See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/304712495

Development of agroclimatic zoning model to delimit the potential growing

areas for macaw palm (Acrocomia aculeata)

Article  in  Theoretical and Applied Climatology · August 2017

DOI: 10.1007/s00704-016-1850-6

CITATIONS READS

15 350

3 authors:

Silvia Falasca Ana Ulberich

National Scientific and Technical Research Council National University of the Center of the Buenos Aires Province
60 PUBLICATIONS   447 CITATIONS    29 PUBLICATIONS   192 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Sandra Pitta
National Scientific and Technical Research Council
49 PUBLICATIONS   1,146 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

BIOTECNOLOGÍA APLICADA AL ESTUDIO DE LA INTERACCIÓN ENTRE “EPICHLOË” Y GRAMÍNEAS FORRAJERAS View project

Programa de mejoramiento de Solanáceas nativas: Modificación de la arquitectura de plantas ornamentales y resistencia a stress abiótico mediante técnicas de
transgénesis. View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Sandra Pitta on 03 April 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Theor Appl Climatol
DOI 10.1007/s00704-016-1850-6
ORIGINAL PAPER
Development of agroclimatic zoning model to delimit the potential
growing areas for macaw palm (Acrocomia aculeata)
Silvia Falasca 1 & Ana Ulberich 2 & Sandra Pitta-Alvarez 3
Received: 23 February 2015 / Accepted: 17 June 2016
# Springer-Verlag Wien 2016
Abstract The growing biodiesel production requires the use of
new technologies and alternative feedstocks to maintain the
growing demand of this biofuel. The macaw (Acrocomia
aculeata) is a palm native to Argentina whose fruits present high
oil content. Due to its tolerance to prolonged drought, it is a
promising crop for biodiesel and biokerosene production. The
aim of this work was to design an agroclimatic zoning model
to define the potential growing areas from macaw in Argentina.
To define the agroclimatic suitability to produce oil, it was nec-
essary to identify the requirements, limits, and biometeorological
tolerance for this palm. In order to define the agroclimatic fitness
of this crop in Argentina, the meteorological data corresponding
to the period 1981–2010 were employed. The agroclimatic indi-
ces were integrated in a Geographic Information System. The
maps were superimposed and the overlapping regions delineated
the agroclimatic zoning. The agroclimatic zonation classified
zones with homogeneous characteristics responding to bioclimat-
ic requirements of this species, resulting in optimal, very suitable,
suitable, and nonsuitable areas for macaw cultivation. The
* Silvia Falasca
sfalasca@conicet.gov.ar; slfalasca@gmail.com
Ana Ulberich
ulberich@fch.unicen.edu.ar; aulberich@gmail.com
Sandra Pitta-Alvarez
sandrapitta-alvarez@conicet.gov.ar; spitta1959@gmail.com
1
Climate and Water Institute. INTA, Las Cabañas y Los Reseros S/N,
Castelar, Buenos Aires Province, Argentina
2
School of Humanities. CINEA, University of the Center of Province
of Buenos Aires, Pinto 399, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
3
Department of Biodiversity and Experimental Biology. School of
Exact and Natural Sciences, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos
Aires, Argentina
authors designed an agroclimatic zoning model based on bibli-
ography. This model can be used in any part of the world,
employing the same agroclimatic indices presented in this work.
1 Introduction
In 2006, Argentina enacted Law No. 26,190, which deter-
mined that, by the year 2015, 8 % of national energy supply
had to be constituted by renewable energy sources. In addi-
tion, the National Law of Biofuels No. 26,093 established
that, starting January 1, 2010, petrol and petro-diesel had to
include 5 % of bioethanol and biodiesel, respectively. A few
months later, the national government increased this percent-
age to B7 (Resolution 554/10).
In the year 2012, Argentina produced more than 2,400,000 t
of biodiesel (Falasca 2012), positioning itself as the first biodiesel
exporter and fourth biodiesel producer in the world, after
Germany, France, and Brazil. However, this expansion declined
when the European Community levied a 20 % tax on fuel pro-
duced outside of Europe. In 2013, the surplus was assigned to
domestic consumption, and in 2014, the biodiesel added to petro-
diesel was raised to 10 % (B10). These policies brought relief to
the national biodiesel industries.
Since 2002, the area cultivated with soybean (Glycine max)
in Argentina has grown in an unprecedented fashion. The term
“soybean-ization” has been coined to illustrate this phenome-
non. Soybean is the raw material for biodiesel, and in
Argentina, approximately 85 % of soybean production comes
from direct sowing. Most of it is used to elaborate flour, oil,
and biodiesel. Usually, the oil and biodiesel manufacturing
sites are located less than 187 mi from the seed production
area (Falasca 2012).
There is an increasing need for new energy sources due to
higher energy demands, fossil fuel extinction, and problems

related to global warming. Renewable and biodegradable
sources, such as oilseed plant species that produce lipids ap-
propriate for biodiesel production, are favored. Among these,
palm trees are considered to be the most promising and espe-
cially if the species is native.
To appraise the environmental and economic consequences
as well as the production potential of nontraditional bioenergy
crops, intensive and longitudinal experimental studies have to
be undertaken. If crop models are available, key treatments
can be identified and the results extrapolated to other regions
and environmental conditions, thus reducing the costs in-
volved in field experiments. However, there are currently
few models for many bioenergy crops. Furthermore, field data
are available only for a few countries and bioenergy crops,
limiting model validation and application even further. The
scientific community will be able to assess sustainable
bioenergy production systems when sufficient advances in
agroclimatic zoning for nontraditional bioenergy crops are
made.
1.1 Characteristics of macaw palm (Acrocomia aculeata)
Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd. is native to America and
can be found from Mexico to Argentina, with the exception of
Peru and Ecuador (Pintaud et al. 2008). It is popularly known
as macauba, macaibeira, bocaiuva (Brazil), totai, cayara
(Bolivia), corozo, tamaco (Colombia), coyol (Costa Rica and
Panamá), macya oil, butter tree, Paraguay palm, macaw palm
(USA), etc.
Macaw is a palm tree that belongs to the Arecaceae family,
and it is one of the most rapidly growing Amazonian palm
trees. Macaw can grow up to 1 m/year and can reach heights
above 15 m (Scariot et al. 1995; Calvacante 1988). This spe-
cies is common in the northeast of Argentina, where it grows
in forests near large rivers, such as the Parana River near the
Paraguay border. In Argentina, it is found in the of Chaco,
Corrientes, Misiones, Formosa, and Salta Provinces (SIB
N/D; Zuloaga et al. 1994; Botanical Institute Darwinion
N/D). The population in this area represents the southern limit
of the species. Some specimens have numerous large, black
spines on the trunk, petioles, and leaves.
Macaw flowers from early spring to mid-summer and the
fruits mature toward the end of winter, although they remain in
the tree for longer periods of time. The inflorescence is visited
by bees that belong to the Trigonia genus. These collect the
pollen from the masculine flowers and pollinate the feminine
ones Henderson et al. 1995; Scariot 1998). Fructification can
occur before the palm develops completely, a process which
usually takes 6 years. Total fructification can be reached in 4-
year-old plants, depending on edaphic and climatic conditions
(Cetec 1983). Animals consume the large production of fruits
and thus facilitate the dispersal of macaw.
S. Falasca et al.
One kilogram of macaw fruits contains 25 to 35 U, and it
can be planted immediately without pulping the fruits.
However, for storage, it is recommended that the tegument
be broken and the seeds extracted (Lorenzi 1992). There is a
large variation in the size of the fruit, the color of the shell and
the pulp, and the oil content. These differences can be related
to genetic factors, since plants from the same region, with the
same climate and soil conditions, are very diverse. In Minas
Gerais, genotypes with levels of oil in the mesocarp and en-
dosperm surpassing 60 % (dry weight) have been found Silva
2007).
1.2 Uses and productivity
Morcote-Rios and Bernal (2001) mention that the use of this
palm tree dates back to prehistoric times (ca. 9000 years B.C.).
In the American continent, the fruits were an important nutri-
tional source for the native dwellers of the Paraguayan Chaco,
who ate them raw or roasted. They also prepared thick syrup
with the seeds and the mesocarp. Today, in the Argentinean
provinces of Chaco and Corrientes, the crushed seed is added
to the traditional beverage “mate,” because of its flavor and
alleged medicinal properties. The flour extracted from the
trunk can be fermented to obtain an alcoholic beverage
(Biloni 1990). In Honduras, the sap is also fermented and sold
as “palm wine” (Balick 1979). Nuts are eaten roasted and the
sweet pulp can also be fermented to obtain liquor. The trunk
contains a starchy substance used to make bread and cakes.
The heart can be used as “palmito.” The macerated leaves are
used to make ropes (Silva 2007).
Two types of oil can be extracted. The oil contents are
slightly higher in the pulp (60–67 %), with respect to the
almond (55 %). The almond yields refined oil that represents
approximately 15 % of the total oil content in the plant
(Hernández et al. 2007). Because it is rich in lauric and oleic
acid, it holds enormous potential for use in the food, pharma-
ceutical, and cosmetic industries. The pulp has an orange-like
color because of its high carotenoid content (Rodriguez-
Amaya et al. 2008). The main carotenoid is beta-carotene
(82 %), but others are found in smaller proportions, such as
Gama-carotene, beta-cryptoxanthine, and cis-licopene
(Ramos et al. 2008). All of them contribute to the nutritional
value of the macaw palm, making it an ideal candidate to
supplement and enrich regional diets. In general, the fruits
hold great potential for the production of oil useful for the
industrial and energy sectors (Rolim 1981). However, they
must be processed shortly after the harvest, because, as in
the African oil palm, the macaw pulp oil decomposes rapidly
and the content of free fatty acid rises above 35 %. This is
counterproductive for biodiesel production (Ferrari and
Azevedo Filho 2012).
Freitas et al. (2008) compared two alternatives processes
for producing biodiesel from macaw pulp with 35 % of free
Development of agroclimatic zoning model

fatty acids. Hydro-esterification has low reaction times
(60 min) and results in 78 and 22 % of conversion with and
without catalysis, respectively. The immobilized lipase pro-
cess (bioconversion) is longer (72 h), but the conversion rates
are higher (85 %) and the technology is cleaner. In addition,
the enzymatic reaction occurs at low temperature, and thus the
biodiesel obtained has lower viscosity and better quality. The
iodine value of the macaw pulp oil is 74.9 and the iodine value
of the macaw kernel oil is 32.7 because of the different fatty
acid composition (Ferrari and de Azevedo Filho 2012). The
“macaw-pie,” the residue from the extraction, can be used as
organic fertilizer or as feed for cattle, goats, and sheep.
Biokerosene obtained from oil of macaw palm meets ASTM
specifications, and thus it can be qualified as “drop-in.” This
means that it can be used without any modification and with-
out security concerns in aircrafts (Falasca et al. 2013b).
There is a period of 5 to 6 years until the first harvest, and
this represents an economic disadvantage because of the gap
between investment and profits. This can be allayed by alley
cropping with groundnut, castor, or horticultural crops. In
4 years, the plants reach a height of 7–10 m and are usually
producing fruits. From that moment on, grass can be intro-
duced between the rows as cattle forage (Grevé et al. 2011),
integrating a silvo-pastoral system. Since macaw supplies fruit
for only 4 months, different raw materials should also be used
for the biodiesel plant to remain operative year-round. This
purpose can be fulfilled by the use of oilseeds such as soy-
bean. The potential uses and the subproducts that can be ob-
tained from macaw are shown in Table 1.
The only country where Acrocomia fruits are technical-
ly processed since 1940 is Paraguay (Markley 1956). In
2011, approximately 5000 t of kernel oil were produced
and marketed. At present, the industrial exploitation of
macaw fruits in Paraguay is common, and there are 10
processing factories installed in that country. However,
the majority of fruits are from wild palm populations.
Consequently, farmers usually gather the fruits without
appropriate management of the wild populations or the
fruits, both preharvest and postharvest. This, in turn, re-
sults in lower profits due to difficulties in fruit picking
and the poor quality of the fruit. Macaw plantations could
optimize both issues.
Agroenergías SRL, the Paraguay Catholic University, and
the University of Hohenheim (Germany) have signed a
Cooperation Agreement to research and develop Acrocomia
as an energetic perennial species. Its main aim is to generate
scientific and practical knowledge to help producers and com-
panies in developing countries substitute liquid fuels with a
larger proportion of bioenergy. At the same time, and respect-
ing each region’s environment, it hopes to contribute to the
rational exploitation of subproducts generated in the produc-
tion chain and the creation of sustainable jobs (Bohn 2009).
Austria is studying the feasibility of using macaw oil from
Paraguay for biodiesel (Wörgetter et al. 2006). In 1983, the
Brazilian government, together with USAID, started a pro-
gram to domesticate Acrocomia for biodiesel production. An
Acrocomia germplasm collection was established in Brasilia
as a first step toward its improvement. They took samples
from 100 populations of A. aculeata and established a gene
bank. Since the predicted petroleum crisis did not occur, this
effort was abandoned and the Acrocomia gene bank disap-
peared (Crocomo and Melo 1996; Clement et al. 2005).
However, in Brazil, several projects and studies have recently
been initiated to take advantage of Macaw fruits and its prod-
ucts, particularly in the states of Minas Gerais and Mato
Grosso do Sur.

Table 1 Potential uses of

subproducts of macaw palm Part of the palm Potential uses

Pericarp Biofertilizer. Fuel for furnaces and boilers.

Mesocarp oil Chemical Industry. Cosmetics (soap). Waxes. Biodiesel-biokerosene
Mesocarp expeller Cattle, goat, and sheep feedstock.
Exocarp Fuel for furnaces and boilers. Carbon with high energy value.
Raw material for active carbon.
Endocarp oil Cosmetics. Chemical Industry. Human diet, dietary supplements. Lubricants.
(almond) Biodiesel-biokerosene.
Endocarp expeller Animal feedstock
Complete fruit Animal feedstock: whole or finely grounded (feed-lot). Handicrafts
Mesocarp Human diet: fresh or in flour, ice creams, mermelades, liquors, B-carotene.
Animal feedstock (feed-lot).
Endocarp Human diet: direct (toasted almond) or grated and mixed with other flours. Animal feedstock.
Roots Traditional medicine (infusion): hipotensor and in the treatment jaundice.
Flowers Decoration (Christmas) and air freshener.
Fresh leaves Animal feedstock in winter. Fibers for the manufacture of ropes, fishing nets, baskets, and hats.
Trunk Human consumption: palmetto, flour (for bread and cakes) and sap liquor (“coyol” wine).
Material for rustic constructions.
Needles: pins

Acrocomia is currently being studied for industrialization
in Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina. However, macaw palm
plantations in Brazil and in many places in the world are still
in their primary stage. There are no commercial macaw palm
plantations in Argentina.
This palm is the second largest producer of oil worldwide,
followed by Elaeis guinensis (African oil palm). It produces
2250 kg/ha of pulp oil and 1950 kg/ha of nut oil. According to
FAO (1986), a palm tree produces 15 kg of oil per year. The
macaw palm is particularly promising not only because of
high oil content of the seeds but also because the fruits also
produce edible products, forage, and a high energy endocarp
(Martins et al. 2009).
It is possible to plant 500 palm trees per hectare if the
distance between them is adequate. If each palm produces
45 kg of fruits—5 years after planting—the harvest will be
approximately 22 t/ha/year, but theoretically, it can reach 40 t/
ha/year (de Azevedo Filho et al. 2012).
According to Garrido (2005), Manzano (2005), and Silva
(2007), A. aculeata yields 19 t/ha, which represents more than
2800 L of biodiesel per hectare. However, according to Nucci
(2007), the production of vegetable oil may reach 4000 L/ha/
year. In order to produce 1 million t of biodiesel per year, and
considering only the 2 t/ha of mesocarp oil, 5000 km2 of
arable land would be needed (Agroenergías SRL 2008).
Since the species is not yet well-known and the existing
plantations are in experimental stage, there is not enough bib-
liographic information concerning energy flux densities.
Acrocomia Solutions (N/D) estimated the raw energy of dif-
ferent oilseed crops and compared it with macaw palm. They
found that, for macaw palm, which has an average yield of 20 t
of fruits per hectare, it could be estimated at 375,157 MJ/ha,
while for castor (Ricinus communis), it was 30,000 MJ/ha,
soybean (Glicine max) 50,842 MJ/ha, sunflower (Helianthus
annuus) 59,550 MJ/ha, canola rapeseed (Brassica napus)
85,071 MJ/ha, and physic nut (Jatropha curcas)
111,021 MJ/ha. Macaw is a potential new source of income
in semiarid areas of America. It can grow on poor/eroded soils
and presents a high energy balance (output/input >4).
1.3 The agroclimatic zoning
Climate conditions are decisive in the success or failure of a
crop. Plants react to climate in complex manners, and this can
be observed phenologically. Although the type of climate in a
given area determines which plant species may be grown,
some can grow under climatic conditions outside their natural
range. For example, some palms are cultivated for ornamental
purposes in cold-temperate regions, although they do not pro-
duce a commercial yield.
To satisfy plant’s physiological requirements, minimum
and maximum meteorological conditions should be met for
each particular species. Ometto (1981) defined an “ideal
S. Falasca et al.
temperature,” which is the range between these two values
and represents the energetic level that plants need for their
physiological complex to work efficiently. Beyond such
limits, they are negatively affected. Accurate identification
of bioclimatic requirements of each plant and cultivation of
each species in a suitable region can play a crucial role in
utilizing agroclimatic conditions.
Agroclimatic zoning consists in the division of an area of
land into climatic resource units. These units have a unique
combination of climatic characteristics, which in turn specify
the potentials and constraints for land use. Agroclimatic zon-
ing can be understood as the division of an area according to
the favorability for agriculture. Agroclimatic classification
systems are a valuable tool to identify yield variability and
constraints for crop growth (Caldiz et al. 2002), to regionalize
optimal crop management recommendations (Seppelt 2000),
to compare yields trends (Gallup and Sachs 2000), and to
recognize agroclimates with favorable conditions for the in-
troduction of new crops (Falasca 2012; Falasca and Ulberich
2011; Falasca et al. 2012a, b, 2013a, b, 2014a, b, c, d.
Climate, represented by thermal and moisture regimes,
forms a mosaic of small specialized areas. These small geo-
graphic areas are capable of supporting various land use sys-
tems (Troll 1965). Agroclimatology is, essentially, a geo-
graphical discipline. Thus, mapping is the most appropriate
way to report the results of agroclimatic studies. The maps are
the geographical representation of the intensity, frequency,
variability, time of occurrence, or any other feature that pre-
sents a spatial agroclimatic index. The maps enable the local-
ization of optimal, suitable, marginal, and/or nonsuitable
areas. Through agroclimatic zoning, areas with different po-
tential yields can be identified.
The aim of this work was to design an agroclimatic zoning
model to define the potential growing areas for A. aculeata in
Argentina.
2 Materials and method
2.1 Study area
The area studied was the Argentine Republic. The country
borders to the North with Bolivia and Paraguay, to the South
with Chile and the Atlantic Ocean, to the East with Brazil,
Uruguay, and the Atlantic Ocean, and to the West with Chile
(Fig. 1).
As a result of its vast territory, Argentina presents excep-
tional climatic diversity. Various geographic factors influence
the climatic characteristics of the different regions. One of
these is latitude: The Argentine Republic is characterized by
its great latitudinal development: 21° 46′ in the North to 55°
58′ S in Cabo de Hornos, in the South. The extreme eastern
Development of agroclimatic zoning model
Fig. 1 Argentina’s political map
limit of the country is located at 53° 38′ W, in the town of
Bernardo de Irigoyen.
The isohyet of 500 mm represents the limit between the
subhumid and semiarid zones. To the West of this isohyet, the
moisture gradient provided by rainfall from the South Atlantic
Anticyclone decreases and the climate turns semiarid. The
area located between 500 and 1000 mm/year presents a sub-
humid climate, and when it surpasses 1000 mm, the climate is
humid.
2.2 Climatic and edaphic requirements of macaw palm
Acrocomia palms, frequent in semidry to tropical America,
can tolerate fire and prolonged drought up to 6 months
(Grevé et al. 2011), because its tolerance to drought makes it
an ideal candidate for regions that are too dry for the African
oil palm and coconuts. Its latitudinal distribution extends from
latitude 20° N to 28° S in tropical wet and dry (Aw) and
tropical wet (Ar) climates (FAO-Ecocrop 2007).
In its usual dispersal area, the average annual temperature
is around 27 °C, although adult plantations can resist temper-
atures as low as −6 °C for short periods of time. It flourishes at
temperatures from 20 to 45 °C, although the optimal range is
25 to 35 °C (FAO-Ecocrop 2007).
Acrocomia inhabits regions with rainfalls that range from
500 to 3000 mm annually, although the optimal ranges from
1000 to 2000 mm (FAO-Ecocrop 2007). It has also been
found in the Colombian Andes Mountains in altitudes up to
1200 m and in humid forests that receive annually 1000 to
1900 mm of precipitations (FAO-Ecocrop 2007). The crop
technique is similar to that of oil palm, but macaw presents a
series of challenges that have to be addressed. For instance,
there are difficulties in overcoming seed dormancy and, fur-
thermore, early growth is very slow. Germination normally
takes 4 to 6 months, but emergence can take years.
According to Ferreira and Gentil (2006), this can be overcome
by improving water absorption through strategies such as seed
scarification. To germinate, the seeds need warm temperatures
(above 24 °C) and humid conditions.
Acrocomia grows on diverse soils (Martin 1976), but high
amounts of sand and organic matter are preferable (Teixeira
1996). It has also been cultivated on nutrient poor sandy soils.
It can endure poorly drained soils and waterlogging condi-
tions. Acrocomia tolerates medium salinity (4–10 dS/m) and
pHs that range from 5 to 7.5 (FAO-Ecocrop 2007). It prospers
in acid soils and can coexist with Syagrus romanzzofiana, but
not with Copernicia alba (Chaco palm), which prefers neutral
or alkaline soils.
Acrocomia can become a profitable crop in regions with
low soil fertility, if it is enriched with organic matter for the
duration of its long productive life (60 to 70 years). It is also
useful as a carbon sink, and it is estimated that each palm can
mobilize 55 kg of carbon dioxide per year (Steinfeld et al.
2006).
2.3 The agroclimatic zoning model for macaw palm
First, it was necessary to identify the requirements, limits, and
biometeorological tolerance and conditions to establish the
potential growing areas for this palm. The climatological char-
acteristics of native areas and the regions of successful culti-
vation around the world were first taken into consideration.
Afterward, the resulting bioclimatic indicators were extrapo-
lated to the Argentine territory. Growth aspects, such as de-
velopment and death chances by excess or deficiency, were
examined.

Geographical location, mean annual rainfall, and tempera-
ture records area available (for the period 1981–2010) from
meteorological and agrometeorological stations within the
study area were also taken into account.
The bioclimatic variables studied were average annual tem-
perature, average annual maximum temperature, average an-
nual minimum temperature, absolute minimum temperature,
and annual rainfall. These were obtained by interpolating the
data collected in the 125 meteorological stations around the
country that belong to the National Meteorological Service.
In order to generate the maps, a series of previously inter-
polated bioclimatic variables were used. Afterward, these
were processed by the Geographic Information System
(GIS) tool of the Arc-GIS 9.3 program. Climatic interpola-
tions were made using the “Interpolate to Raster” tool, within
the “3D Analyst” extension of the GIS of the some program,
following the Ordinary Kriging interpolation method.
The moisture factor was the first bioclimatic variable ana-
lyzed. The average yearly rainfall isohyets for the period
1981–2010 were considered. The limits were delineated by
the 500 and 1000 mm isohyets (FAO-Ecocrop 2007). If ma-
caw is grown as a bioenergy crop in rain-fed conditions, the
nonsuitable areas are those with annual precipitations below
500 mm. However, if the aim is to produce edible oil, these
could qualify as suitable areas with complementary irrigation.
In the 500- to 1000-mm interval, the area is suitable and,
above 1000 mm, optimal.
To analyze the thermal factor, the average annual temperature
over a period of 30 years was taken into consideration. Below
20 °C, the climate would be too cold for a tropical palm tree,
making the area nonsuitable. This isotherm represents the south-
ern limit for warm climates that can still be appropriate for trop-
ical crops. In the 20 to 25 °C interval, the area is deemed suitable
and, above 25 °C, optimal (FAO-Ecocrop 2007).
To ensure an adequate thermal regime during the growing
period, the average annual maximum temperature was set at
>26.1 °C. This index represents the average of the maximum
daily temperatures observed each year during the 30-year pe-
riod (1981–2010).
The average annual minimum temperature, an index that
represents the minimum daily temperatures registered in
30 years, was also considered. This index was set at
>14.0 °C and it is a measure of the intensity of minimum
temperatures.
Although Argentine territory extends toward the Tropic of
Capricorn (23° 27′ S), it lacks tropical climates. Therefore, when
tropical species are exploited, special care must be taken to avoid
damage by frost. Consequently, to prevent lethal effects, the ab-
solute minimum temperatures that recur once every 30 years
cannot be lower than −6 °C (FAO-Ecocrop 2007).
The following classes were delineated: optimal, very suit-
able under humid regime, very suitable under subhumid re-
gime, suitable under subhumid regime, and nonsuitable.
S. Falasca et al.
Table 2 shows the agroclimatic indices that define each class
of agroclimatic suitability. It is important to highlight that the
nonsuitable areas present two or more of the constraints indi-
cated in Table 2.
The different indices can be displayed on a map of the
country, and their degree of compliance with the various
stages of the plant life cycle can be perceived, enabling the
identification of areas with different degrees of suitability. The
agroclimatic suitability map for Acrocomia palm was thus
generated.
In order to construe the classified areas with different
grades of agroclimatic fitness, we included as Fig. 1
Argentina’s political map, with the toponymy of the provinces
(Fig. 1).
3 Results
Figure 2 shows the moisture regions. An optimal area can be
identified to the East, a region that receives more than
1000 mm annually and whose moisture derives from the
South Atlantic Anticyclone throughout the year. Another area
which receives more than 1000 mm is located in the
Northwest of Argentina (NOA). In this region, rains during
the warm semester are predominant as a consequence of the
displacement, toward the South, of the intertropical conver-
gence in summer. Two regions qualify as suitable areas: One
of them is located to the West of the optimal area and the other
one, whose advection of moist air comes from the South
Pacific anticyclone and covers the Patagonian West, extending
from the west of Chubut and Rio Negro to the SW of Neuquén
and Santa Cruz. Both areas receive 500 a 1000 mm annually.
Figure 3 presents the Thermal regions. The optimal regions
are located in Formosa, Chaco, Santiago del Estero, and Salta.
The regions classified as suitable, i.e., with average tempera-
tures in the 20 to 22.5 °C range, are distributed to the South
and West of the aforementioned area and cover Misiones, part
of Corrientes, Chaco, Formosa, Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe,
Salta, Jujuy, La Rioja, and Catamarca.
Figure 4 shows the areas where the average annual maxi-
mum temperature is >26.1 °C. These are considered suitable
and signal the influence of the north wind year-round, which is
responsible for the high temperatures. The suitable area covers
the northeast, north, and part of the center of the country, and
its southern limit is the north of Mendoza Province.
Figure 5 presents the areas where the average annual min-
imum temperature is >14.0 °C. These are also considered
suitable, and they indicate how the incoming cold air from
the Polar Front projects to the North. This is responsible for
the low minimum temperatures in all the national territory.
The suitable area covers all of provinces of Misiones and
Corrientes, part of Formosa, Chaco, Salta, Tucuman,
Development of agroclimatic zoning model

Table 2 Classes of agroclimatic

suitability and limits for each Annual Annual Annual Annual Absolute
class rainfall temperature maximum minimum minimum
(mm) (°C) temperature temperature temperature
(°C) (°C) (°C)

Optimal >1000 22.5–25.0 >26.1 >14 >−6

area
Very >1000 20.0–22.5 >26.1 >14 >−6
suitable
Humid
regime
Very 500–1000 22.5–25.0 >26.1 >14 >−6
suitable
Subhumid
regime
Suitable 500–1000 20.0–22.5 >26.1 >14 >−6
Subhumid
regime
Nonsuitable <500 <20.0 <26.1 <14 <−6
area

Santiago del Estero, Santa Fe, Entre Ríos, and North of
Buenos Aires.
In Fig. 6, the absolute minimum temperature of −6 °C is
shown, which is expected with a probability of once every
30 years. The suitable areas are those where the absolute min-
imal temperature is above −6 °C. This index is a very impor-
tant constraint, because lower temperatures can be lethal to
macaw palm.
Finally, Fig. 7 (obtained overlaying the maps above) pre-
sents the agroclimatic zoning.
4 Discussion
Figure 7 shows the areas in the country where this species may
be grown with success probability under rain-fed conditions,
where the different classes are shown: optimal, very suitable
under humid regime, very suitable under subhumid regime,
suitable under subhumid regime, and nonsuitable areas.
The optimal area covers part of the provinces of Formosa
and Chaco in the Northeast of Argentina. Very suitable areas
under humid regime can be found in Misiones, Corrientes,
east and center of Chaco, southeast of Formosa, north and
northeast of Santa Fe, north of Entre Ríos, and an area located
in the center-north of Salta.
The regions delineated as optimal and very suitable under
humid regime are natural habitats of A. aculeata in Argentina,
and they represent the southern limit for the species. In fact,
according to SIB (N/D) and Zuloaga et al. (1994), this species
is common in the northeast of Argentina, where it grows in
forests near large rivers, such as the Parana River near the
Paraguay border. In Argentina, it has been detected in the
provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Misiones, Formosa, and
Salta (SIB N/D). This Acrocomia looks like Syagrus
romanzoffiana, but its canopy is shorter and its outward aspect
is more tropical. In some areas, it grows intermixed with
Syagrus romanzoffiana, Butia spp., Allagoptera spp., and oth-
er palms (SIB N/D). It is located inside great forests in the
north of the country, especially in the border with Bolivia and
Paraguay, and along the Rivers Paraguay and Parana. This
zone corresponds to the biome “Mata Atlantica,” which is a
region with tropical and subtropical moist forests. This biome
develops under the influence of precipitations originating in
the South Atlantic anticyclone, from the Brazilian NE coast to
the extreme NE of Argentina and Uruguay, and East of
Paraguay. Precipitations in the coastal regions can surpass
2000 mm/year but decline toward the west as they release
the moisture as rainfalls.
Very suitable areas under subhumid regime cover part of
the provinces of Chaco, Formosa, NE of Santiago del Estero,
and East of Salta. Suitable areas under subhumid regime ex-
tend toward the South, encompassing part of the provinces of
Salta, Santiago del Estero, Chaco, and Santa Fe. These two
areas are part of the biome known as “El Gran Chaco,” which
is an extensive subtropical region that extends from latitude
18° to 29° S. It limits with the Andes to the west, with the
pampas to the south and with the “cerrados” of Brazil
(Phytogeographical Domain: type Savanna) to the east. The
Gran Chaco comprises South of Bolivia to the East of the
Andes, Northwest of Paraguay, slightly touching the areas
adjacent to Mato Grosso (Brazil), and a large part of North
Argentina (Southern Chaco). It is characterized by a monsoon
regime, with a long dry season and large daily thermal ampli-
tude. Its vegetation is typical of dry thorn forest (with

Fig. 2 Annual rainfall
Cactaceae and Bombaceae), quebracho forest (Schinopsis and
Aspidosperma), and isolated savannas. The classical palm of
dry spiny forests is Trithrinax schizophylla, but A. aculeata is
also found (Moraes 2007). Extensive populations of
Copernicia alba grow on the most humid soils, which are
the ones flooded during the rainy season.
According to Discover Life (N/D), macaw palm has been
detected in Argentina in latitude 29° S and 58° W (Corrientes
Province), 22° 04′ S and 62° 30′ W (Misiones Province), and
23° S and 58° W, while in the North Hemisphere, this species
S. Falasca et al.
Fig 3 Average annual temperature
can be found at higher latitudes, for example in Massachusetts
(42.1° N and 71.7° W).
The natural presence of A. aculeata in all the provinces
delineated in Fig. 7 with a certain degree of suitability was
confirmed by bibliographic citations (SIB N/D; Zuloaga et al.
1994; Moraes 2007; Discover Life N/D; Flora Argentina N/D;
Marino and Pensiero 2006; Cabrera 1976) that recognized the
species in those geographic locations. To corroborate the
agroclimatic zoning, the areas where the species has been
recognized according to the PACSOA (N/D) were
Development of agroclimatic zoning model
Fig. 4 Average annual maximum temperature >26.1 °C
superimposed on Fig. 7. A. aculeata habitats in Argentina are
located inside the great forest in the north of the country,
especially in the frontier with Bolivia and along the Rivers
Paraguay and Parana, occupying part of the provinces of
Salta, Formosa, Chaco, Corrientes, and Misiones Provinces.
The Argentine Biodiversity Information System (SIB N/D)
reports that A. aculeata grows alone in some habitats of the
NW of the province of Corrientes. However, in other habitats
situated in the center west of Corrientes, it grows mixed with
Butia yatay and Syagrus romanzoffiana and in the Province of
Misiones, with Allagoptera campestris and Syagrus
Fig. 5 Average annual minimum temperature >14.0 °C
romanzoffiana. The latitude 29° 30′ S is, approximately, the
southern limit of this species. The Botanical Institute
Darwinion (N/D) also highlights the presence of this palm
in the provinces of Salta, Chaco, Corrientes, Formosa, and
Misiones.
The existence of a large area with agroclimatic suitability
for the cultivation of A. aculeata in Argentina has been dem-
onstrated. It is important to recover and promote the traditional
use and value of palm trees, especially for the native species,
because of both the economic benefits and the environmental
services they provide. The palm should be grown under humid
 S. Falasca et al.

Fig. 6 Absolute minimum temperature

climate conditions in deforested areas, where it will not pres-

ent any risk in biodiversity and will help to restore the altered
natural ecosystem. It is also recommendable for areas with
subhumid climate where this species will not constitute an
environmental threat, because it is unlikely to transform itself
into a weed or plague since it is endemic to Argentina.
This research is highly innovative for a number of reasons: (1)
Although A. aculeata has an immense potential for biofuel pro-
duction, it has not been sufficiently studied. The available infor-
mation regarding production of this species under different cli-
mates is scarce. Therefore, there is both a current and future
Fig. 7 Agroclimatic zoning for macaw palm and native habitats
demand for further studies of this species and its adaptability to
different climate conditions, taking into consideration the preva-
lent climate in native areas. In this context, agroclimatic zoning is
an approach that saves time and money, since conventional
methods to evaluate yields would only be carried out in the areas
Development of agroclimatic zoning model
deemed as suitable and very suitable, excluding the nonsuitable
ones. (2) The paper represents pioneering work since there are no
previous studies concerning the introduction of extensive culti-
vation of Acrocomia in Argentina. In fact, the species is practi-
cally unknown in our country and not even our agronomists are
aware of its existence and potential. Considering what we stated
in (1), this aspect is particularly challenging and the theoretical
models described are useful to study the feasibility of its intro-
duction prior to field studies, thus saving both time and money.
Advances in agroclimatic zoning for nontraditional bioenergy
crops will enable the scientific community to further evaluate
sustainable bioenergy production systems. The results of this
paper will provide valuable data for the development and cali-
bration of bioenergy models.
While it is true that renewable energy can be obtained in a
more efficient manner, with solar or eolic technologies, it is self-
evident that photovoltaic panels or windmills would not provide
organic matter to the soil. Macaw plant biomass can be further
used as fertilizer or compost, thus returning to the soil, part of the
nutrients, and the organic matter extracted from it. Furthermore,
its components and coproducts can have multiple uses. The ther-
mal and/or electrical exploitation of part of the biomass (palm
wastes that are not incorporated into the soil) would also yield a
positive balance. Cultivation of macaw is environmentally
friendly, since it adapts to marginal soils and promotes the recov-
ery of degraded areas. For this reason, ecological agriculture
should be promoted with this palm.
The use of alternative crops to produce plant oils can provide
chances for rural development, but before materializing this po-
tential in large scales, it is essential to first demonstrate success.
A. aculeata could be the ideal candidate to accomplish this feat.
However, large-scale production of macaw oil will not be avail-
able in the short term because it needs domestication. To achieve
this, germination (1–4 years) and growth (5–8 years to maturity)
have to be accelerated, fruiting within a raceme should be syn-
chronized, spines reduced, and oil yields need to be improved.
5 Conclusions
Based on International bibliography, the authors were able to
delineate an agroclimatic zoning model to determine potential
growing areas in Argentina for macaw palm. This model may
be applied to any part of the world, using the agroclimatic
limits presented in this work. The results of this paper will
provide valuable data for the development and calibration of
bioenergy models.
The existence of a large area located in the north and northeast
of Argentina with agroclimatic suitability for the cultivation of A.
aculeata has been demonstrated. The natural habitats for this
palm tree are geographically located in the provinces that were
identified as potential growing areas. Therefore, macaw has the
potential for a sustainable expansion of plant oil production area.
Although this palm tree is found naturally through Argentina, its
exploitation will be profitable and sustainable only through re-
search and development. In the future, the improvements in ge-
netic material and the advancements in the harvest process and
extraction of oil for biodiesel will facilitate and promote invest-
ment prospecting.
References
Acrocomia Solutions (N/D) Energía y Acrocomia. Available at:
http://acrocomiasolutions.com/acrocomia/energia-y-acrocomia
Accessed 10 November 2015.
Agroenergías SRL (2008) Palmera de múltiple utilización y alto potencial
productivo. Available at: http://www.agroenergias.com.
py/es/acrocomia.php?sec=1. Accessed 2 June 2014
Balick J (1979) Amazonian oil palms of promise: a survey. Economic
Botany, New York, Available at: http://sciweb.nybg.org/science2
/pdfs/mb/Amaz.oil.prom.1979.pdf. Accessed 27 September 2014
Biloni JS (1990) Árboles autóctonos argentinos de las selvas, bosques y
montes de la Argentina. Tipográfica Editora Argentina, Buenos
Aires
Bohn E (2009) Tablero de comando para la promoción de los
biocombustibles en Paraguay. Cepal - Naciones Unidas- Deutsche
Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ). Available at:
http://www.mag.gov.py/externas/TABLERO%20DE%20
COMANDO%20HBIO%20CEPAL%202009.pdf Accessed 11
November 2015
Cabrera AL (1976) Regiones Fitogeográficas Argentinas. Enciclopedia
Argentina de Agricultura y Jardinería. Vol. II. ACME, Buenos Aires
Caldiz DO, Haverkort AJ, Struik PC (2002) Analysis of a complex crop
production system in interdependent agro-ecological zones: a meth-
odological approach for potatoes in Argentina. Agric Syst 73:297–
311
Calvacante PB (1988) Iconografia dos mais importantes vegetais
espontâneos e cultivados da região amazônica. Arboretum
amazonicum. Museu Paraense Emílio Goeldi Belém, Brazil
Cetec – Centro Tecnológico de Minas Gerais (1983) Produção de
combustíveis líquidos a partir de óleos vegetais: Estudo das
oleaginosas nativas de Minas Gerais. Belo Horizonte. Brazil
Clement CR, Lleras Pérez E, van Leeuwen J (2005) O potencial das
palmeiras tropicais no Brasil: acertos e fracassos das últimas
décadas. Agrociências 9(1–2):67–71
Crocomo OJ, Melo M (1996) Acrocomia Species. In: Macauba P (ed)
Trees IV. Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry 35. Springer,
Berlin Heidelberg, pp 3–17. doi:10.1007/978-3-662-10617-4
de Azevedo Filho JA, Colombo CA, Chorfi Berton LH (2012) Macaúba:
Palmeira nativa como opcao bioenergetica. Pesquisa & Tecnologia, 9
(2). Available at: http://www.aptaregional.sp.gov.br/index.php?option=
com_docman&task=doc_view&gid=1275&Itemid=284 Accessed 6
June 2014.
Discover Life (N/D) Acrocomia aculeata. Available at: http://www.
discoverlife.org/mp/20m?kind=Acrocomia+aculeata . Accessed 26
June 2014
F. A . O . E c o c r o p (2 0 0 7 ) Av a i l a b le at : h t tp : / / e co c r o p .f a o .
org/ecocrop/srv/en/home Accessed 26 June 2014
F.A.O. (1986) Food and fruit bearing forest species. No 3: Examples from
Latin America. Forestry Paper 44/3. Rome
Falasca SL (2012) Cultivos energéticos para biocombustibles de 1ª y 2ª
generación: Aptitud Agroclimática Argentina. Editorial Académica
Española, Madrid

Falasca S, Ulberich A (2011) Argentina’s semiarid lands aptitude to cul-
tivate non traditional species for biodiesel production. In: Marchetti
JM, Fang Z (eds) Biodiesel: blends. Nova Science Publishers. New
York, Properties and Applications, pp 123–150
Falasca S, Miranda del Fresno C, Ulberich A (2012a) Possibilities for
growing queen palm (Syagrus romanzoffiana) in Argentina as a
biodiesel producer under semi-arid climate conditions. Int J
Hydrog Energy 37:14843–14848
Falasca S, Ulberich A, Ulberich E (2012b) Developing an Agro-
climatic zoning Model to determine potential production areas
for castor bean (Ricinus communis L). Ind Crop Prod 40:185–
191
Falasca S, Ulberich A, Miranda C (2013a) Feedstocks for lignocellulosic
biofuels: research for the energy future in Argentina. In: Acosta MJ
(ed) Advances en Energy Reserch, vol 14, Book. Nova Science
Publishers, NewYork, pp 203–240
Falasca S, Ulberich A, Waldman C (2013b) Possibilities of Argentina to
produce biokerosene for aviation under dry subhumid to arid areas.
In: Méndez-Vilas A (ed) Materials and processes for energy: com-
municating current research and technological developments.
Formatex Research Center, Spain, pp 327–334
Falasca S, Miranda del Fresno C, Waldman C (2014a) Developing an
Agro-climatic zoning Model to determine potential growing areas
for Camelina sativa in Argentina. Q Sciences Connect, Bloomsbury
Qatar Foundation Journals (BQFJ), http://www.qscience.com/doi/
pdfplus/10.5339/connect.2014.4
Falasca S, Miranda C, Waldman C (2014b) Halophytes: feedstocks for
bioenergy in Argentina. In: Acosta MJ (ed) Advances en Energy
Reserch. Book 17. Nova Science Publishers, NewYork, pp 159–192
Falasca S, Ulberich A, Acevedo A (2014c) Identification of Argentinean
saline drylands suitable for growing Salicornia bigelovii for bioenergy.
Int J Hydrog Energ 39(16):8682–8689
Falasca S, Ulberich A, Pitta S (2014d) Possibilities for growing kenaf
(Hibiscus cannabinus L) in Argentina as biomass feedstock under
dry-subhumid and semiarid climate conditions. Biomass Bioenerg
64:70–80
Ferrari RA, de Azevedo Filho JA (2012) Macauba as Promising Substrate
for Crude Oil and Biodiesel Production. J Agric Sci Technol B 2:
1119–1126
Ferreira SAN, Gentil DFO (2006) Extração, embebição e germinação de
sementes de tucumã (Astrocaryum aculeatum). Acta Amaz 36(2):
141–146
Flora Argentina. Plantas vasculares de la República Argentina (N/D)
Available at: http://www.floraargentina.edu.ar/ Accessed: 9
September 2014
Freitas SP, Silva CC, Mariano RGB, Aranda DAG, Couri S (2008)
Potential for biodiesel synthesis from macauba (Acrocomia
aculeata) pulp oil with a high content of free fatty acids. In:
Proceedings of the 30th Symposium on Biotechnology for Fuels
and Chemicals. US. Department of Energy, New Orleans, p 68
Gallup JL, Sachs JD (2000) Agriculture, climate, and technology: why
are the tropics falling behind? Am J Agr Econ 82:731–737
Garrido J. (2005) Biodiesel permitirá corte em importação de óleo. Available
at: http://www.emater.pr.gov.br/noticias/noti009.html Accessed 24
March 2014
Grevé A, Barbanti L, Fazio S (2011) Handbook on Biofuels and Family
Agriculture in Developing Countries. Patron Editore. Bologna, Italy,
Available at: http://www.siagr.org/public/news/Handbook_
Biofuels.pdf. Accessed 2 September 2014
Henderson A, Galeano G, Bernal R (1995) Field guide to the palms of the
Americas. Princepton University, New Yersey, pp 166–167
Hernández C, Mieres A, Niño Z, Pérez S (2007) Efecto de la Refinación
Física Sobre el Aceite de la Almendra del Corozo (Acrocomia
aculeata). Información Tecnológica 18(4):59–68
Instituto de Botánica Darwinion (N/D) Flora del Conosur. Catálogo de
plantas vasculares de Argentina. Acrocomia aculeata. Available at:
S. Falasca et al.
http://www.darwin.edu.ar/Proyectos/FloraArgentina/Especies.
asp?Letra=A Accessed 11 November 2015
Lorenzi H (1992) Árvores brasileiras: manual de identificação e cultivo
de plantas arbóreas nativas do Brasil. Plantarum, Nova Odessa,
Brazil
Manzano R (2005) Óleo de macaúba avança no mercado. Available at:
http://www.br.groups.yahoo.com.br/group/ecirtec/message/216.
Accessed 24 March 2014.
Marino GD, Pensiero JP (2006) Catálogo de árboles y arbustos de la
Provincia de Santa Fe. Museo Provincial de Ciencias Naturales
Florentino Ameghino, Santa Fe
Markley KS (1956) Mbocayá or Paraguay Cocopalm – an important
source of oil. Econ Bot 10(1):3–32
Martin G (1976) Estudio agroeconómico del Acrocomia totai (Mart)
(M'bocaya) en Paraguay. Institut de Recherches Rourles Huiles et
Oleagineux (I.R.H.O), Paris
Martins CC, Bovi MLA, Nakagawa J, Machado CG (2009) Secagem e
armazenamento de sementes de juçara. Rev Árvore 33(4):635–642
Moraes M (2007) Phytogeographical patterns of Bolivian palms. Palms
51(4):177–186
Morcote-Rios G, Bernal R (2001) Remains of palms (Palmae) at archae-
ological sites in the New Word: a review. Bot Rev 67(3):309–350
Nucci SM (2007) Desenvolvimento, caracterização e análise da utilidade
de marcadores microssatélites em genética de população de
macaúba. Tesis de Mestrado em Agricultura Tropical e
Subtropical. Instituto Agronômico de Campinas, Campinas
Ometto JC (1981) Bioclimatology plant. Agronomic Editorial.
Agronomic Ceres, São Paulo
PACSOA. Palm and Cycad Societies of Australia (N/D). Availble at:
http://www.pacsoa.org.au/wiki/Acrocomia_aculeata Accessed 11
November 2015
Pintaud JC, Galeano G, Balslev H, Bernal R, Borchsenius F, Ferreira H,
de Granville JJ, Mejía J, Millán B, Moraes M, Noblick L, Stauffer
FW, Kahn F (2008) Las palmeras de América del Sur: diversidad,
distribución e historia evolutiva. Rev Peru Biol 15:7–30
Ramos M, Ramos Filho MM, Hiane PA, Braga JA, Siqueira EM (2008)
Qualidade Nutricional da polpa de bocaiuva Acrocomia aculeata
(Jacq) Lodd. Cienc Tecnol Aliment 28:90–94
Rodriguez-Amaya DB, Kimura M, Amaya-Farfan J (2008) Fontes
Brasileiras de carotenóides: Tabela brasileira de composição de
carotenóides em alimentos. Ministerio do Meio Ambiente,
Brasília. Available at: http://www.mma.gov.br/estruturas/sbf_
agrobio/_publicacao/89_publicacao09032009113306.pdf Accessed
24 March 2014
Rolim AAB (1981) Óleos vegetais: usos gerais. Informe Agropec 82:17–
22
Scariot A (1998) Seed dispersal and predation of the palm Acrocomia
aculeata. Principes, 42(1)5-8. Available at: http://www.palms.
org/principes/1998/vol42n1p5-8.pdf Accessed 26 January 2014
Scariot A, Lieras E, Hay JD (1995) Flowering and fruiting phenologies of
de palm Acrocomia aculeata: patterns and consequences. Biotropica
27:168–173
Seppelt R (2000) Regionalized optimum control problems for
agroecosystem management. Ecol Model 131:121–132
SIB. Sistema de Información de Biodiversidad de Argentina (N/D)
Available at: www.sib.gov.ar/ficha/PLANTAE*acrocomia*aculeata
. Accessed 6 July 2014
Silva JC (2007) Macaúba: Source de matéria-prima para os setores
alimentício, energético e industrial. Viçosa, MG: CEDAF/DEF/
U F V. Av a i l a b l e a t : h t t p : / / w w w. e n t a b a n b r a s i l . c o m .
br/downloads/Macauba_Jose-de-Castro-UFV.pdf . Acessed
January 2016
Steinfeld H, Gerber P, Wassenaar T, Castel V, Rosales M, Haan C (2006)
Livestock’s Long Shadow. In: FAO (ed) Livestock’s long Shadow.
Environmental Issues and Options, Rome, pp 79–123
Development of agroclimatic zoning model
Teixeira E (1996) Macaiba palm. In: Silva S (ed) Frutas do Brasil.
Empresa das Artes, São Paulo, pp 1–15
Troll C (1965) Seasonal climates of the earth. In: Rodenwalt E, Jusatz H
(eds) World maps of climatology. Springer–Verlag, Berlin, pp 28
View publication stats
Wörgetter M, Prank IH, Rathbauer J, Bacovsky D (2006) Local and
Innovative Biodiesel, Final Report. Francisca Josephinum-
Biomass Logistics and Technology, Wieselburg, pp 32–33
Zuloaga FO, Morrone O, Belgrano MJ (1994) Catálogo de Plantas
Vasculares del Cono Sur. Available at: http://www.darwin.edu.
ar/Proyectos/FloraArgentina/FA.asp. Accessed 26 June 2014