CHAPTER 2.

COMPUTER ORGANIZATION

Block Diagram of a computer:

ALU

Input Unit CU Output Unit

Register

Memory

1. Input Unit [I/P]: A Device that accepts the information from the user is called Input Unit.
Whose main function is to accept the data and information provided by the user of the system
and pass this information to the CPU or to the memory for storage. A system may consist of one
or more input devices. The most commonly used input devices are Keyboard & Mouse. Other
input devices are 1. Joy stick 2. Track Ball 3. Light Pen 4. Scanner 5. OMR 6. OCR
7. MICR 8. BCR
2. Central Processing Unit [CPU] : It is the main part of the Computer System. Some times it is
also called as ‘Heart of a Computer’. The Function of the CPU is to interpret the instructions in
the program and execute them one by one. It consists of THREE sub units. They are,
a. Control Unit [CU] b. Arithmetic Logic Unit [ALU] c.Memory unit (Registers).
a. Control Unit [CU]: It controls and directs the transfer of program instructions and data be-
tween various units. The main activity of the control unit is to maintain order and direct the oper-
ations of the entire system.
b. Arithmetic and Logical Unit [ALU] : Is the place where the actual execution of the instruc-
tions takes place during the processing operation. Arithmetic operations like Addition (+), Sub-
traction (-), Multiplication (*) and division (/). Logical operation like AND, OR, NOT.
c. Registers: The CPU consists of a number of temporary storage units, which are used to store
instructions .
d. 3. Output Unit: It is used to print or display the results, which are stored in the memory unit.
The output unit links the computer to the outside world. As the computer works with binary
values the output generated will also in this form. The output unit converts the data from bi-
nary form to the user understandable form before it displays the results. Some of the output
devices are,
a. Monitor b. Printer c. Speakers d. Plotter.
4. Memory Unit: It is a storage unit. The memory unit provides space to store input data,
intermediate results and the final output generated. There are two types of memory devices
called Primary Storage and Secondary Storage. The primary memory or the main memory is a
fast memory capable of operating at electronic speed.

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 Secondary storage devices are additional memory devices such as floppy disks, magnetic
tapes, hard disks and compact disks etc., which are used to store huge information for future use.
The Storage capacity of a computer is measured in terms of Bytes. One byte includes
total of 8 individual units called as bit [Binary digIT]. One bit can store either a 0(Zero) or
1(One).

Name Shorthand Power Bytes

Byte 1Byte 20
1
Kilobyte 1KB 210 1024
Megabyte 1MB 220 1,048,576
Gigabyte 1GB 230 1,073,741,824
Terabyte 1TB 240 1,099,511,627,776

The input unit, output unit and Secondary storage devices are together known as
“Peripheral devices”.

Computer Memory: Memory is an essential component of a digital computer. It is a storage

device. It stores programs, data; results etc., The two kinds of memory are commonly used in
modern computers.
Memory

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

ROM Floppy Hard Disk CD-ROM Pen-Drive

RAM

Static RAMDynamic RAM

PROM EPROM EEPROM

1. Primary Memory: Is a temporary memory. It is also called as Main Memory or Volatile

Memory; their contents are erased when power goes off. The primary memory is faster, com-
pact and lighter and it consumes less power. It stores programs and data, which are currently
needed by the CPU. The size of the main memory is comparatively much smaller than that of
the secondary memory, because of its high cast. The CPU communicates directly only with
the main memory.
Primary memories are of two types, a. RAM b. ROM.
a. RAM [Random Access Memory]: RAM is Volatile Memory. The information written
into it is retained in it as long as the power supply is on. As soon as the power supply
goes off, its stored information is lost. RAM is also called as the main memory of a
computer. The user can write information into RAM and Read information from it.
There are two important types of RAM. i. Static RAM ii. Dynamic RAM

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 i). Static RAM: It retains stored information as long as the power supply is on. Static RAM
is costlier and consumes more power. It does not need refreshing circuitry and have higher
speed than dynamic RAM.
ii). Dynamic RAM: It loses its stored information in a very short time (a few milliseconds)
even though the power supply is on. It have to be refreshed periodically, generally every 2
millisecond. Is cheaper & consumes less power. It is used where large capacity of memory is
needed.
b. Read Only Memory [ROM]: It is nonvolatile memory i.e., the information stored in it is
not lost even when the power supply goes off. It is used for permanent storage of information
only at the time of Manufacturing. It is also called as Write Once and Read Many Times’.
There are 3 types of ROM, They are, i. PROM ii. EPROM iii. EEPROM
i). PROM [Programmable Read Only Memory]: The user can store permanent programs,
data or any other kind of information in a PROM. Special equipment called PROM
Programmer is available for the programming of PROM. Is once Programmable i.e., the user
can write his information in a PROM only once.
ii). EPROM [Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory]: Any number of times erases
the data and reprogrammed. EPROM IC has to be removed from the computer for the
Exposure to high intensity ultraviolet light for about 20 minutes and erase entire data stored in
EPROM and reprogrammed. The user cannot erase the contents of certain selected memory
locations. EPROM is cheap, reliable and hence they are widely used.
iii). EEPROM [Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory]: Any number of
times erases the data and reprogrammed with in the same circuit. It is possible to integrate the
circuitry into the computer, so that the EEPROM does not have to be removed form its socket
for programming.
2. The Secondary memory is used as auxiliary memory. The size of the secondary is normally
large and the cost is also reasonable. The secondary memory is a non-volatile memory. It
stores information permanently. It has much larger capacity than main memory.
Optical Disks: Optical disks consist of a rotating disk coated with a highly reflective material.
Data recording on the disk is done by focusing a laser beam on the surface of the spinning disk.
The laser beam is turned on and off at varying rates this causes tiny holes to be burnt on the
surface. The beam is strongly reflected by the normal surface and weakly reflected by the pits.
This sequence of reflections is then converted into electronic signals. There are different types of
optical laser disks. They are 1. CD-ROM 2. DVD 3.WORM
1. CD-ROM [Compact Disk Read Only Memory]: Is a read only optical storage medium capa-
ble of holding up to 682MB of data approximately 3, 33,000 pages of text, 74 minutes of au-
dio recording. Data accessing is faster than floppy disk but is considerably slower than the
modern hard disk. To read information from the disk we need CD-ROM drive. Erase or
written information on to the disk with the help of CD-Writer.
There are 2 types of CD-ROMs,
a. CD-R: It is also called as the Recordable-CD. It is written once and read many times.
Data once written cannot be erased.
b. CD-RW: This is Rewritable-drive. This allows the user to erase previously recorded in-
formation and then to record new information onto the same physical location on the
disk.
2. DVD [Digital Versatile Disk]: It works exactly like CD-ROM but packs more data bits into
the same area. Physically, CD-ROM & DVD-ROM disks are similar but DVD holds up to 25

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times more than CD-ROM. Each side of DVD can hold up to 4.7GB [i.e. it can hold 4 films in a
single disk.]
3. WORM [Write Once Read Many]: Once the data has been fixed onto the surface of a
WORM disk they cannot be changed. WORM is an ideal medium for making a permanent record
of data. e.g. many banks use WORM disks to store a record of each day transactions..
Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory:

Primary Memory Secondary Memory

1. Is a Temporary Memory 1. Is a Permanent Memory
2. Is a Volatile Memory 2. Is a Non-Volatile Memory
3. Limited Storage space 3. Huge Storage Space
4. Access time is nano seconds 4. Access time is milliseconds
5. High Cost 5. Cheaper than Primary memory
6. Power goes, Erase all the data present in the 6. Power goes; Data present in the secondary
memory. memory is not erased.

INPUT-OUTPUT DEVICES: Computer systems are proved to be useful only when they are able to
communicate with the external environment. The process of executing a program requires us to
provide some data from the external environment to the system so that it can be used for
computations. The input and output devices provide a means for this interaction. They are also
called as Peripheral devices
Input-Output devices are of two types:
1. Hard-copy devices and 2. Non-hard-copy devices
Hard-copy devices provide the output on paper or other permanent form. Non-Hard-copy
devices present the output directly to the user in a nonpermanent form, such as the screen of a
terminal or input the information directly to the users a result of some action of the user, such as
the pressing of a key on the terminal keyboard.
1. Input Devices: Data & instructions are entered into a computer through input devices. An in-
put device converts input data and instructions into electrical signals (binary form) that can
be accepted by the computer. A large variety of input devices are available. They are, Key-
board, Mouse, MICR, OCR, OMR, Scanner, Trackball, Joystick, Light Pen.
a. Keyboard: The keyboard is the most conventional of all input devices. It is used to enter data
directly into the computer. The prices of keyboards are reasonable and it is very simple to
operate. The keyboard provides different keys to perform various operations. The arrangement of
keys is similar to that of the conventional typewriter, but it has additional keys. The computer
keyboard has three categories of keys. 1. Alphanumeric keys 2. Special keys 3. Function keys.
The alphanumeric keys consists of alphabets and numbers and other special keys which
represent certain symbols such as , .></?:;”’~!@#$%^&*()-_+=|\{}[]
The special keys perform specific tasks. Some of the special keys on the keyboard are
Enter or Return key, Tab key , Alt key, Ctrl or Control key, Del key, Insert key, Shift key, Num
lock key, Caps lock Key and so on.
The function keys are used to perform a set of operations by a single keystroke. The
function keys can be used for various functions and depend on the application in use. Based on

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the number of function keys keyboards are classified as either Regular Keyboard [Used with
PC’s and AT’s] with 84 keys or Enhanced keyboard with 101keys and Multimedia keyboards.
b. Mouse [Mechanically Operated User Serial Engine]: One of the most popular of specialized
input devices for terminals or microcomputers is the mouse. The mouse is used as a pointing
device. It is a small device, which was developed at the Stanford research institute.
It has two wheels at right angles to each other. Each of these wheels is connected to the
shaft encoder. For every incremental rotation of the wheel, the shaft encoder produces an
electrical signal. As the device is moved on a flat surface, the movement is coded in the x and y
direction. The device can be used for moving a cursor around the display screen.
There are basically three types of mouse:
i. Mechanical Mouse 2. Opto mechanical 3. Optical
i. Mechanical Mouse: This mouse has a small hard rubber ball underneath that moves
against two rollers as it passes across a flat surface. Mechanical sensors detect the movement of
the rollers as an X and Y-axis and the cursor on screen is moved accordingly.
Ii Optomechanical Mouse: This mouse works on the same principle. The rollers have wheels
on the end of them with evenly spaced holes. As the wheels spin, a light-Sensitive optical device
counts the number of holes that pass by and convert those numbers to an X and Y-axis.
ii. Optical Mouse: This mouse more accurate or precise and has no moving parts. It uses a
laser to detect movement and has to be paired with a special mat that has an embedded
optical reference grid.
Devices Using Optical Media: Direct Data Entry [DDE] refers to entry of data directly into the
computers through machine readable source documents. DDE does not require manual
transcription of data from original paper documents. DDE devices can scan source documents
magnetically or optically to capture data for direct entry into the computer. The devices are,
i. OMR ii. OCR iii. MICR
i. OMR [Optical Mark Reader]: The main use of these devices is to recognize certain pre-
specified types of marks such as marks made
OMR Answer Sheet by pencil or pen. These types of scanners are
normally used in grading objective type tests
1. such as the CET conducted by the Pre-Univer-
a b c d sity board. In these types of exams the student
has to mark the answers to questions on a spe-
2. cial-scoring sheet called OMR Sheet by dark-
a b c d ening a square or circular space by a pencil to
indicate the correct choice out of various
alternatives
These answer [OMR] sheets are then fed into the computer with the use of a OMR. The OMR
focuses light on the page being scanner and detects the reflection pattern. Space which has been
marked with the pencil or pen normally reflects light.
ii. OCR [Optical Character Recognition]: The main use of these devices is to recognize al-
phabetic and numeric character printed on paper. The characters may be typewritten or hand-
written. Handwritten recognition requires extra care to ensure that the characters are of stan-
dard size, shape and that the characters are connected with no stylish loops and so on.
iii. MICR [Magnetic Ink Character Recognition]: The device is normally used to assist the
banking sector in processing the cheques that are issued by the customers every day.

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 With MICR devices a special type of cheque is normally used. In a cheque, the branch
code and the cheque number are preprinted at the bottom using magnetic ink. When a filled
cheque is presented at the bank, the cheque can be processed using MICR.
iii. Scanner: A Scanner is a direct entry input device that can be moved over a drawing or
photograph or any other document. The scanner converts the data that has been scanned into a
digital format. The scanned document or photograph can then be used in any form that is suitable
for the computer user. DTP operators who scan images and then reproduce them in the docu-
ments being prepared extensively use this process. The scanner can be used for recognizing any
type of data i.e., either for image processing or character recognition. Some important character-
istics are ,
Output Devices: When a computer has completed its processing activities the information that
has been produced has to be output in a format that it is useful for further activities.
Some of the output devices are: Printer, Monitor, Plotter, Speakers.
Printers: A printer is an output device that produces text and graphics on a paper. Printed
information is often called Hard Copy because the information exists physically and is a more
permanent form of output and can not be modifiable.
The main advantage of the printer is information produced is permanent and the disadvantage of
the printer is time to get the printout is slow when compared with display devices.
There are two main classifications of printers.
i. Impact Printer: In impact printers, the print head mechanism strikes an inked ribbon lo-
cated between the print head and the paper.
Features: 1. Uses force by applying hammer pins to strike the paper.
2. Slow speed in characters per second
3. Print on most paper types
1. Transparencies not supported.
2. Multiple copies may be printed at once.
The two main types of impact printers are Dot matrix and Daisy –Wheel.
a. Dot Matrix Printer: A dot matrix creates an images by using a mechanism called a print
head which contains a cluster (or matrix) of short pins arranged in one or more columns. By
pushing out pins in various combinations the print head can create alphanumeric characters.
When pushed out from the cluster, the protruding pin’s ends strike a ribbon, which held in
place between the print head and the paper. When the pin strikes the ribbon, they press ink
from ribbon onto a piece of paper. The more pins that a print head contains the higher the
printer’s resolution. The lowest resolution printers have only nine pins and the highest
resolution printer have 24 pins. The speed of the printer is measured in characters per second
(cps). Printer’s speed range from 50 to 500 cps.
Non-Impact: With non-impact printers, the print head does not make contact with the paper
and no inked ribbon is necessary.
Features: 1. Printed head does not make contact with the paper.
2. Higher speed in characters per second is possible
3. Prints on most paper types but better quality obtained with better paper.
4. Transparencies usually supported.
The Three main types of non-impact printers are Inkjet Printer, LaserJet, & Thermal printer.
The printer speed of a printer is usually expressed in Pages per minute (PPM). Printer
resolution is often expressed in dpi (dots per inch). The Larger the number, the higher the
resolution.

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 a. Inkjet Printer: Ink-Jet printers have become the defacto standard for home computers and
low cost printing. They offer good quality at less price.
Conductive ink is forced through a small nozzle producing a small droplet of ink, which is
propelled towards the screen surface. The size and spacing of the ink drops is kept constant
by vibrating the nozzle at a high frequency (100KHz). Each drop of ink, after leaving the
nozzle, is charged as it passes an electrode. The drops are deflected using another electrode.
Characters are formed from a dot matrix; typically there are 103 drops per character. Print
quality is high; speed is slow, typically about 100cps.
b. Laser Jet Printer: Laser printers are page printers. A page of text or picture is composed at
a time. A laser printer utilizes a laser beam that sensitizes selected areas on the print page.
The laser-exposed areas attract a toner or ink powder that attaches itself to the laser generated
charges on the page. The toner is the permanently fused on the paper with heat or pressure.
The resolution of printing varies from 300 to 1200 dots per inch (dpi). It produces a very high
quality print. It can handle large volumes of printed output. The speed range from 10 pages to
about 200 pages per minute. This technology is cheaper and most popular in high quality
printing operations.
Display Devices: A display device is an output device that conveys text, graphics and video
information to a user. Information on a display device is sometimes called as Soft Copy because
it exists electronically and displays only for a temporary period. Display devices can be
monochrome or color. Two main types of display devices are CRT [Cathode Ray Tube] monitors
and LCD [Liquid Crystal Display] monitors. A video card is required to display color on a
monitor. The viewable size of a display device is the diagonally measurement of the screen. The
quality of a display devices depends on resolution, pixel and refresh rate.

Advantages of display devices are 1. The time to display the image is fast.
2. Screen displays can include text, graphics and colors
3. No paper is wasted for obtaining the output.
Disadvantages: 1. Needs a separate device to produce the hard Copy.
2. Information produced on the screen is only temporary.
Monitor or Visual Display Unit [VDU]: Monitor are devices used to display both text and
graphics images from the computer. Monitors come in various sizes, commonly starting at 14” ,
then 15” , as well as 17” and 19”. The larger the size the more expensive and it required for
higher resolutions.
Modem: Modem stands for Modulator/DEModulator. In the simplest form, it is an
encoding as well as decoding device used in data transmission. It converts a digital computer
signal into an analog telephone signal [Modulate the signal] and converts an analog telephone
signal to digital computer signal [Demodulates the signal] in a data communication system.