

SPECIAL PURPOSE MEMORIES

 Apart from ROM and RAM, there are several types of special memories found inside the
CPU or found in the input/ output devices.
NB: These memories increase the overall performance of the CPU during processing of data
& instructions. These memories include buffers, registers and cache memory.

a) Buffer
 It is a special purpose memory used to provide temporally storage so that the CPU is set
free to carry out other activities instead of waiting for all data to be entered or to be
output.
  For example, a printer cannot work at the speed of the CPU, therefore the printer buffers
temporarily holds the output to be printed hence freeing the CPU to perform other
functions.
NB: Buffers can hold more than one piece of data at a time.
b) Cache memory
 It is a very high speed type of SRAM whose purpose is to allow the processor to access
data and instructions faster.
c) Registers
 They are special purpose memories which hold data temporarily before and after
processing.
 Unlike buffers, registers hold one piece of data at a time and are inside the CPU.
Purpose of registers
i) Used for holding instructions currently being processed.
ii) It is a high speed storage location.
Examples of Registers
i) Accumulator – Temporarily holds the results of the last processing step of ALU.
ii) Instruction register - Temporarily holds an instruction just before it is interpreted into a
form that CPU can understand it.
iii) Address register - Temporarily holds next piece of data waiting to be processed.
iv) Storage register - Temporarily holds a piece of data that is on its way to and from the
CPU and the main memory

Memory capacities
 Memory and storage capacity is measured in units called bytes.
 A byte is equivalent to a single character. A character can be letters of the alphabet,
punctuation marks, digits, symbols. Eg. A – Z, 0 – 9 etc
 A byte is made up of 8 bits. Bit is an acronym standing for BInary digiT.
 There are two standard 8-bit codes widely used today to represent information in
computers i.e. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) and
Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC).
  E.g Character “A” = 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 in ASCII

8 Bits

8 Bits = 1 byte
1 Kilobyte (KB) ¿ 1,000 bytes (1 Thousand bytes)
1 Megabyte (MB) ¿ 1,000,000 bytes (1 Million bytes)
1 Gigabyte (GB) ¿ 1,000,000,000 bytes (1 Billion bytes)
1 Terabyte ¿ 1,000,000,000,000 bytes (1 Trillion bytes)

FUNCTIONAL ORGANISATION OF THE CPU

 The ALU, CU and the Main Memory are linked through electrical pathways called buses.
 A complete bus is an electrical pathway for signal to flow from one point to another in
circuit.
Types of computer buses
i) Control bus
ii) Address bus
iii) Data bus
i) Control bus
 It is a pathway to all timings and controlling functions sent by the control unit to other
parts of the system.
ii) Address bus
 It is the pathway used to locate the storage position in the memory where the next
instruction or data is to be executed are found.
iii) Data bus
 The pathway where the actual data transfer takes place.
CPU Organization/ Structure

Control Unit
(CU)

Data Input Arithmetic & Logic Unit Data Output

(ALU)

Input devices Output devices

e.g. Keyboard e.g. Printer

Main Memory
(MM)
 Data to be stored Data to be processed
Computer Bus
Secondary Storage
(Auxiliary storage)
e.g. Hard disk, CD

NB: The arrows ( ) represent computer buses

Types of processor and their clock speed.

 Since 1971 Intel Company has specialized in manufacturing CPU by combining the
ALU& CU on a single tiny processor called Micro-processor.
 Other companies that started manufacturing processor include Advanced Micro Device
(AMD), Cyrix and Motorola.
 The following are the types of processors available in the market today:
 Pentium Pro
 Intel Pentium
 Pentium (I)
 Pentium (II)
 Pentium (III)
 Pentium (IV)
Processor Clock Speed
 The speed of which a processor executes is determined by its clock speed.
 The system clock speed is measured in units called Hertz (Hz).
 The hertz is a unit of frequency which measures the number of cycles per second in a
signal.
1 kilohertz (KHz) ¿ 1000 hertz
1megahertz (MHz) ¿ 1000000 hertz
1gigahertz (GHz) ¿ 1000000000 hertz
OUTPUT DEVICES
These are peripheral devices that a computer uses to give out information produced after
processing operations.

TYPES OF OUTPUT DEVICES

1. Softcopy Output Devices
2. Hardcopy Output Devices

1. SOFTCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES

These are devices that produce intangible output. They include: Speakers, Monitors (Screen) and
LED (Light Emitting Diodes) among others.
NB: The term softcopy output refers to the intangible output; mainly displayed on the screen or
through devices like speakers.
- Softcopy output is temporary that is, the output is no longer available when the devices are not
powered either through electricity or from other sources of power.
i) MONITOR (VDU)
It displays information on its screen thus helping the user to monitor operation being carried out
by the computer.
NB: The size of a monitor is measured in inches (“) diagonally; as in from corner to corner.

Size 15”
(Measured
Diagonally)

TYPES OF MONITORS
a) Monochrome monitors
They display images and text in only one colour mostly black and white.
b) Colour monitors
They display images and text in multiple colours.

Note: Monitors display text and graphics with the help of Video Card (Graphics Adapter).
- Video Card (Graphics Adapter) is a circuit board where the monitor must be connected for it
to display information. The video card is plugged into the motherboard.
- However, some monitors come with on-board video capability and therefore there is no need
for a video card.

Examples of graphic adapters/ Video Cards

Graphics Adapters or Video Cards are circuit boards that enable the monitor to display
information.
 1. Monochrome Display Adapter (MDA) - It was the first video card that displayed text in
only one colour and could not support images.
2. Hercules Graphics Cards (HGC) - Supports monochrome images and text.
3. Colour Graphics Adapter (CGA) - Displays text and images using 16 colours.
4. Enhanced Graphics Adapter (EGA) - An improvement of Colour Graphics Adapter.
5. Video Graphics Array (VGA) - Displays images and text with at most 256 colours.
6. Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA) - An improvement of VGA but offering over 256
colours.

- The sharpness and clarity of an image on the screen depends on the type of monitor. Monitors
that display sharp and clear images are said to have high resolution.
- The images on the screen are formed by small dots called pixel (picture element) hence, the
more the number of pixels per square centimeter, the higher the resolution thus high clarity of the
image.
- Resolution-is the measure of how fine, clear or sharp an image appears on the screen.
- Pixel – Are small dots that form an image on the screen.

TECHNOLOGIES USED IN MONITORS (Types of display screens)

There are two commonly used technologies in monitors namely:
1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) or Flat Panel Display

1. CRT MONITORS
- It uses a long tube called cathode ray tube that emits light.
- The screen of CRT is curved slightly outwards forming a convex shape.
- The CRT must be refreshed constantly and if the refresh rate is low, the screen flickers or a
line scrolls down the screen.
Characteristics of CRT Monitors
1. The screen is curved slightly outwards
2. They are not portable i.e. they are bulky hence occupy a lot of space
3. They consume a lot of power
 4. They are cheap

2. LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY (LCD) OR FLAT PANEL DISPLAY

- It is made up of 2 sheets of polarized and flexible plastic material & a layer of crystals
between them.
- LCD does not refresh like CRT, instead it sends variable voltages to cells of liquid crystals
& cause the crystals to uncoil.
- Liquid crystal displays are widely used in watches, calculators, cell phones & digital
cameras.

Characteristics of (LCD) or flat panel display

1. The screen is flat
2. They are portable
3. Consume less power compared to CRT
4. They are expensive
5. They occupy less space
6. Provides high quality output compared to CRT

Examples of Flat Panel Displays

1. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) - They have tiny liquids crystals that reflect light falling
on them from the environment.
2. Electro luminescent (EL) - An improvement of LCD and emits light when electrically
charged.
3. Gas Plasma - Use Gas That Emits Light In Presence Of Electric Current
4. Thin Film Transistor (TFT) - It is the latest technology advancement in displays. It
provides a high quality output than all the others.

Advantages of Monitors (VDU)

1. The output is almost instant
2. It minimizes the paper work.
Disadvantages of Monitors (VDU)
1. The screen might not allow the full viewing of all the data
2. Can lure the computer user not to keep hardcopy records

ii) SOUND/VOICE OUTPUT DEVICES

- Voice output device mainly are speakers. The sound may be inform of music, video, warning or
interactive communication with the computer etc.

Advantages of sound output

1. No reading is required
2. It is a fast and natural output
3. Useful in situations where you can’t see or where you are busy

Disadvantages of sound output

1. Not suitable in noisy environment
2. Inappropriate for lengthy information.

Application of sound output

1. Text to speech translation for the blind
2. Emergency messages e.g. in airports
3. Learning aids e.g. Computer Aided Learning

iii) LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LED)

- They are light emitting component that display light when an electric current is passed through
them. E.g. the red and green light displayed by the system unit to help the user know whether it
is ON or OFF.
- Most LEDs are used to give warnings.

2. HARDCOPY OUTPUT DEVICES

These are devices that produce tangible output mainly on paper. They include: Printers, Plotters,
COM (Computer Output on Microfilm) etc.

NB: The term hardcopy output refers to the tangible output produced mostly on papers.
- Hardcopy output is permanent.

i) PRINTERS
They produce hardcopy information mainly on paper.
Types of printers
a) Impact Printers
b) Non-Impact Printers

a) Impact Printers
- The printing head comes into actual contact with the paper. The printing mechanism is similar
to that of a typewriter.
- They use special hammers with characters and the paper is placed behind an inked ribbon.
- The printing head element creates the imprint when the printing head strikes.

Types of impact printers

1. Dot Matrix Printer
2. Daisy Wheel Printer
3. Drum Printer
4. Chain Printer

1. Dot Matrix Printer

- Produces a hardcopy by arranging patterns of dots on the paper using pins held on the printing
head.
- The pins/ needles are activated depending on the character to be formed for printing.

2. Daisy Wheel Printer

- It has wheels with petals on which characters are mounted.
- When printing, the wheel rotates allowing petals to hit a ribbon with different characters.
- It provides a better print quality compared to Dot Matrix though slower.

3. Drum Printer
- It provides one whole line print at a time.
- The characters are incorporated on circular band that move round the surface of the drum
surface.
- Each band contains all the possible character sets.

4. Chain Printer
- It incorporates engraved character printing slugs on a moving belt/chain.
- The chain /belt moves the character printing slugs at a high speed past printing positions.

b) Non-impact Printers
- These printers do not use the striking mechanism to produce characters.
- The printing head element does not come into actual contact with the stationary.

Types of Non-Impact Printers

1. Inkjet printers
2. Thermal printers
3. Laser printers
4. Electrostatic printers
1. Inkjet printer
- These printers form characters by spraying ink from tiny nozzles through an electrical field that
arranges the charged ink particles into characters.
- They are cheap to buy but expensive to run because of the high cost of ink cartridges.
2. Thermal printer
- It uses heat to transfer characters onto a piece of paper.
- It uses special print paper that senses the heated head character images, which are then passed
onto the papers as character prints.
3. Laser printer
- It prints by passing a laser beam back and forth over a rotating drum.
- The laser draws the image on the drum by static electricity.
- The charged areas pick up the ink toner from a cartridge & press it onto the paper.
- It is expensive to buy, but it is faster and cheaper to run than ink jets.

4. Electrostatic printers
- It uses electrostatic charges to form characters in a line on a special paper.

Classification of Printers Based On Printing Speed

a) Character printers
- They print one character at a time. E.g. Daisy wheel, Dot matrix etc.
b) Line printers
- They print one line at a time e.g. inkjet, drum, chain, electrostatic printers.
c) Page printers
- They print an entire page at a time e.g. laser printers, xerographic printers.

Factors to Consider When Selecting a Printer

1. Speed of printing
2. Quality of print output
3. Initial cost and subsequent cost of maintenance
4. Volume of printing expected
5. Interface with the computer system
6. Range of capability for selected printer e.g. multiple copy facility, print styles, page
width etc.
7. The nature of reports to be generated

Differences between Impact and Non-Impact Printers

1. Impact printers are slow while non impact printers are fast
2. Impact use inked ribbons while non impact use thermal/electrostatic
3. Impact are noisy while non impact are quiet
 4. Impact printers are cheap while non impact are expensive
5. Impact printers produce multiple copies while non-impact produce single copies.

ii) PLOTTERS
- They are output devices that mainly produce graphical output e.g. diagrams, maps, posters.
- They are mostly used in the field of engineering and architecture for producing graphical
output.
- The commonly used graph plotters include flat bed plotters and drum plotters.

iii) COMPUTER OUTPUT ON MICROFORM (COM)

- It records images onto a photographic film, which is viewed by a special microfilm reader.
- This output method provides miniature/ small film strips into the microform.
- Microforms are photographically reduced documents on films.

Types of Microforms
a) Microfilm
- The output is usually on a roll of film, which is about 16mm.
b) Microfiche
- The output is on a page of film where data images are arranged in a grid of patterns. It
measures 105mm by 48mm.

Advantages of COM
1. Saves on stationery and space
2. Faster than printing
3. Not bulky hence portable
4. The contents of COM are not easily read using naked eyes, hence guaranteeing the
security of reports.
5. Have longer life span compared to paper output
Disadvantages of COM
1. It is expensive
2. Cause eyestrain in an attempt to read its content.
3. Additional equipment for viewing its contents are required

Application of COM
1. In libraries for books, catalogues and references
2. In local authorities to retain town plans, maps etc.
3. In banks, Insurance companies to store personal and customer’s records.