Chapter 4

Introduction to Statistical Quality

Control
 Statistical Quality Control (SQC) Tools

The key process monitoring and investigating tools include:

▪ Histograms,
▪ Check sheets,
▪ Pareto charts,
▪ Cause and effect diagrams,
▪ Scatter diagrams, and
▪ Control charts.
 Histogram

➢The histogram is a bar chart showing a distribution of

variables.

➢This tool helps identify the cause of problems in a process by:

▪ shape of the distribution
▪ the width of the distribution.
▪ The histogram clearly portrays information on:
• location,
• spread, and
• shape regarding the functioning of the physical process.
▪ It can also help suggest both the nature of, and possible
improvements for, the physical mechanisms at work in the
process.
Steps in constructing Histogram
a) How to Make Frequency Tables
Step 1: Calculate the range (R)

R=(the largest observed value)-(the smallest observed value)

➢ Obtain the largest and the smallest of observed values and calculate the
range R.
Step 2: Determine the class interval
➢The class interval is determined so that the range, which includes the maximum
and the minimum of values, is divided into intervals of equal breadth.

Step 3: Prepare the frequency table

➢Prepare a table in which the class, midpoint, frequency marks frequency, etc.,
can be recorded.
Step 4: Determine the class boundaries
➢Determine the boundaries of the intervals so that they include the smallest and
the largest of values and write these down on the frequency table.
➢To obtain the interval breadth, divide R by 1,2, or 5 (or 10,20,50; 0.1,0.2,0.5 etc)
so as to obtain from 5 to 20 class intervals of equal breadth.
➢When there are two possibilities, use the narrower intervals if the number of
measured values is 100 or over and the winder interval, if there are 99 or
less observed Values.
Step 5: Calculate the mid point of the class
➢Using the following equation, calculate the mid-point of class, and write this
down on the frequency table.
Sum of the upper & lower boundariesof the first class
Mid − point of the first class =
2
Similarly,
Sum of the upper & lower boundariesof the second class
Mid − point of the second class =
2
 ➢The mid points of the second class, the third class, and so on, may also be
determined as follows:
Mid − point of the second class = Mid − point of the first class + class interval

and so on.
Mid − point of the third class = Mid − point of the second class + class interval

Step 6: Obtain the frequencies

➢ Read the observed values one by one and record the frequencies falling in
each class using tally marks, in group of five.
 b) How to make a Histogram
Step 1:
On a sheet of squared paper, mark the horizontal axis with a scale. The scale
should not be no the base of class interval but it is better to be on the base of
measurement of data, (e.g. 10 grams correspond to 10 mm).
Step 2:
Make the left-hand vertical axis with a frequency scale, and, if necessary, draw
the right-hand axis and mark it with a relative frequency scales.
Step 3:
Make the horizontal scale with the class boundary values.
Step 4:
Using the class interval as a base line, draw a rectangle whose height
corresponds with the frequency in that class
Step 5:
Draw a line on the histogram to represent the mean, and also draw a line
representing the specification limit, if any.
Step 6:
In a blank area of the histogram (Figure below), note the history of the data.
 Check Sheet

➢A check sheet is a paper form on which items to be checked have

been printed already so that data can be collected easily and
concisely.
➢Its main purposes are:
▪ To make data-gathering easy
▪ To arrange data automatically so that they can be used easily
later on.
 Cause-and-Effect Diagram

➢ A Cause-and-Effect Diagram is a tool that helps identify, sort, and display

possible causes of a specific problem or quality characteristic.
➢ The diagram graphically illustrates the relationship between a given outcome
and all the factors that influence the outcome.

➢It is used when we need to

▪ Identify the possible root causes, the basic reasons, for a specific effect,
problem, or condition.
▪ Sort out and relate some of the interactions among the factors affecting a
particular process or effect.
▪ Analyze existing problems so that corrective action can be taken.
➢ Some of the benefits of constructing a Cause-and-Effect Diagram are that it:
1. Helps determine the root causes of a problem or quality .
2. Encourages group participation.
3. Uses an orderly, easy-to-read format.
4. Indicates possible causes of variation in a process.
5. Increases knowledge of the process by helping everyone to learn more
about the factors at work and how they relate.
6. Identifies areas where data should be collected for further study.
The steps for constructing and analyzing a Cause-and-Effect Diagram are:

Step 1: Identify and clearly define the outcome or effect to be analyzed.

1. Decide on the effect to be examined.
2. Use operational definitions.
3. Remember, an effect may be positive (an objective) or negative (a
problem)
Step 2:Using a chart pack positioned so that everyone can see it, draw the spin and
create the effect box.
1. Draw a horizontal arrow pointing to the right. This is the spine.
2. To the right of the arrow, write a brief description of the effect or outcome,
which results from the process.
Step 3: Identify the main causes contributing to the effect being studied

Causes

Effect
Step 4:
➢ For each major branch, identify other specific factors which may be the
causes of the effect. Identify as many causes or factors as possible and attach
them as sub branches of the major branches.
➢Fill in detail for each cause. If a minor cause applies to more than one major
cause, list it under both.
Step 5: Identify increasingly more detailed
➢ levels of causes and continue organizing them under related causes or
categories.
Step 6:
➢Analyze the diagram, this helps you identify causes that.
➢ E.g. Suppose a
machining operation is
producing surface
defects
➢ After a few steps of
typical brainstorming,
the cause-and-effect
diagram would look
like
 Pareto Diagram

➢ A Pareto Diagram is a bar graph used to arrange information in such

a way that priorities for process improvement can be established..

➢Pareto diagram is used:

1. To display the relative importance of data.
2. To direct efforts to the biggest improvement opportunity by highlighting
the vital few in contrasts to the trival many

➢ It helps us to visualize the items charted as “vital few” and “trivial many”
➢ Principle of 80:20.
Pareto

➢ It shows the data arranged in descending order of frequency of occurrence (or

other chosen measures like cost),
▪ The “trivial many” data are often pooled together as “miscellaneous” or
“other,” and
▪ the chart contains a secondary axis with percentages, and a cumulative
percentage line plotted
➢ It is more informative and useful compared to an ordinary bar graph that only
displays the frequency of categories no matter how it is presented
Pareto

➢ E.g. suppose in the previous e.g. the following inspection data were recorded
based on frequency of occurrence
➢ While these data are important, one might want to put their resources into issues critical to
customers, or issues that have more financial impact.
➢ So, the data are assigned weights based on criticality and multiplied by occurrence, and a
Pareto diagram is created based on the weighted score.

➢ Cost of repair or rework can also be used in place of weight, and the Pareto chart can be
expressed in cost.
Pareto

Figure Pareto chart of final

assembly inspection defect
codes (weighted).
Pareto

➢ One important point to remember before performing a Pareto analysis is to make

sure that the data are not too specific, with few occurrences for each specific
item.
➢ This will result in a poor Pareto chart resulting in vital many and trivial few—the
exact opposite of the intended purpose
➢ E.g.
Pareto

Figure Example of a Pareto

chart of a too-detailed
defect summary.
 Scatter Diagram

➢ The scatter diagram is a technique used to study the relation of two

corresponding variables.

➢The two variables we will deal with are:

1.A quality characteristic and a factor affecting it,
2.Two related quality characteristics, or
3.Two factors relating to a single quality characteristic.
Steps to make Scatter diagram
Step 1:
➢ Collect paired data (x, y), between which you want to study the relations, and
arrange the data in a table. It is desirable to have at least 30 pairs of data.
Step 2:
➢ Find the maximum and minimum values for both the x and y. Decide the scales
of horizontal and vertical axes so that the both lengths become approximately
equal, and then the diagram will be easier to read.
Step 3:
➢ Plot the data on the section paper. When the same data values are obtained from
different observations, show these points either by drawing concentric circles, or
plot the second point in the immediate vicinity of the first.
Step 4: 9.6

9.4
Enter all the following
9.2
necessary items.
9
1.title of the diagram

Air Pressure
8.8

2.time interval 8.6

3.number of pairs of data 8.4

8.2
4.title and units of each axis
8

5.name (etc.) of the person

0.86 0.88 0.9 0.92 0.94
who made the diagram.
Percent Defective
 Control charts

Statistical Process Control (SPC):

➢ is a statistical procedure using control charts to check a production process to
see if any part of it is in some way not functioning properly, which could lead to
poor quality.
➢A Control chart is a graphical method for displaying control results and
evaluating whether a measurement procedure is in-control or out-of-
control.
Figure Process
improvement using the
control chart.
UCL
UCL

CL
CL

LCL
LCL

Time
The main uses of control charts are:
1.It is a proven technique for improving productivity.
2.It is effective in defect prevention.
3.It prevents unnecessary process adjustments.
4.It provides diagnostic information.
5.It provides information about process capability.

Two types of control charts:

➢ Variables Control Charts
– A variable measure is a product characteristic that is measured on a
continuous scale such as length, weight, volume, or time.
➢ Attributes Control Charts
– These charts are applied to data that follow a discrete distribution.
 ❖ Variables Control Charts
➢ Two of the most commonly used variable control charts are :
▪ The mean chart or X chart, and
▪ The range or R charts.
−
i) Xand R Charts
▪ theoretically based on the normal distribution.
▪ It is assumed from the central limit theorem, that the sample means are
normally distributed if the process distribution is also normal.
▪ In most cases R chart and X chart are used in conjunction with each other.
▪ In those cases the computation of the chart is based on the range values.
▪ In an R-chart, the range is the difference between the smallest and largest
values in a sample.
▪ The range reflects the process variability, rather than the tendency toward a
mean value
 −
The theoretical control limits for X charts are

3
UCL =  +
n
3
LCL =  −
n
where:
UCL = Upper control limits
LCL = Lower control limits
 = Mean
 = Standard deviation
n = Sample number
Constructing an R Chart

➢Collect and organize the data in subgroups

a)
Step1:
✓Select k successive subgroups where k is at least 20, in which there are n
measurements in each subgroup.
✓Typically n is between 1 and 9.
✓3, 4, or 5 measurements per subgroup is quite common.
Step2:
➢ Find the range of each subgroup Where: for each subgroup i.
Step3:
− 1
➢ Find the centerline for the R chart, denoted by : R =  R(i )
k
Constructing an R Chart

Step4:
➢ Find the UCL and LCL with the following formulas:
−
UCL = D4 R

−
with D3 and D4 can be found in the following
LCL = D3 R
table:

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

D3 0 0 0 0 0 0.076 0.136 0.184

D4 3.267 2.574 2.282 2.114 2.004 1.924 1.864 1.816

Table of D3 and D4
Constructing an R Chart

Step5:
▪ Plot the subgroup data and determine if the process is in statistical control.
✓If not, determine the reason for the assignable cause, eliminate it and the
subgroup (s) and repeat the previous 3 steps.
✓Do Not eliminate subgroups with points out of range for which assignable
causes cannot be found.
 −
Steps in Constructing an X Chart
−
b) Steps in Constructing the X Chart

Step 1:
− − −
Find the mean of each subgroup X (1) , X (2) , X (3)
−
X (k ) ….and the grand mean of all subgroups
using:
= 1 −
X =  X (i)
k
 −
Steps in Constructing an X Chart

Step 2: Find the UCL and LCL using the following

equations: = −
UCL = X + A2 R
= −
LCL = X − A2 R
A2 can be found in the following table:

n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

A2 1.880 1.023 0.729 0.577 0.483 0.419 0.373 0.337

Step 3: Plot the LCL, UCL, centerline, and subgroup means

Step 4: Interpret the data using the following guidelines to determine if the
process is in control:
1. One point outside the 3 sigma control limits
2. Eight successive points on the same side of the centerline
3.Six successive points that increase or decrease
4.Two out of three points that are on the same side of the centerline, both at
a distance exceeding 2 sigma's from the centerline
5.Four out of five points that are on the same side of the centerline, at a
distance exceeding 1 sigma from the centerline
6.Using an Average Run Length (ARL) for determining process anomalies.
Example: X-bar and R Control Charts
X-bar and R Control Charts
 X-bar and R Control Charts

Figure and R control

charts for vane opening.
 ❖ Attribute Control Chart
➢ Attribute is product characteristics such as: % defective, color, surface texture,
even smell or test.
➢Attribute control charts arise when items are compared with some standard and
then are classified as to whether they meet the standard or not.

➢Attribute Control charts include:

1. P- Chart
2. nP- Chart
3. C- Chart
4. U- Chart