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TASK 1 : COMPUTER ANATOMY: MEMORY, PORTS, MOTHERBOARD AND ADD

ON CARDS.

MEMORY

Computer memory is just like the human brain. It is used to store data/information and instructions. It is a
data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. It can store both the input and output can be stored here.

In general, memory is of three types:

• Primary memory
• Secondary memory
• Cache memory
1. Primary Memory: It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store
data and programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor technology and hence
is commonly called semiconductor memory. Primary memory is of two types:
(i) RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores information
based on the power supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all the data & information on this
memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up or start the computer. It temporarily stores programs/ data
which has to be executed by the processor. RAM is of two types:
• S RAM (Static RAM): It uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are capable of
retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory consists of the number of flip
flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and hence, it is faster.
• D RAM (Dynamic RAM): It uses capacitors
and transistors and stores the data as a charge on
the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory
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cells. It needs refreshing of charge on capacitor
after a few milliseconds. This memory is slower
than S RAM.
(ii) ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile
memory. Non-volatile memory stores information even when
there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped. ROM is
used to store information that is used to operate the system. As
its name refers to read-only memory, we can only read the
programs and data that is stored on it. It contains some
electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific
information. The information stored in the ROM in binary
format. It is also known as permanent memory. ROM is of
four types:
• MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection of data
or instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that works
in this way.
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is modifiable
once by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the
required contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.
• EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): It is an extension to
PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for nearly
40 minutes.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Here
the written contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and reprogramme EEPROM up
to 10,000 times. Erasing and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10
ms(milliseconds). Any area in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.
2. Secondary Memory: It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile
memory and used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or information stored in
secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU cannot access secondary
memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary memory is first transferred to the main memory,
and then the CPU can access it.
Types of secondary memory:

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(i) Magnetic Tapes: Magnetic tape is a long, narrow strip of plastic film with a thin, magnetic coating on
it that is used for magnetic recording. Bits are recorded on tape as magnetic patches called RECORDS that
run along many tracks. Typically, 7 or 9 bits are
recorded concurrently. Each track has one read/write head, which allows data to be recorded and read as a
sequence of characters. It can be stopped, started moving forward or backward, or rewound.
(ii) Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disc is a circular metal or a plastic plate and these plates are coated with
magnetic material. The disc is used on both sides. Bits are stored in magnetized surfaces in locations called
tracks that run in concentric rings. Sectors are typically used to break tracks into pieces.
Hard discs are discs that are permanently attached and cannot be removed by a single user.

(iii) Optical Disks: It’s a laser-based storage medium that can be written to and read. It is
reasonably priced and has a long lifespan. The optical disc can be taken out of the computer by
occasional users. Types of Optical Disks :
3. Cache Memory: It is a type of high-speed semiconductor memory that can help the CPU run faster.
Between the CPU and the main memory, it serves as a buffer. It is used to store the data and programs that
the CPU uses the most frequently.

MOTHERBOARD

A motherboard is one of the most essential parts of a computer system. It holds together many of the crucial
components of a computer, including the central processing unit (CPU), memory and connectors for input
and output devices. The base of a motherboard consists of a very firm sheet of non-conductive material,
typically some sort of rigid plastic. Thin layers of copper or aluminum foil, referred to as traces, are printed
onto this sheet. These traces are very narrow and form the circuits between the various components. In
addition to circuits, a motherboard contains a number of sockets and slots to connect the other components.

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Parts of a Motherboard

1. Mouse & keyboard: Keyboard Connectors are two types basically. All PCs have a Key board port
connected directly to the motherboard. The oldest, but still quite common type, is a special DIN, and most
PCs until recently retained this style connector. The AT-style keyboard connector is quickly disappearing,
being replaced by the smaller mini DIN PS/2-style keyboard connector.

2. USB (Universal serial bus): USB is the General-purpose connection for PC. You can find USB
versions of many different devices, such as mice, keyboards,
scanners, cameras, and even printers. USB has a number of features that makes it particularly
popular on PCs. First, USB devices are hot swappable. You can insert or remove them without restarting
your system.

3. Parallel port: Most printers use a special connector called a parallel port. Parallel port carry data on
more than one wire, as opposed to the serial port, which uses only one wire. Parallel ports use a 25-pin
female DB connector. Parallel ports are directly supported by the motherboard through a direct connection
or through a dangle.

4. CPU Chip : The central processing unit, also called the microprocessor performs all the calculations
that take place inside a pc. Modern CPUs generate a lot of heat and thus require a cooling fan or heat sink.
The cooling device (such as a cooling fan) is removable, although some CPU manufactures sell the CPU
with a fan permanently attached.

5. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data currently being used by the
CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes. RAM has been packaged in many different ways. The most
current package is called a 168-pin DIMM (Dual Inline Memory module).

6. Floppy controller: The floppy drive connects to the computer via a 34-pin ribbon cable, which in turn
connects to the motherboard. A floppy controller is one that is used to control the floppy drive.

7. IDE controller: Industry standards define two common types of hard drives: EIDE and SCSI.
Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives show up in high end PCs such as network servers or
graphical workstations. The EIDE drive connects to the

hard drive via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. IDE
controller is responsible for controlling the hard drive.

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8. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus protocol. The PCI bus is used to
connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID controllers) to the main logic of the computer. PCI bus has
replaced the ISA bus.

9. ISA slot: (Industry Standard Architecture) It is the standard architecture of the Expansion bus.
Motherboard may contain some slots to connect ISA compatible cards.

10. CMOS Battery: To provide CMOS with the power when the computer is turned off all motherboards
comes with a battery. These batteries mount on the motherboard in one of three ways: the obsolete external
battery, the most common onboard battery, and built-in battery.

11. AGP slot: If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly notice a single connector that
looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and usually brown. You also probably have a video card inserted
into this slot. This is an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) slot.

12. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot. Special notches in the slot make
it impossible to install them incorrectly. So remember if it does not go easily, it is probably not correct. Be
sure to plug in the CPU fan's power.

13. Power supply plug in: The Power supply, as its name implies, provides the necessary electrical
power to make the pc operate. the power supply takes standard 110-V AC power and converts into 12-Volt,
5-Volt, and 3.3-Volt DC power.

A port is a physical docking point using which an external device can be connected to the computer. It can
also be programmatic docking point through which information flows from a program to the computer or
over the Internet.

Serial Port
• Used for external modems and older computer mouse
• Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
• Data travels at 115 kilobits per second
Parallel Port
• Used for scanners and printers
• Also called printer port
• 25 pin model
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

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PS/2 Port

• Used for old computer keyboard and mouse

• Also called mouse port
• Most of the old computers provide two PS/2 port, each for the
mouse and keyboard
• IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

• It can connect all kinds of external USB devices such as external hard disk, printer, scanner,
mouse, keyboard, etc.
• It was introduced in 1997.
• Most of the computers provide two USB ports as minimum.
• Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
• USB compliant devices can get power from a USB port.
VGA Port
• Connects monitor to a computer's video card.
• It has 15 holes.
• Similar to the serial port connector. However, serial port connector has pins, VGA port has holes.
Power Connector
• Three-pronged plug.
• Connects to the computer's power cable that plugs into a power bar or wall socket.

Firewire Port
• Transfers large amount of data at very fast speed.
• Connects camcorders and video equipment to the computer.
• Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per seconds.
• Invented by Apple.
• It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400 connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector, and 9-
Pin FireWire 800 connector.

Modem Port

• Connects a PC's modem to the telephone network.

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Ethernet Port
• Connects to a network and high speed Internet.
• Connects the network cable to a computer.
• This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
• Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000 megabits per seconds depending upon the network
bandwidth.

Game Port
• Connect a joystick to a PC
• Now replaced by USB
Digital Video Interface, DVI port
• Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the computer's high-end video graphic cards.
• Very popular among video card manufacturers.

Sockets
• Sockets connect the microphone and speakers to the sound card of the computer.

ADD-IN CARD
add-in card (add-on card, expansion card) A printed circuit board that plugs into an expansion slot in a
computer to provide some extra facility. The sockets normally connect to a bus, and the type of connector
and the use to which each contact is put are strictly defined to ensure compatibility between the card and
the computer. Cards are available that provide extra memory, communications interfaces, sound I/O
capabilities, device interfaces to extra disks or tape backup devices, for instance, or perhaps extra
processors in multiprocessor systems. See also PCMCIA

Types of cards. Sound cards.

Sound cards expand the sound capabilities of a PC. They are popular with gamers and those who watch videos,

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and/or television,
on their PCs. With a sound card, a system can go from mono sound, to stereo sound, to surround sound.

Video cards.
Video cards can increase the overall performance of a system, depending upon the card that is installed. They
can also allow the addition of multiple monitors. One of the ways that they increase performance is by taking
the workload off of the CPU and transferring it to the video card. A good video card is a wise investment.

Network cards.
Most motherboards have built in network cards; however, they can fail or they might not connect to the right
type of network in your situation. Additionally, you might need to connect with another or different type of
network or make multiple network connections. Those are a few examples of situations where a network
expansion card could prove useful.

Serial and parallel cards.

Another reason to add expansion cards would be the need to expand the life of legacy applications. Most
systems nowadays do not come with a serial or parallel port; however, some applications and situations still
call for those types of connections. You can add an expansion card that has a serial and/or parallel port in your
system.

USB cards.
An expansion card will allow you to add more USB ports to a system. You can also add newer versions of USB
by using an expansion card.

FireWire cards.
You can also add more FireWire ports to your system. If you don’t have FireWire, you can use an expansion
card to add it, and, by installing an expansion card, you can update your system.

Storage cards.
A variety of storage solutions are available through the use of expansion cards. If you need to add a SCSI tape
array, you can add an expansion card that allows you to connect to SCSI devices. There are also expansion
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cards that are solid-state drives in their own right. They are an extremely unique solution for storage and they
are very fast; however, they tend to be fairly expensive.

Modem cards.
Most systems no longer come with built-in modems. However, some virtual private networks require the
client to dial-in in order to connect and a modem is needed to do so. An expansion card that has a modem
built into it will resolve this problem.

Wireless/Cellular cards.
Wireless and cellular network cards allow you to take advantage of wireless networks and a cellular card can
take advantage of LTE or 4G networks. Caution: additional data charges may apply.

TV tuner cards.
A TV tuner card allows a PC to make a cable television connection. This is a popular option for a home
theater PC. Cable television can be routed through, or watched, on the PC.

Video capture cards.

Video capture cards are used to capture video images. Specialized cards are used to capture video and/or still
images that cross through the PC and they may be combined with a TV tuner card.

Riser cards.
The riser card is used as an adapter for other cards. They are plugged in and offer the ability to install another
card at a 90-degree angle. They are used when space is tight.

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TASK 2 : Dismantling and assembling PC.

STEP 1 : Detach the power cable:

STEP 2 : Remove the Cover:

The standard way of removing tower cases used to be to undo the screws on the back of the case, slide the cover
back about an inch and lift it off. The screwdrivers as per the type of screw are required to do the task.

STEP 3 : Remove the adapter cards:

Make sure if the card has any cables or wires that might be attached and decide if it would be easier to remove
them before or after you remove the card. Remove the screw if any, that holds the card in place. Grab the card
by its edges, front and back, and gently rock it lengthwise to release it.

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STEP 4 : Remove the drives:

Removing drives is easier. There can be possibly three types of drives present in your computer system, Hard
disk drive, CD/DVD/Blue-ray drives, floppy disk drives (almost absolute now a day). They usually have a
power connector and a data cable attached from the device to a controller card or a connector on the
motherboard. CD/DVD/Blue Ray drive may have an analog cable connected to the sound card for direct audio
output.

The power may be attached using one of two connectors, a Molex connector or a Berg connector for the drive.
The Molex connector may require to be wiggled slightly from side to side and apply gentle pressure outwards.
The Berg connector may just pull out or it may have a small tab which has to be lifted with a screwdriver.

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Now Pull data cables off from the drive as well as motherboard connector. The hard disk drive and CD/DVD
drives have two types of data cables. IDE and SATA cables. The IDE cables need better care while being
removed as it may cause the damage to drive connector pins. Gently wiggle the cable sideways and remove it.
The SATA cables can be removed easily by pressing the tab and pulling the connector straight back.

Now remove the screws and slide the drive out the back of the bay.

STEP 5 : Remove the memory module:

Memory modules are mounted on the motherboard as the chips that can be damaged by manual force if applied
improperly. Be careful and handle the chip only by the edges. SIMMs and DIMMs are removed in a different
way:

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 SIMM – gently push back the metal tabs while holding the SIMM chips in the socket. Tilt the SIMM
chip away from the tabs until a 45% angle. It will now lift out of the socket. Put SIMM in a safe place.
 DIMM- There are plastic tabs on the end of the DIMM sockets. Press the tabs down and away from the
socket. The DIMM will lift slightly. Now grab it by the edges and place it safely. Do not let the chips get
dust at all.

remove processor

remove the motherboard | Source

STEP 6 : Remove the power supply:

The power supply is attached into tower cabinet at the top back end of the tower. Make sure the power
connector is detached from the switchboard. Start removing the power connector connected to motherboard
including CPU fan power connector, cabinet fan, the front panel of cabinet power buttons and all the remaining
drives if not detached yet.

Now remove the screws of SMPS from the back of the cabinet and the SMPS can be detached from the tower
cabinet.

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STEP 7 : Remove the motherboard:

Before removing all the connectors from the motherboard, make sure u memorize the connectors for assembling
the computer if required, as that may require connecting the connectors at its place. Remove the screws from the
back of the motherboard and you will be able to detach it from the cabinet. Now remove the CPU fan from the
motherboard. The heat sink will be visible now which can be removed by the pulling the tab upward. Finally,
the processor is visible now, which can be removed by the plastic tab which can be pulled back one stretching it
side way.

ASSEMBLING OF PC

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STEP 1. Open the case.

STEP 2. Install the power supply.

STEP 3. Attech the components of the motherboard

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1. CPU: A CPU socket uses a series of pins to connect a CPU,s. processor to the pc,s
motherboard. if a CPU is connected via a CPU socket.

2. Heat sink and fan assembly

A heat sink and fan are an active cooling solution used to cool down integrated circuits
incomputer systems, commonly the CPU.

3. Installation of RAM.
Install The RAM First on The Motherboard and Then Fix The Motherboard In The Case. To
Install RAM, First Ensure Its Compatibility with The Motherboard.

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STEP 4: Install Motherboard

After preparing the motherboard, you can install it in the computer case.

STEP 5: Install internal drives.

HARD DRIVE

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STEP 6: Connect all internal cables.

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STEP 7: Install motherboard power connections.

STEP 8: Connect external cables to the computer

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TASK 3 : Introduction to 8085 kit

The 8085 Microprocessor Kit is a learning tool designed to help individuals understand the concepts of
microprocessor programming and interfacing. The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit microprocessor
introduced by Intel in the mid-1970s. It was widely used in various applications such as embedded
systems, industrial control systems, and personal computers.

Here's an introduction to the 8085 Microprocessor Kit and its components:

 8085 Microprocessor: The heart of the kit is the 8085 microprocessor chip. It is an 8-bit
microprocessor with a 16-bit address bus, capable of addressing up to 64 KB of memory. The
8085 microprocessor executes instructions stored in memory and performs arithmetic, logic, and
data transfer operations.

 Memory: The kit includes memory modules such as RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM
(Read-Only Memory). RAM is used for storing data and program instructions temporarily, while
ROM contains permanent program instructions.

 Input/Output Ports: The 8085 microprocessor communicates with external devices through
input/output ports. These ports allow the microprocessor to send and receive data from external
devices such as sensors, actuators, displays, and keyboards.

 Address and Data Bus: The 8085 microprocessor communicates with memory and I/O
devices through the address bus and data bus. The address bus carries the address of memory
locations or I/O ports, while the data bus carries data between the microprocessor and memory or
I/O devices.

 Clock Circuit: The 8085 microprocessor requires a clock signal to synchronize its operations.
The clock circuit generates the clock signal required by the microprocessor to execute instructions
at the specified frequency.

 Power Supply: The kit includes a power supply unit to provide the necessary voltage and
current to the 8085 microprocessor and other components.
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 Interface Components: Various interface components such as buffers, latches, and drivers
are used to interface the 8085 microprocessor with external devices.

 Development Tools: The kit may include development tools such as an assembler, debugger,
and simulator to write, debug, and simulate programs for the 8085 microprocessor.

The 8085 Microprocessor Kit is an excellent tool for learning about microprocessor architecture,
programming, and interfacing. It provides hands-on experience with real-world applications and prepares
individuals for careers in embedded systems, digital electronics, and computer engineering.

Installation of 8085 stimulator

Step 1 . Goto official website of GNUSIM8085 simulator (https://gnusim8085.srid.ca/).

Step 2. Download simulator according to your system .

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Step 3 . Install the simulator after accepting term and conditions.

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TASK 4 : Addition of two 8 bit numbers, sum 8 bit.

Consider the first number 10H is stored in memory location 4000H and the second number

4H is stored in memory location 4001H.The result after addition of two numbers is to be

stored in the memory location 4002H. Assume program starts from memory location 4000H.

Program:

LXI H ,4000H

MOV A,M

INX H ; 4001H

MOV C,M

ADD C

INX H ;4002H

MOV M,A

Observation:

Input: 10 (4000)

4 (4001)

Output: 102(4002)

Result:

Thus the program to add two 8 bit numbers was executed.

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Task 5: Subtraction of two 8 bit numbers.

Two decimal numbers are stored in 2100H and 2101H. The result is to be stored in 2102H

location. Consider program starts from memory location 2100H.

Program:

LXI H, 2100H : "Get address of first number in H-L pair. Now H-L points to 2100H"

MOV A, M : "Get first operand in accumulator"

INX H : "Increment content of H-L pair. Now, H-L points 2101H"

SUB M : "Subtract first to second operand"

INX H : "H-L points 2101H"

MOV M, A : "Store result at 2102H"

Observation:

Input: 38 at location 2100H

17 at location 2101H

Output: 21 at location 2102H

Result:

Thus the program to subtract two 8 bit numbers was executed.

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Task 6: Find 1’s complement of 8-bit number.

8bit number is stored in location 2400H and 1’s complement of given 8bit number will be stored in
2401H location. Consider program starts from memory location 2400H.

Program:

LDA 2400H : "Get the number IN accumulator"

CMA : "take its complement"

STA 2401H : "Store result in 2502H"

Observation:

Input: 10 (00001010) at location 2400H

Output: 245(11110101) at location 2401H

Result:

Thus the program of 1’s complement of 8bit number is executed successfully.

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Task 7: Find 2’s complement of 8-bit number.

8bit number is stored in location 4500H and 2’s complement of given 8bit number will be stored in
4501H location. Consider program starts from memory location 2400H.

Program:

LDA 4500H : "Get data in accumulator"

CMA : "Take its 1's complement"

ADI 01H : "Add one in the number"

STA 4501H : "Store the result in 2502 H"

Observation:

Input: 10 (00001010) at location 4500H

Output: 246(11110110) at location 4501H

Result:

Thus the program of 2’s complement of 8bit number is executed successfully.

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Task 8: Left Shift an 8-bit no. by one bit.

8bit number is stored in location 3000H and after shifting one bit left result will be stored in 3001H
location. Consider program starts from memory location 3000H.

Program:

LDA 3000H

RAL

STA 3001H

Observation:

Input: 05 (00000101) at location 3000H

Output: 10(00001010) at location 3001H

Result:

Thus the program Left Shift an 8-bit no. by one bit is executed successfully.

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Task 9: Find Largest of two 8 bit numbers.

Two decimal numbers are stored in 2101H and 2102H. The result is to be stored in 2103H

location. Consider program starts from memory location 2101H.

Program:

LDA 2101: loads value at memory location 2101

MOV B, A: assigns value of A to B

LDA 2102: loads value at memory location 2102

CMP B: compare values by subtracting B from A

JNC 200C: jump at memory location 200C if carry flag is Reset(Carry flag = 0)

STA 2103: store result at memory location 2103

Observation:

Input: 20 at location 2101

10 at location 2102

Output: 20 at location 2103

Result:

Thus the program of Largest of two 8 bit numbers is executed successfully

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Task 10: Find Largest among an array of ten numbers (8 bit).

Values of array are stored from location 4100H to 410A . Largest no. among all that is 11 stored at
location 410B

Program:

LXI H, 4100H

MOV C, M

INX H

MOV B, M

DCR C

LOOP: INX H

MOV A,M

CMP B

JC SKIP

MOV B,A

SKIP: DCR C

JNZ LOOP

LXI H ,410BH

MOV M,B

HLT

Observation:

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Input: Values of array are stored from location 4100H to 410A .

Output: largest no.among all that is 11 stored at location 410B

Result:

Thus the program of Largest of two 8 bit numbers is executed successfully

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Task 10: Sum of series of 8 bit numbers.

Values of numbers are stored from location 2400H to 2405H . Sum of all the numbers are stored at
location 2406H

Program:

LXI H, 2400H

MOV C, M

MOV A,M

BACK: INX H

ADD M

DCR C

JNZ BACK

INX H

MOV M,A

RST 5

Observation:

Input: Values of numbers are stored from location 2400H to 2405H .

Output: Sum of all the numbers are stored at location 2406H

Result:

Thus the program of Sum of series of 8 bit numbers is executed successfully

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TASK12 : Introduction to 8086 kit.

8086 Internal Block diagram

8086 is a 16-bit processor having 16-bit data bus and 20-bit address bus. The block diagram of 8086is
as shown. (Refer figures 1A & 1B). This can be subdivided into two parts; the Bus Interface Unit
(BIU) and Execution Unit (EU).

Bus Interface Unit:

The BIU consists of segment registers, an adder to generate 20 bit address and instruction prefetch
queue. It is responsible for all the external bus operations like opcode fetch, mem read,mem write, I/O
read/write etc. Once this address is sent OUT of BIU, the instruction and data bytes are fetched from
memory and they fill a 6-byte First in First out (FIFO) queue.
Execution Unit:

The execution unit consists of: General purpose (scratch pad) registers AX, BX, CX and DX; Pointer
registers SP (Stack Pointer) and BP (Base Pointer); index registers source index (SI) & destination
index (DI) registers; the Flag register, the ALU to perform operations and a control unit with
associated internal bus. The 16-bit scratch pad registers can be split into two 8-bit registers. AX AL,
AH ; BX BL, BH; CX CL, CH; DX DL, DH.

Figure 1A

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Figure 1B

Note: All registers are of size 16-bits

Different registers and their operations are listed below:

Register Uses/Operations
AX As accumulator in Word multiply & Word divide operations, Word I/O
operations
AL As accumulator in Byte Multiply, Byte Divide, Byte I/O, translate,
Decimal Arithmetic
AH Byte Multiply, Byte Divide

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BX As Base register to hold the address of memory

CX String Operations, as counter in Loops
CL As counter in Variable Shift and Rotate operations
DX Word Multiply, word Divide, Indirect I/O

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Execution of Instructions in 8086:

The microprocessor sends OUT a 20-bit physical address to the memory and fetches the first
instruction of a program from the memory. Subsequent addresses are sent OUT and the queue
is filled up to 6 bytes. The instructions are decoded and further data (if necessary) are fetched
from memory. After the execution of the instruction, the results may go back to memory or to
the output peripheral devices as the case may be.

(a) : CARRY FLAG – SET BY CARRY OUT OF MSB

(b) : PARITY FLAG – SET IF RESULT HAS EVEN PARITY
(c) : AUXILIARY CARRY FLAG FOR BCD
(d) : ZERO FLAG – SET IF RESULT = 0
(e) : SIGN FLAG = MSB OF RESULT
(f) : SINGLE STEP TRAP FLAG
(g) : INTERRUPT ENABLE FLAG

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(h) : STRING DIRECTION FLAG

(i) : OVERFLOW FLAG

Programming Models:
Depending on the size of the memory the user program occupies, different types of assembly
language models are defined.

TINY All data and code in one segment

SMALL one data segment and one code segment

MEDIUM one data segment and two or more code segments

COMPACT one code segment and two or more data segments
LARGE any number of data and code segments
To designate a model, we use “.MODEL” directive.

Creating source code

The source code consists of 8086/8088 program memories, appropriate pseudo-Opcodes and
assembler directives. The first is created with a text editor and is given an extension ASM. The
text editor may be any word processor (ex., EDLIN, NE) that can produce standard ASCII code.

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Assembling the program

To assemble the program two assemblers are available for the IBM-PC. They are:
Microsoft Macro Assembler (MASM) and Borland Turbo Assembler (TASM).

Besides doing the tedious task of producing the binary codes for the instruction statements, an
assembler also allows the user to refer to data items by name rather by numerical addresses.
This makes the program much more readable. In addition to program instructions, the source
program contains directives to the assembler. Pseudo instructions are assembler directives
entered into the source code along with the assembly language.

Once the program written completely, it can be assembled to obtain the OBJ file

by executing MASM. The assembly language program file name should be mentioned
along withthe command.

MASM<file name.ASM>

The <file name.ASM> file that contains the assembly language program is
assembled. The assembler generates error messages if there are any error
(Syntax errors).

These errors are listed along with the line number. If there are no errors then .OBJ
file is created. To obtain the .EXE file the user has to LINK the .OBJ file.

LINK <file name>; or TLINK <file name>;

If a file is smaller than 64K bytes it, can be converted from an execution file to a command
file (.COM). The command file is slightly different from an execution file (.EXE).

In a command file the program must be originated at location 100H before it can execute.
This means that the program must be no longer than (64K-100H) in length. The
command file requires less space in memory than the equivalent execution file. The system
loads .COM file off the disk into the computer memory more quickly than the execution file.
To create a .COM file from a
.EXE file, we need the EXE2BIN converter EXE2BIN converts .EXE file to .COM or binary file.

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Example: EXE2BIN <filename><file name.com>

The <filename> with an EXE extension is converted to <filename> with .com extension
with theabove command.

Test and Debug

The executable program can be run under DOS or DUBUG. As a thumb rule a program under
DOS only when there is no error or it produces some not visible or audible result. If the
program result is stored in registers or in memory, the result is visible. Hence it should be run
using DEBUG or TD (Turbo Debugger) or code-view only. .EXE file can be loaded into
memory using DEBUG.

Example: DEBUG<filename.EXE>

Using DEBUG it is possible to find the bugs in the program. After loading it into the memory
it is possible to check and correct the errors using different commands in DEBUG. Some of
the commands are as follows:

G-GO

Format:G[offset][, offset]

Action: Executes a program starting at the current location offset values are temporary
breakpoints. Upon encounter of a breakpoint instruction the processor stops and displays
registersand flag contents.

T – TRACE

Format: T [Instruction count]

Action: Executes one or more instructions and displays register and flag values for
each ofthem.

Example: T: Executes only the next instructions

T5: Executes the next 5 instructions
P- PTRACE
Format: P [instruction count]

Action: Same as Trace, but treats subroutine calls, interrupts, loop instructions, and repeat

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String instructions as a single instruction

Q-QUIT

Format: Q

Action: Exists to dos.

N-Name the program

Format: N <filename>
Action: Name the program W-
Write the file to disk
Format: W

Action: Bytes the starting from the memory location whose address is provided by IP
addresses and written as a .COM file to the disk. The number of bytes that are to be stored is
indicated by the contents of the CX Register. The name of the file is to be specified by means
of theN command prior to executing the W command.

R-Register

Format: R <register file name>

Action: The contents of register are displayed additionally, the register content can replace by
the value entered by the user. If no register name is provided, the contents of all the register
are displayed

A-Assemble

Format: A<CS: offset>

Action: This command allows us to enter the assembler mnemonics directly.

U- Unassemble

Format: U<CS: offset>

Action: This command lists a program from the memory. The memory start location is
specified by CS: offset.

L-Load

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Format: L[address][drive][first sector][number]

Action: Reads sectors from the disk into memory. The memory start address is provided in
the command

E-Enter

Format: E<address> [list]

Action: It enables us to change the contents of the specified memory location.

List is an optional data that has to be entered.

A program can be written and debugged using the following additional techniques.

1. Very carefully define them program to solve the problem in hand and work out
the best algorithm you can.
2. If the program consists of several parts, write, test and debug each part
individually andthen include parts one at a time.
3. If a program or program section does not work, first recheck the algorithm to
make sure it really does what you want it to. You might have someone else look at it
also.
4. If the algorithm seems correct, check to make sure that you have used the correct
instructions to implement the algorithm. Work out on paper the effect that a series of
instructions will have on some sample data. These predictions on paper can later
becompared with the actual results producer when the program section runs.
5. If you don‟t find a problem in the algorithm or the program instruction use debugger
to help you localize the problem. Use single step or trace for short program sections.
For longer programs use breakpoints. This is often a faster technique to narrow the
source of the problem down to a small region.

Program Development

The first step to develop a program is to know “What do I really want this program to do?”
As you think about the problem, it is good idea to write down exactly what you want the
program to do and the order in which you want the program to do it. At this point, no program
statement is written but just the operation in general terms.

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Flowcharts are graphic shapes to represent different types of program operations. The
specific operation desired is written by means of graphic symbols. Flowcharts are generally
used for simple programs or program sections.

Steps to convert an algorithm to assembly language:

1. Set up and declare the data structure for the algorithm you are working
with.
2. Write down the instructions required for initialization at the start of the code
section.
3. Determine the instructions required to implement the major actions
taken in thealgorithm, and decide how dada must be positioned for
these instructions.
4. Insert the instructions required to get the data in correct position.

Assembler Instruction Format

The general format of an assembler instruction is

Label: Opcode & Operand, Mnemonic Operand, Operand; comments

The inclusion of spaces between label Opcode, operands, mnemonics and comments are
arbitrary, except that at least one space must be inserted if no space would lead to anambiguity
(e.g.. between the mnemonic and first operand). There can be no spaces within a mnemonic or
identifier and spaces within string constants or comments will be included as space characters.
Each statement in program consists of fields.

Label: It is an identifier that is assigned the address of the first byte of the instruction in which
it appears. The presence of a label in an instruction is optional, but, if present, the label
provides a symbolic name that can be used in branch instruction to branch to the instruction. If
there is no label, then the colon must not be entered. All labels begin with a letter or one of the
following special character: @, $,‟ – or?. A label may be any length from 1 to 35 characters. A
label appears in a program to identify the name of memory location for storing data and for
other purposes.

Opcode and Operands: The Opcode field is designed to hold the instruction Opcode. To the

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right of Opcode field is the operand field, which contains information used by the Opcode.

Mnemonic: All instructions must contain a mnemonic. The mnemonic specifies the operation
to be executed.

Operand: The presence of the operands depends on the instruction. Some instructions have
no operands; some have one operand, and some two. If there are two operands, they are
separated by a comma.

Comments: The comment field is for commenting the program and may contain any
combination of characters. It is optional and if it is deleted the semicolon may also be deleted.
A comment may appear on a line by itself provided that the first character on the line is a
semicolon.

Program Format and assembler Directives

Line 1 MODEL SMALL ; Select small model

Line 3 Data ; Indicates data
…… Data segment.
……
declaration
Line k .code ; indicates start of code
segment
…….. ……. Program body
Line n End ; End of file
The typical assembler program construct for 8086/8088:

The MODEL directive selects a standard memory model for the assembly language program.
A memory model may be thought of a standard blue print or configuration, which
determines the way segments are linked together. Each memory model has a different set of
restrictions as to the maximum space available for code and data. But the most important thing
to know about model is that they affect the way that subroutines and data may be reached by
program.

This table summarizes the different types of models.

Model Description (Memory Size)

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Tiny Code and Data combined must be <=64K

Small Code <=64K; Data<=64K
Medium Data<=64K; Code any size
Compact Code<=64K; Data any size
Large Both code and data may be>64K
same as the large model, except that arrays
Huge
may be Large than 64k

A program running under DOS is divided into 3 primary segments (point to by CS) contains
program code; the data segment (pointed to by DS) contains the program variables, the stack
segment (pointed to by SS) contains the program stack.

" .DATA" directive (line 2) indicates the start of the data segment. It contains the
program variables.

" .CODE" directive (line k) indicates the start of the code segment. The end directive
(line n) indicates the end of the program file.

Another program construct for 8086/8088

DATA-HERE SEGMENT
......
...... Data declaration
DATA-HERE ENDS CODE-
HERE SEGMENT

ASSUME CS: CODE-HERE, DS: DATA-HERE

......

...... Body of the program

CODE-HERE ENDS

END

User can use code view to debug the program by following the steps given below:

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Write the program in a file with .ASM extension using an editor

[PRETEXT Editor which saves it in ASCII]

.Ex: EDIT TEST1.ASM

Assemble the program using the command
MASM/ZI file name;Ex: MASMTEST1.ASM
Link the program using the command
LINK/CO file name;
Ex: LINK TEST1.OBJ
To debug use
DEBUG FILENAME.EXE

F1 – Step by step, F2 – Step by Procedure, F4 -

HelpCMD > MO A ON
Switch between DOS screen and AFDEBUG screen using F6
Note: F1, F2, F4, F6 are Function Keys in Keyboard
All the command of debug can be used to display the program. You have an advantage to see
the result of the program typing the variable name, instead of using dump command. The
variable name is provided using "?".

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TASK 13 : Addition and subtraction of two 16 bit numbers, sum 16 bit

ADDITION

Program:

LHLD 2000H : Get first 16-bit number

XCHG :Save first 16-bit number in DE

LHLD 2002H : Get second 16-bit number in HL

DAD D :Add DE and HE

SHLD 2004H :Store 16-bit result in memory locations 2004H and 2005H.

HLT : Terminate program execution

Observation:

Input: 4 (2000H)

6 (2002)

Output: 10 (2004H )

Result:

Thus the program to add two 16 bit numbers was executed.

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SUBTRACTION

Program:

LXI H, 2000H ; Load HL with 2000H

MOV A, M ; Copy the operand from memory (H-L pair) into accumulator

INX H ; Increment memory address by 1 (HL points 2001H)

ADD M ; Add accumulator with second operand, result stored in accumulator

INX H ; HL Points 2002H

MOV M, A ; Store the lower byte of result at 2002H

MVI A, 00 ; Initialize higher byte result with 00H

ADC A ; Add carry in the high byte result

INX H ; HL Points 2003H

MOV M, A ; Store the higher byte of result at 2003H

Observation:

Input: 10 (2000H)

50 ( 2001H )

Output: 60 (2003H)

Result:

Thus the program to subtract two 16 bit numbers was executed.

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Task 14: Implement of Booth’s algorithm for arithmetic operations.

#include <stdio.h>

#include <math.h>

int a = 0,b = 0, c = 0, a1 = 0, b1 = 0, com[5] = { 1, 0, 0, 0, 0};

int anum[5] = {0}, anumcp[5] = {0}, bnum[5] = {0};

int acomp[5] = {0}, bcomp[5] = {0}, pro[5] = {0}, res[5] = {0};

void binary(){

a1 = fabs(a);

b1 = fabs(b);

int r, r2, i, temp;

for (i = 0; i < 5; i++){

r = a1 % 2;

a1 = a1 / 2;

r2 = b1 % 2;

b1 = b1 / 2;

anum[i] = r;

anumcp[i] = r;

bnum[i] = r2;

if(r2 == 0){

bcomp[i] = 1;

if(r == 0){

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acomp[i] =1;

c = 0;

for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++){

res[i] = com[i]+ bcomp[i] + c;

if(res[i] >= 2){

c = 1;

else

c = 0;

res[i] = res[i] % 2;

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

bcomp[i] = res[i];

if (a < 0){

c = 0;

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

res[i] = 0;

for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++){

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res[i] = com[i] + acomp[i] + c;

if (res[i] >= 2){

c = 1;

else

c = 0;

res[i] = res[i]%2;

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

anum[i] = res[i];

anumcp[i] = res[i];

if(b < 0){

for (i = 0; i < 5; i++){

temp = bnum[i];

bnum[i] = bcomp[i];

bcomp[i] = temp;

void add(int num[]){

int i;

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c = 0;

for ( i = 0; i < 5; i++){

res[i] = pro[i] + num[i] + c;

if (res[i] >= 2){

c = 1;

else{

c = 0;

res[i] = res[i]%2;

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

pro[i] = res[i];

printf("%d",pro[i]);

printf(":");

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

printf("%d", anumcp[i]);

void arshift(){

int temp = pro[4], temp2 = pro[0], i;

for (i = 1; i < 5 ; i++){

pro[i-1] = pro[i];

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pro[4] = temp;

for (i = 1; i < 5 ; i++){

anumcp[i-1] = anumcp[i];

anumcp[4] = temp2;

printf("\nAR-SHIFT: ");

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

printf("%d",pro[i]);

printf(":");

for(i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

printf("%d", anumcp[i]);

int main(){

int i, q = 0;

printf("\t\tBOOTH'S MULTIPLICATION ALGORITHM");

printf("\nEnter two numbers to multiply: ");

printf("\nBoth must be less than 16");

//simulating for two numbers each below 16

do{

printf("\nEnter A: ");

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scanf("%d",&a);

printf("Enter B: ");

scanf("%d", &b);

}while(a >=16 || b >=16);

printf("\nExpected product = %d", a * b);

binary();

printf("\n\nBinary Equivalents are: ");

printf("\nA = ");

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

printf("%d", anum[i]);

printf("\nB = ");

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

printf("%d", bnum[i]);

printf("\nB'+ 1 = ");

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

printf("%d", bcomp[i]);

printf("\n\n");

for (i = 0;i < 5; i++){

if (anum[i] == q){

printf("\n-->");

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arshift();

q = anum[i];

else if(anum[i] == 1 && q == 0){

printf("\n-->");

printf("\nSUB B: ");

add(bcomp);

arshift();

q = anum[i];

else{

printf("\n-->");

printf("\nADD B: ");

add(bnum);

arshift();

q = anum[i];

printf("\nProduct is = ");

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

printf("%d", pro[i]);

for (i = 4; i >= 0; i--){

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printf("%d", anumcp[i]);

OUTPUT :

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Task 15: Find 1’s and 2’s complement of 16-bit number.

16 bit numbers are stored in locations 3001H and 3002H and 1’s and 2’s complement of given
16 bit numbers will be stored in 3003H and 3004H location respectively . Consider program
starts from memory location 3000H.

Program:

LHLD 3000H

MOV A,L

CMA

MOV L,A

MOV A,H

CMA

ADI 01

MOV H,A

SHLD 3002H

Output
Before Execution:

3000H: 45
3001H: 46

After Execution:

3002H: 245
3003H: 246

Result:

Thus the program of 1’s and 2’s complement of 16-bit number is executed successfully.

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Task 16: Study of I/O based interface.

I/O Interface
The method that is used to transfer information between internal storage and external I/O devices
is known as I/O interface. The CPU is interfaced using special communication links by the
peripherals connected to any computer system. These communication links are used to resolve
the differences between CPU and peripheral. There exists special hardware components between
CPU and peripherals to supervise and synchronize all the input and output transfers that are
called interface units.

Mode of Transfer:
The binary information that is received from an external device is usually stored in the memory
unit. The information that is transferred from the CPU to the external device is originated from
the memory unit. CPU merely processes the information but the source and target is always the
memory unit. Data transfer between CPU and the I/O devices may be done in different modes.
Data transfer to and from the peripherals may be done in any of the three possible ways

1. Programmed I/O.
2. Interrupt- initiated I/O.
3. Direct memory access( DMA).

Now let’s discuss each mode one by one.

1 . Programmed I/O: It is due to the result of the I/O instructions that are written in the
computer program. Each data item transfer is initiated by an instruction in the program. Usually
the transfer is from a CPU register and memory. In this case it requires constant monitoring by
the CPU of the peripheral devices.

Example of Programmed I/O: In this case, the I/O device does not have direct access to the
memory unit. A transfer from I/O device to memory requires the execution of several
instructions by the CPU, including an input instruction to transfer the data from device to the
CPU and store instruction to transfer the data from CPU to memory. In programmed I/O, the
CPU stays in the program loop until the I/O unit indicates that it is ready for data transfer. This is

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a time consuming process since it needlessly keeps the CPU busy. This situation can be avoided
by using an interrupt facility. This is discussed below.

2. Interrupt- initiated I/O: Since in the above case we saw the CPU is kept busy
unnecessarily. This situation can very well be avoided by using an interrupt driven method for
data transfer. By using interrupt facility and special commands to inform the interface to issue an
interrupt request signal whenever data is available from any device. In the meantime the CPU
can proceed for any other program execution. The interface meanwhile keeps monitoring the
device. Whenever it is determined that the device is ready for data transfer it initiates an interrupt
request signal to the computer. Upon detection of an external interrupt signal the CPU stops
momentarily the task that it was already performing, branches to the service program to process
the I/O transfer, and then return to the task it was originally performing.

 The I/O transfer rate is limited by the speed with which the processor can test and service
a device.
 The processor is tied up in managing an I/O transfer; a number of instructions must be
executed for each I/O transfer.
 Terms:
 Hardware Interrupts: Interrupts present in the hardware pins.
 Software Interrupts: These are the instructions used in the program whenever the
required functionality is needed.
 Vectored interrupts: These interrupts are associated with the static vector address.
 Non-vectored interrupts: These interrupts are associated with the dynamic vector
address.
 Maskable Interrupts: These interrupts can be enabled or disabled explicitly.
 Non-maskable interrupts: These are always in the enabled state. we cannot disable
them.
 External interrupts: Generated by external devices such as I/O.
 Internal interrupts: These devices are generated by the internal components of the
processor such as power failure, error instruction, temperature sensor, etc.
 Synchronous interrupts: These interrupts are controlled by the fixed time interval.
All the interval interrupts are called as synchronous interrupts.
 Asynchronous interrupts: These are initiated based on the feedback of previous
instructions. All the external interrupts are called as asynchronous interrupts.

Direct Memory Access: The data transfer between a fast storage media such as magnetic
disk and memory unit is limited by the speed of the CPU. Thus we can allow the peripherals
directly communicate with each other using the memory buses, removing the intervention of the
CPU. This type of data transfer technique is known as DMA or direct memory access. During
DMA the CPU is idle and it has no control over the memory buses. The DMA controller takes
over the buses to manage the transfer directly between the I/O devices and the memory unit.

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1. Bus grant request time.

2. Transfer the entire block of data at transfer rate of device because the device is usually
slow than the speed at which the data can be transferred to CPU.
3. Release the control of the bus back to CPU So, total time taken to transfer the N bytes =
Bus grant request time + (N) * (memory transfer rate) + Bus release control time.
4. Buffer the byte into the buffer
5. Inform the CPU that the device has 1 byte to transfer (i.e. bus grant request)
6. Transfer the byte (at system bus speed)
7. Release the control of the bus back to CPU.

Advantages:
Standardization: I/O interfaces provide a standard way of communicating with external devices.
This means that different devices can be connected to a computer using the same interface,
which makes it easier to swap out devices and reduces the need for specialized hardware.

Modularity: With I/O interfaces, different devices can be added or removed from a computer
without affecting the other components. This makes it easier to upgrade or replace a faulty
device without affecting the rest of the system.

Efficiency: I/O interfaces can transfer data between the computer and the external devices at high
speeds, which allows for faster data transfer and processing times.

Compatibility: I/O interfaces are designed to be compatible with a wide range of devices, which
means that users can choose from a variety of devices that are compatible with their computer’s
I/O interface.

Disadvantages:
Cost: I/O interfaces can be expensive, especially if specialized hardware is required to connect a
particular device to a computer system.

Complexity: Some I/O interfaces can be complex to configure and require specialized knowledge
to set up and maintain. This can be a disadvantage for users who are not familiar with the
technical aspects of computer hardware.

Compatibility issues: While I/O interfaces are designed to be compatible with a wide range of
devices, there can still be compatibility issues with certain devices. In some cases, device drivers
may need to be installed to ensure proper functionality.

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Security risks: I/O interfaces can be a security risk if they are not properly configured or secured.
Hackers can exploit vulnerabilities in I/O interfaces to gain unauthorized access to a computer
system or steal data.

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