CHAPTER 2.

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Block Diagram of a computer:

A Computer is designed using

ALU
FOUR basic units. They are:
1. Input Unit [ I/P ]
Output Unit 2. Central Processing Unit [CPU]
Input Unit CU
a. Control Unit [CU]
b. Arithmetic & Logic
Unit[ALU]
Register
c. Registers.
3. Output Unit [O/P]
4. Memory Unit.
Memory

1. Input Unit [I/P]: A Device that accepts the information from the user is called Input Unit.
Whose main function is to accept the data and information provided by the user of the system and
pass this information to the CPU or to the memory for storage. The input unit basically links the
external world or environment to the computr system. A system may consist of one or more input
devices. The most commonly used input devices are Keyboard & Mouse. Other input devices are 1.
Joy stick 2. Track Ball 3. Light Pen 4. Scanner 5. OMR 6. OCR 7. MICR 8. BCR

2. Central Processing Unit [CPU] : It is the main part of the Computer System. Some times it is
also called as ‘Heart of a Computer’ or ‘Brain of a computer’. Most computers are identified by the
type of CPU that is present in them. The Function of the CPU is to interpret the instructions in the
program and execute them one by one. It consists of THREE sub units. They are,
a. Control Unit [CU] b. Arithmetic Logic Unit [ALU] c. Registers.

a. Control Unit [CU]: It controls and directs the transfer of program instructions and data
between various units. The main activity of the control unit is to maintain order and direct the
operations of the entire system. In other words, it controls the overall activities of the entire
system.
Functions of Control Units: 1. Maintains order and controls activity in CPU
2. Directs sequence of operations.
3. Communicates with Input-Output devices for transfer of data/results into/From storage.

b. Arithmetic and Logical Unit [ALU] : Is the place where the actual execution of the
instructions takes place during the processing operation. Arithmetic operations like Addition
(+), Subtraction (-), Multiplication (*) and division (/). Logical operation like AND, OR, NOT
and Relation operators like Less than (<), Greater than (>), Less then or equal to (<=), Greater
than or equal to (>=), equal to (=) are being carried out in this unit.
Functions of ALU are 1. Performs arithmetic functions2. Does Logical Operations
3. Does Branching on prefixed conditions.

c. Registers: The CPU consists of a number of temporary storage units, Which are used to store
instructions and intermediate data, which may be generated during processing. CPU consists of
FOUR general purpose registers are AX (Accumulator), BX (Base), CX (Counter), DX (Data).

3. Output Unit: It is used to print or display the results, which are stored in the memory unit. The
output unit links the computer to the outside world. As the computer works with binary values the
1
output generated will also in this form. The output unit converts the data from binary form to the
user understandable form before it displays the results. Some of the output devices are ,
a. Monitor b. Printer c. Speakers d. Plotter.

4. Memory Unit: It is a storage unit. The memory unit provides space to store input data,
intermediate results and the final output generated. There are two classes of memory devices called
Primary Storage and Secondary Storage. The primary memory or the main memory is a fast
memory capable of operating at electronic speed.
Secondary storage devices are additional memory devices such as floppy disks, magnetic
tapes, hard disks and compact disks etc., which are used to store huge information for future use.
The Storage capacity of a computer is measured in terms of Bytes. One byte includes total
of 8 individual units called as bit [Binary digIT]. One bit can store either a 0(Zero) or 1(One).

Name Shorthand Power Bytes

Byte 1Byte 20
1
Kilobyte 1KB 210 1024
Megabyte 1MB 220 1,048,576
Gigabyte 1GB 230 1,073,741,824
Terabyte 1TB 240 1,099,511,627,776

The input unit, output unit and Secondary storage devices are together known as
“Peripheral devices”.

Computer Memory: Memory is an essential component of a digital computer. It is a storage

device. It stores programs, data, results etc., The two kinds of memory are commonly used in
modern computers.
Memory

PrimaryMemory Secondary Memory

RAM ROM Floppy Hard Disk CD-ROM Pen-Drive

Static Dynamic PROM EPROM EEPROM

RAM RAM

1. Primary Memory: Is a temporary memory. It is also called as Main Memory or Volatile

Memory, their contents are erased when power goes off. The primary memory is faster,
compact and lighter and it consumes less power. It is a static device as there are no rotating part
in it. It stores programs and data, which are currently needed by the CPU. The size of the main
memory is comparatively much smaller than that of the secondary memory, because of its high
cast. The CPU communicates directly only with the main memory.
Function of the Primary Memory:
1. To contain a copy of the main software [S/W] program (Operating System). This program is
loaded into the primary memory when the computer is turned on.
2. Temporarily store a copy of the application program that is currently being executed.
3. Temporarily store the data input from the keyboard, which is required for processing.
4. Temporarily store the result, which is generated from processing until it is transferred to an
output device.
2
 Primary memories are of two types, a. RAM b. ROM.

a. RAM [Random Access Memory]: RAM is Volatile Memory. The information written into
it is retained in it as long as the power supply is on. As soon as the power supply goes off (or is
interrupted) its stored information is lost. RAM is also called as the main memory of a
computer. The user can write information into RAM and Read information from it. RAM is
accessible to users. In RAM any memory location can be accessed in a random manner directly
without going through any other memory location. The access time is same for each memory
location. There are two important types of RAM. i. Static RAM ii. Dynamic RAM
i). Static RAM: It retains stored information as long as the power supply is on. Static RAM
is costlier and consumes more power. It do not need refreshing circuitry and have higher
speed than dynamic RAM.
ii). Dynamic RAM: It loses its stored information in a very short time (a few milliseconds)
even though the power supply is on. It have to be refreshed periodically, generally every 2
millisecond. Is cheaper and consumes less power. It is used where large capacity of memory
is needed.

b. Read Only Memory [ROM]: It is nonvolatile memory i.e., the information stored in it is not
lost even when the power supply goes off. It is used for permanent storage of information only
at the time of Manufacturing. It is also called as Write Once and Read Many Times’. There are
3 types of ROM, They are, i. PROM ii. EPROM iii. EEPROM
i). PROM [Programmable Read Only Memory]: The user can store permanent programs,
data or any other kind of information in a PROM. Special equipment called PROM
Programmer is available for the programming of PROM. Is once Programmable i.e., the
user can write his information in a PROM only once.
ii). EPROM [Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory]: Any number of times
erases the data and reprogrammed. EPROM IC has to be removed from the computer for the
Exposure to high intensity ultraviolet light for about 20 minutes and erase entire data stored
in EPROM and reprogrammed. The user cannot erase the contents of certain selected
memory locations. EPROM is cheap, reliable and hence they are widely used.
iii). EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory]: Any number
of times erases the data and reprogrammed with in the same circuit. It is possible to
integrate the circuitry into the computer, so that the EEPROM does not have to be removed
form its socket for programming.

2. Secondary Storage Device: Any additional storage used in a computer other than the primary
memory may be classified as secondary memory or storage. These devices are normally very
slow compared to the primary storage. The data on the secondary storage is not directly
accessible for processing. All the data required for processing has to be routed through the
primary or main memory as for as the CPU is concerned.
The Secondary memory is used as auxiliary memory. The size of the secondary is
normally large and the cost is also reasonable. The secondary memory is a non-volatile
memory. It must store information permanently. The secondary memory is used for bulk
storage of programs, data and other information. It has much larger capacity than main
memory. It stores system software assemblers, compiler, useful packages , large data file etc.,
The magnetic memories such as hard disks and floppy disks are the most common secondary
memories used in computers.

Magnetic Disks: Magnetic disks are thin circular plastic plates on which some magnetic material is
coated. The appearance is somewhat similar to a gramophone plate. Magnetic disks come in
various sizes and materials. They use the properties of magnetism to store the data on a magnetic
surface. A disk pack normally consists of a number of such disks mounted on a central shaft. The
central shaft rotates at speeds of about 7200 revolutions per minute (rpm).

3
 In a disk plate information is stored on both surfaces. The surface is further divided into a
number of invisible concentric circles called as “Tracks” . The tacks are further divided into
various sections called as “Sectors” .
The information stored on a disk can be
read any number of times without
Sectors affecting the stored data.
Advantages: 1. More Reliable
2. High storage Capacity
Tracks 3. Direct access to Data.

Some Important Magnetic Disks are 1. Hard Disk 2. Floppy Disk

1. Hard Disk: The most common physical device for storing files is the Hard disk. The hard disk
typically contains several rotating disk plates, which are permanently encased in a pack or
drive. The surfaces of the plates are coated with metal oxide, electromagnetic recording heads,
like those on an audiocassette recorder, and performs the read/write operation.
There is one head for each surface, and all
the heads moves together. The disk rotates
at around 7200 rpm. Modern disks typically
holds 40GB to 200GB of data. The surface of
a plate is organized as a number of
concentric “Tracks”. Each track is divided

Into “Sectors” , Set of matched tracks are called “Cylinder”.

The time taken to access a particular block consists of:

a. Seek time: Time to move the heads to the right or specified track.
b. Latency time: Time waiting for the sector to come around to the head.
c. Block transfer time: Time to actually transfer the data.

2. Floppy Disk: Is a removable disk. It contains a single flat piece of circular plastic disk coated
with metal oxide and enclosed in plastic cover. Diskettes are small and portable. Three common
sizes are 3½ inches, 5¼ inches and 8 inches in diameter. The most commonly used floppy disk is
of 3½ inches with storage capacity of 1.44 MB and is of double-sided high-density capacities.
Advantages: 1. Disks are cheap 2. Portable 3. Easy to handle.

Optical Disks: Optical disks consist of a rotating disk, which is coated with a highly reflective
material. Data recording on the disk is done by focusing a laser beam on the surface of the
spinning disk. The laser beam is turned on and off at varying rates this causes tiny holes to be
burnt on the surface. The beam is strongly reflected by the normal surface and weakly reflected by
the pits. This sequence of reflections is then converted into electronic signals. There are different
types of optical laser disks. They are 1. CD-ROM 2. DVD 3.WORM

1. CD-ROM [Compact Disk Read Only Memory]: Is a read only optical storage medium capable
of holding up to 682MB of data approximately 3,33,000 pages of text, 74 minutes of audio
recording. Data accessing is faster than floppy disk but is considerably slower than the modern
hard disk. To read information from the disk we need CD-ROM drive. Erase or written
information on to the disk with the help of CD-Writer.

4
 There are 2 types of CD-ROMs,
a. CD-R: It is also called as the Recordable-CD. It is written once and read many times.
Data once written cannot be erased.

b. CD-RW: This is Rewritable-drive. This allows the user to erase previously recorded
information and then to record new information onto the same physical location on the disk.

2. DVD [Digital Versatile Disk]: It works exactly like CD-ROM but packs more data bits into the
same area. Physically, a CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks are similar but DVD holds upto 25
times more than CD-ROM. Each side of DVD can hold upto 4.7GB[i.e., it can hold 4 films in a
single disk.]

3. WORM [Write Once Read Many]: Once the data has been fixed onto the surface of a WORM
disk they cannot be changed. WORM is an ideal medium for making a permanent record of
data. For example, many banks use WORM disks to store a record of each day transactions.
The transactions are written to an optical disk and become a permanent record that can be read
but never be altered.

Cache Memory: The word cache is pronounced as cash. The cache memory is placed in between
the CPU and main memory. It is much faster than
main memory. Its access time is much less
compared to that of main memory. The cache
memory is an intermediate memory and is not
accessible to users. It stores instructions and data,
which are to be immediately executed. The cache
memory increased the operating speed of the
system. But it is much costlier than main memory.

Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory:

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

1. Is a Temporary Memory 1. Is a Permanent Memory

2. Is a Volatile Memory 2. Is a Non-Volatile Memory

3. Limited Storage space 3. Huge Storage Space

4. Access time is nano seconds 4. Access time is milliseconds

5. High Cost 5. Cheaper than Primary memory

6. Power goes, Erase all the data present in the 6. Power goes, Data present in the secondary
memory. memory is not erased.

Input-Output Devices:
Computer systems are proved to be useful only when they are able to communicate with the
external environment. The process of executing a program requires us to provide some data from
the external environment to the system so that it can be used for computations. The input and
output devices provide a means for this interaction. They are also called as Peripheral devices
Input-Output devices are of two types:
1. Hard-copy devices and 2. Non-hard-copy devices
Hard-copy devices provide the output on paper or other permanent form. Non-Hard-copy
devices present the output directly to the user in a nonpermanent form, such as the screen of a
5
terminal or input the information directly to the users a result of some action of the user, such as the
pressing of a key on the terminal keyboard.

1. Input Devices: Data & instructions are entered into a computer through input devices. An input
device converts input data and instructions into electrical signals (binary form) that can be
accepted by the computer. A large variety of input devices are available. They are, Keyboard,
Mouse, MICR, OCR, OMR, Scanner, Trackball, Joystick, Light Pen.
a. Keyboard: The keyboard is the most conventional of all input devices. It is used to enter data
directly into the computer. The prices of keyboards are reasonable and it is very simple to operate.
The keyboard provides different keys to perform various operations. The arrangement of keys is
similar to that of the conventional typewriter, but it has additional keys. The computer keyboard
has three categories of keys. 1. Alphanumeric keys 2. Special keys 3. Function keys.
The alphanumeric keys consists of alphabets and numbers and other special keys which
represent certain symbols such as , .></?:;”’~!@#$%^&*()-_+=|\{}[]
The special keys perform specific tasks. Some of the special keys on the keyboard are Enter
or Return key, Tab key , Alt key, Ctrl or Control key, Del key, Insert key, Shift key, Num lock key,
Caps lock Key and so on.
The function keys are used to perform a set of operations by a single keystroke. The
function keys can be used for various functions and depend on the application in use. Based on the
number of function keys keyboards are classified as either Regular Keyboard [Used with PC’s and
AT’s] with 84 keys or Enhanced keyboard with 101keys and Multimedia keyboards.
b. Mouse [Mechanically Operated User Serial Engine]: One of the most popular of specialized
input devices for terminals or microcomputers is the mouse. The mouse is used as a pointing
device. It is a small device, which was developed at the Stanford research institute.
It has two wheels at right angles to each other. Each of these wheels is connected to the
shaft encoder. For every incremental rotation of the wheel, the shaft encoder produces an electrical
signal. As the device is moved on a flat surface, the movement is coded in the x and y direction.
The device can be used for moving a cursor around the display screen.
There are basically three types of mouse:
i. Mechanical Mouse 2. Optomechanical 3. Optical
i. Mechanical Mouse: This mouse has a small hard rubber ball underneath that moves against
two roller as it passes across a flat surface. Mechanical sensors detect the movement of the
rollers as an X and Y-axis and the cursor on screen is moved accordingly.
Optomechanical Mouse: This mouse works on the same principle. The rollers have wheels on the
end of them with evenly spaced holes. As the wheels spin, a light-Sensitive

optical device counts the number of holes that pass by and convert those numbers to an X and Y-
axis.
ii. Optical Mouse: This mouse more accurate or precise and has no moving parts. It uses a
laser to detect movement and has to be paired with a special mat that has an embedded
optical reference grid.
Devices Using Optical Media: Direct Data Entry [DDE] refers to entry of data directly into the
computers through machine readable source documents. DDE does not require manual transcription
of data from original paper documents. DDE devices can scan source documents magnetically or
optically to capture data for direct entry into the computer. The devices are,
i. OMR ii. OCR iii. MICR
i. OMR [Optical Mark Reader]: The main use of these devices is to recognize certain pre-
specified types of marks such as marks made by
OMR Answer Sheet pencil or pen. These types of scanners are
normally used in grading objective type tests
1.
a b c d such as the CET conducted by the Pre-
University board. In these types of exams the
2. student has to mark the answers to questions on
a b c d a special-scoring sheet called OMR Sheet by
6
 darkening a square or circular space by a pencil to indicate the correct choice out of various
alternatives
These answer [OMR] sheet are then fed into the computer with the use of a OMR. The OMR
focuses light on the page being scanner and detects the reflection pattern. Space which has been
marked with the pencil or pen normally reflects light.
ii. OCR [Optical Character Recognition]: The main use of these devices is to recognize
alphabetic and numeric character printed on paper. The characters may be typewritten or
handwritten. Handwritten recognition requires extra care to ensure that the characters are of
standard size, shape and that the characters are connected with no stylish loops and so on.
The OCR may be used to recognize certain standard typewritten fonts some OCR recognize
computer outputs also.
The OCR goes through each character in detail as if the
character is made up of number of minute points. Once the whole
character has been scanned it compares the character with a standard
font, which the system has been programmed to recognize. Wherever
there is a pattern match the character is considered to be read. Even if
there is a slight difference the characters is rejected.
OCRs are used in applications such as credit card billing and reading of pin code numbers
in large post offices to sort mail geographically. This eliminates the duplication of human effort
required to get data into the computer. Optical character readers are also used in banks, insurance
companies, airlines and some retail outlets.
Advantages of OCR:
1. OCR eliminates the human effort of transcription.
2. Paper work explosion can be handled because OCR is economical for a high rate of input.
3. Since documents have only to be typed or handwritten, not very skilled staff is required.
Disadvantages of OCR:
1. Only certain types of printed or handwritten characters can be read.
2. Is Expensive.
3. The reject and/or error rate may exceed user requirements.
4. Slight damage to the document could cause the reader to reject it or read it incorrectly.

MICR [Magnetic Ink Character Recognition]:The device is normally used to assist the banking
sector in processing the cheques that are issued by the customers every day.
iii. American Banking Association has set special font for these characters. MICR reads these
characters by examining their shapes, using a 7 x 10 matrix
With MICR devices a special type of cheque is normally used. In a cheque, the branch code
and the cheque number are preprinted at the bottom using magnetic ink. When a filled cheque is
presented at the bank, the cheque can be processed using MICR.
Advantages of MICR: 1. Provides automated, reliable source data entry.
2. MICR possesses a very high reading accuracy. Cheques may be smeared stamped, roughly
handled yet they are accurately read.
3. Cheques can be read both by human beings and machines.
Disadvantages of MICR: 1. Not fully automatic
2. Damaged documents, cheques not encoded with amount etc, have still to be manually processed.

iv. Scanner: A Scanner is a direct entry input device that can be moved over a drawing or
photograph or any other document. The scanner converts the data that has been scanned into a
digital format. The scanned document or photograph can then be used in any form that is
suitable for the computer user. DTP operators who scan images and then reproduce them in the
documents being prepared extensively use this process. The scanner can be used for
recognizing any type of data i.e., either for image processing or character recognition. Some
important characteristics are ,
1. They eliminate the duplication of data, which may have occurred when a human being is made
to enter data to the system.
7
2. Reducing human involvement improves the accuracy of the work and the time involved in
performing the entire operation.
3. The data to be scanned has to be of a higher quality; otherwise the scanner many reject it
directly.

Out Put Devices: When a computer has completed its processing activities the information that has
been produced has to be output in a format that it is useful for further activities. There is a wide
range of devices available for outputs; the choice of these devices depends on the following
considerations.
 Suitability of the application.
 The speed at which the output is required.
 Whether a printed version of the output is required.
 The volume of data, which is output.
 The cost of the method chosen to the benefits derived.
Some of the output devices are: Printer, Monitor, Plotter, Speakers.

Printers: A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a paper. Printed
information is often called Hard Copy because the information exists physically and is a more
permanent form of output and can not be modifiable.
The main advantage of the printer is information produced is permanent and the disadvantage of
the printer is time to get the printout is slow when compared with display devices.

There are two main classifications of printers.

i. Impact Printer: In impact printers, the print head mechanism strikes an inked ribbon
located between the print head and the paper.
Features: 1. Uses force by applying hammer pins to strike the paper.
2. Slow speed in characters per second
3. Print on most paper types
4. Transparencies not supported.
5. Multiple copies may be printed at once.
The two main types of impact printers are Dot matrix and Daisy –Wheel.
a. Dot Matrix Printer: A dot matrix creates an images by using a mechanism called a print head
which contains a cluster (or matrix) of short pins arranged in one or more columns. By pushing
out pins in various combinations the print head can create alphanumeric characters.
When pushed out from the cluster, the protruding pin’s ends strike a ribbon, which held in place
between the print head and the paper. When the pin strikes the ribbon, they press ink from
ribbon onto a piece of paper. The more pins that a print head contains the higher the printer’s
resolution. The lowest resolution printers have only nine pins and the highest resolution printer
have 24 pins. The speed of the printer is measured in characters per second (cps). Printer’s
speed range from 50 to 500 cps.
Non-Impact: With non-impact printers, the print head does not make contact with the paper
and no inked ribbon is necessary.
Features: 1. Printed head does not make contact with the paper.
2. Higher speed in characters per second is possible
3. Prints on most paper types but better quality obtained with better paper.
4. Transparencies usually supported.
The Three main types of non-impact printers are Inkjet Printer, LaserJet, & Thermal printer.
The printer speed of a printer is usually expressed in Pages per minute (PPM). Printer resolution
is often expressed in dpi (dots per inch). The Larger the number, the higher the resolution.

8
a. Inkjet Printer: Ink-Jet printers have become the defacto standard for home computers and low
cost printing. They offer good quality at an affordable price.
Conductive ink is forced through a small nozzle producing a small droplet of ink, which is
propelled towards the screen surface. The size and spacing of the ink drops is kept constant by
vibrating the nozzle at a high frequency (100KHz). Each drop of ink, after leaving the nozzle, is
charged as it passes an electrode. The drops are deflected using another electrode. Characters
are formed from a dot matrix; typically there are 103 drops per character. Print quality is high;
speed is slow, typically about 100cps.
b. Laser Jet Printer: Laser printers are page printers. A page of text or picture is composed at a
time. A laser printer utilizes a laser beam that sensitizes selected areas on the print page. The
laser-exposed areas attract a toner or ink powder that attaches itself to the laser generated
charges on the page. The toner is the permanently fused on the paper with heat or pressure. The
resolution of printing varies from 300 to 1200 dots per inch (dpi). It produces a very high qual-
ity print. It can handle large volumes of printed output. The speed range from 10 pages to about
200 pages per minute. This technology is cheaper and most popular in high quality printing op-
erations.

Display Devices: A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics and video
information to a user. Information on a display device is sometimes called as Soft Copy
because it exists electronically and displays only for a temporary period. Display devices can be
monochrome or color. Two main types of display devices are CRT [Cathode Ray Tube]
monitors and LCD [Liquid Crystal Display] monitors. A video card is required to display color
on a monitor. The viewable size of a display device is the diagonally measurement of the
screen. The quality of a display devices depends on resolution, pixel and refresh rate.
Advantages of display devices are 1. The time to display the image is fast.
2. Screen displays can include text, graphics and colors
3. No paper is wasted for obtaining the output.
Disadvantages: 1. Needs a separate device to produce the hard Copy.
2. Information produced on the screen is only temporary.
Monitor or Visual Display Unit [VDU]: Monitor are devices used to display both text and

graphics images from the computer. Monitors come in various sizes, commonly starting at 14” ,

then 15” , as well as 17” and 19”. The larger the size the more expensive and it required for

higher resolutions.

Resolution refers to the number of dots displayed in the X(across) and Y(down)

coordinates. Typical screens are capable of displaying 640x 480 dots.