MSOCHA3: Multistage Operations 3A

LEARNING UNIT 2

Absorption

1
 Contents: Learning Unit 1
Introduction to Absorption
Equilibrium data for Absorption
Graphical Method for number of stages
Kremser/analytical method for number of stages
Rates of expression mass transfer method for
packed columns

2
 Introduction
• In absorption (also called gas absorption, gas scrubbing, and gas
washing), a gas mixture is contacted with a liquid (the absorbent or
solvent) to selectively dissolve one or more components by mass
transfer from the gas to the liquid.
• The components transferred to the liquid are referred to as solutes or
absorbate.
• Absorption is used to separate gas mixtures; remove impurities,
contaminants, pollutants, or catalyst poisons from a gas; or recover
valuable chemicals.
• Thus, the species of interest in the gas mixture may be all
components, only the component(s) not transferred, or only the
component(s) transferred.
• The opposite of absorption is stripping (also called desorption),
wherein a liquid mixture is contacted with a gas to selectively remove
components by mass transfer from the liquid to the gas phase.

3
 Introduction
• Absorption occurs either by:
i. A physical process Solute Absorbent
CO2 water
CO water
H2S water
NH3 Water/acetone
HCl water
Acetylene Acetic acid
Benzene and Toluene Hydrocarbon oil

ii. A chemical reaction

Solute Absorbent Nature of absorption

CO2/H2S Aqueous hydroxides irreversible
HCN Aqueous NaOH irreversible
HCI/HF Aqueous NaOH irreversible
CO Aqueous cuprous ammonium salts reversible
SO2 Aqueous dimethyl aniline reversible
CO2/H2S Aqueous ethanolamines reversible
Nitrogen oxides Water reversible 4
 Absorption VS Stripping
• Absorption (or scrubbing) is the removal of a component (the solute or
absorbate) from a gas stream via uptake by a non-volatile liquid (the
solvent or absorbent).

• Desorption (or stripping) is the removal of a component from a liquid

stream via vaporization and uptake by an insoluble gas stream.

• Thus, absorption and stripping are opposite unit operations, and are
often used together as a cycle.

• Both absorption and stripping can be operated as equilibrium stage

processes using trayed columns or, more commonly, using packed
columns.

5
 Absorption VS Stripping
• Absorption :

Liquid C &
Gases A Gas A
absorbed B
&B
(gas B absorbed)

• Stripping: The reverse process of absorption is called desorption or

stripping. During this process components of a liquid are separated
by contact with a gas.
Liquid C with
Gas A + Stripped
Stripping Gas contaminant B (gas B
component B
A stripped)

6
 Column Operation
• For an absorption column to operate efficiently, gas and liquid
phases should be brought into close contact with one another.
• Although packed and plate columns are used, as in distillation,
the method of operation differs – in absorption the gas is
introduced at the bottom of the column and the liquid at the top
of the column, making it a counter-current operation.
• Different types of configurations can be used i.e. plate columns,
packed columns, etc.
• All types of configurations have the following in common:
• The component removed from the feed mixture is in the gas phase
• The liquid is charged at the top of the column and recovered at the bottom with the
desired component.
• Some sort of packing is used to increase the surface area between the liquid and
gas phase

7
Column Operation

8
 Factors that Affect the Choice of Solvent

a) Gas Solubility
• A high gas solubility is preferred, thus increasing the rate of absorption and
decreasing the quantity of solvent required.
• Solvents of a chemical nature similar to that of the solute to be absorbed will
provide good solubility.
• In the case of chemical reactions where the solute has to be reused, the
reaction should be reversible.
• A good example is hydrogen sulphide which may be removed from gas
mixtures ethanolamine solutions since the sulphide is readily absorbed at
low temperatures and easily stripped at high temperatures.
b) Volatility
• The solvent should have a low vapour pressure since the gas leaving an
absorption operation is ordinarily saturated with the solvent and losses may
be higher.
• In the case where a liquid has superior solubility but a high volatility, a
second non-volatile liquid may be used to recover the volatilized solvent.

9
 Factors that Affect the Choice of Solvent

c) Corrosiveness
• The liquid should be non-corrosive to prevent use of expensive materials of
construction.
d) Cost
• The solvent should be inexpensive (so that losses are not costly) and readily
available.
e) Viscosity
• A liquid with low viscosity is preferred for reasons of rapid absorption rates, low
pressure drops on pumping and good heat transfer characteristics.
f) Other
• The solvent should also be, if possible, non-toxic, non-flammable, chemically
stable and have a low freezing point.

10
 General Considerations

• The principle difference in handling absorption and stripping (desorption), compared to

distillation, is how to represent the equilibria (equilibrium curve) and mass balances
(operating lines).
• In distillation the liquid and vapour streams were assumed to remain constant.
• In absorption, we have the removal of solute from the gas stream and uptake by
solvent liquid stream; thus, the total liquid and gas stream amounts (or flow rates) can
change.
• If we use mole fractions of the solute and assume that the gas and liquid stream
amounts (or flow rates) remain constant, significant error can result if the solute
concentration in the inlet gas stream is greater than about 1%.
• If we can set up the equilibrium curve and operating line(s) to account for this change
in the overall gas and liquid flow rates, we can use the McCabe-Thiele method to solve
absorption and stripping problems
• Accordingly, the assumptions for absorption and stripping are as follows:
• The carrier gas is insoluble (or has very low solubility), e.g. N2 or Ar in water
 General Considerations
• While the total gas and liquid streams can change in absorption, the flow rate of the carrier gas, which we
assume to be insoluble in the solvent, does not change.

• Similarly, the flow rate of the solvent, which we assume to be non-volatile, does not change.

• Consequently, we can define our equilibrium curve and operating line in terms of mole ratios with respect
to the carrier gas and solvent, instead of mole fractions as we did in distillation.

• Doing so circumvents the problem of the changing total gas and liquid stream amounts or flow rates in
absorption and stripping.

Total L0, x0 G, L0, X0

Total V, y1
Y1

1 1

→
Total Vapor (V) and Carrier Gas (G) and
Total Liquid (L) Solvent (L) Flow
Flows Rates and Rates and Mole
Mole Fractions Ratios

N N

Total VN+1, Total LN, xN GN+1, YN+1 LN, XN

yN+1
 RECAP: Two-film Theory

Study chapter 3.7 in Separation Process Principles: Chemical and

Biochemical Operations, 3rd edition and chapter 12.3.1 in Chemical
Engineering, Volume 2: Particle Technology and Separation Processes,
4th edition.

13
 Equilibrium between Liquid and Gas
• When 2 phases are brought into contact with one another,
they will eventually reach equilibrium.

• E.g. water in contact with air evaporates until the air is

saturated with water vapour and air is absorbed by the water
until saturated with the individual gases.

• The extent to which the gas is absorbed by the liquid is

determined by partial pressure at a given temperature and
concentration.

• With an increase in temperature, solubility decreases.

14
• For dilute concentrations of most gases relationship between dissolved
component and component in gas phase is given by Henry's law:
• 𝑃𝐴 = 𝐻𝐶𝐴
• Where:
• PA – is partial pressure of component A in gas phase
• CA – concentration of component A in liquid phase
• H – is Henry’s constant. Values of H come from experiment

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Equilibrium between Liquid and Gas
• For the solute at any equilibrium stage, n,
𝑦𝑛 𝑌𝑛 Τ 1 + 𝑌𝑛
𝐾𝑛 = = (1)
𝑥𝑛 𝑋𝑛 Τ 1 + 𝑋𝑛
• The fixed temperature and pressure are estimated for a series of values of x and equilibrium
values of y in the presence of the solute-free absorbent and solute-free gas.
• From these values, an equilibrium curve of Y as a function of X is developed using Eq. (1).
• In general, this curve will not be a straight line, but it will pass through the origin.
• If the solute undergoes, in the liquid phase, a complete irreversible conversion by chemical
reaction, to a nonvolatile solute, the equilibrium curve will be a straight line of zero slope
passing through the origin.
• At either end of the towers shown in an absorber, entering and leaving streams and solute mole
ratios are paired.
 Graphical Method
• In this method the operating line for the tower should be
determined.
• The operating line and the equilibrium line are utilized then to
graphically determine the number of stages required.

• Gas absorption:
• The number of stages required for absorption in plate
absorbers can graphically be determined by plotting the
operating line and equilibrium line for the system in terms
of mole fraction.

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 Graphical Method
• Note that the operating line for an absorber is above the equilibrium curve. For a given
solute concentration in the liquid, the solute concentration in the gas is always greater
than the equilibrium value, which provides the driving force for the separation.
• The solute is transferred from the gas to the liquid in absorption. In distillation, we
plotted the more volatile component, which was transferred from the liquid to the gas. In
distillation, if we had plotted the less volatile component, which was transferred from the
gas to the liquid, the OL would also lie above the equilibrium curve.
• Also note that the OL is linear. This results because of the form of the operating line
where L/G is a constant. L and G are based upon the non-volatile solvent and insoluble
carrier gas, respectively, which do not change.
• If we had used mole fractions and total gas and liquid rates, the OL would be curved
because the total gas and liquid rates would change since we are removing the solute
from the gas and absorbing it into the liquid.
• One could use mole fractions and the total gas and liquid streams in our calculations only
if the solute is in low concentrations, say < 1%, in most systems. Don’t confuse this
requirement with that for the use of Henry’s Law, which requires low solute
concentrations, < 10%, to be valid.
 Graphical Method
Absorption: Mass balances

𝑦0 A

Mole fraction of solute in gas (y)

Tray 1 Botom of
column

Tray 2

Top of
column Equilibrium
Tray 3 line
𝑦
B

𝑥 +1 𝑥1
Mole fraction of solute in liquid (x)

Overall solute balance

𝐺𝑁+1 𝑌𝑛+1 + 𝐿0 𝑋0 = 𝐿𝑁 𝑋𝑛 + 𝐺𝑌1
𝐿 𝐿
𝑌𝑛+1 = 𝑋𝑛 + 𝑌1 − 𝑋0 Operational line
𝐺 𝐺
Graphical Method for a Plate Gas-Absorption Tower
• In the case of absorption the operating line is above the equilibrium line:

• After plotting these lines, the stages are added

• The starting point is the composition of the

component in gas and liquid phases at the top of
the tower, (xF,y2)

• First stage is drawn by drawing a line parallel to

x-axis until it cuts equilibrium line. At this point a
line parallel to y-axis is drawn until it cuts
operating line

• This continues until the stages pass the

conditions at the bottom of the tower, (x1,yf)

• Number of stages is determined by adding the

steps. As with distillation, if a larger portion of the
last stage (A B < 1) is inside the boundaries, the
last stage should be added, if not it should not

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Graphical Method for a Plate Gas-Absorption Tower
• In the case of absorption the operating line is above the equilibrium line:

• After plotting these lines, the stages are added

• The starting point is the composition of the

component in gas and liquid phases at the top of
the tower, (xF,y2)

• First stage is drawn by drawing a line parallel to

x-axis until it cuts equilibrium line. At this point a
line parallel to y-axis is drawn until it cuts
operating line

• This continues until the stages pass the

conditions at the bottom of the tower, (x1,yf)

• Number of stages is determined by adding the

steps. As with distillation, if a larger portion of the
last stage (A B < 1) is inside the boundaries, the
last stage should be added, if not it should not

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Gas Stripping
• The number of stages required for gas stripping is determined
in the same way as above.

• The only difference is the location of the operating line.

• For stripping, the operating line is below the equilibrium line.

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Graphical Method for a Plate Gas-Stripping Tower

•The starting point is the composition of the component in the gas and liquid phase at the top of the tower, (xF,yn)

•First stage is drawn by drawing a line parallel to the y-axis until it cuts equilibrium line. At this point a line parallel to the x-
axis is drawn until it cuts the operating line

•This continues until the stages pass the conditions at the bottom of the tower, (x1,yf)

•Number of stages is determined by adding the steps.

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 Minimum Absorbent Flow Rate
• Operating lines for four different
absorbent flow rates are shown in Figure
6.9, where each operating line passes
through the terminal point, 𝑌1 , 𝑋0 , at the
top of the column, and corresponds to a
different liquid absorbent rate and
corresponding slope, 𝐿′ Τ𝐺 ′ .
 Minimum Absorbent Flow Rate
• To achieve the desired value of 𝑌1 for given 𝑌𝑁+1 , 𝑋0 , and 𝐺 ′ , the solute-free absorbent flow
rate 𝐿′ , must lie in the range of ∞ (operating line 1) to 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 (operating line 4).
• The value of the solute concentration in the outlet liquid, 𝑋𝑁 , depends on 𝐿′ by a material
balance on the solute for the entire absorber.
𝑋0 𝐿′ + 𝑌𝑁+1 𝐺 ′ = 𝑋𝑁 𝐿′ + 𝑌1 𝐺 ′ (2)
Or
𝐺 ′ 𝑌𝑁+1 − 𝑌1
𝐿′ = (3)
𝑋𝑁 − 𝑋0
• Note that the operating line can terminate at the equilibrium line, as for operating line 4, but
cannot cross it because that would be a violation of the second law of thermodynamics.
• The value of 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 corresponds to a value of 𝑋𝑁 (leaving the bottom of the tower) in
equilibrium with 𝑌𝑁+1 , the solute concentration in the feed gas.
• It takes an infinite number of stages for this equilibrium to be achieved.
 Minimum Absorbent Flow Rate
• An expression for 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 of an absorber can be derived from Eq (3) as follows. For N, Eq (1)
becomes, for the minimum absorbent rate,
𝑌𝑁+1 Τ 1 + 𝑌𝑁+1
𝐾𝑁 = (4)
𝑋𝑁 Τ 1 + 𝑋𝑁
• Solving Eq (4) for 𝑋𝑁 and substituting the result into Eq (3) gives
′ 𝐺 ′ 𝑌𝑁+1 − 𝑌1
𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (5)
𝑌𝑁+1 Τ 𝑌𝑁+1 𝐾𝑁 − 1 + 𝐾𝑁 − 𝑋0
• For dilute-solute conditions, where 𝑌 ≈ 𝑦 and X ≈ 𝑥, Eq (5) becomes
𝑦𝑁+1 − 𝑦
𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐺 ′ 𝑦 (6)
𝑁+1
𝐾𝑁 − 𝑥0
• Furthermore, if the entering liquid contains no solute, that is, 𝑋0 ≈ 0, Eq (6) becomes

𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐺 ′ 𝐾𝑁 (fraction of solute absorbed) (7)

 Minimum Absorbent Flow Rate
• Eq (7) is reasonable because it would be expected that 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 would increase with increasing 𝐺 ′ ,
K-value, and fraction of solute absorbed.
• The selection of the actual operating absorbent flow rate is based on some multiple of 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 ,
typically from 1.1 to 2.0.
• A value of 1.5 corresponds closely to the value of 1.4 for the optimal absorption factor.
• In Figure 6.9, operating lines 2 and 3 correspond to 2.0 and 1.5 times 𝐿′𝑚𝑖𝑛 , respectively.
• As the operating line moves from 1 to 4, the number of required equilibrium stages, N,
increases from zero to infinity.
• Thus, a trade-off exists between 𝐿′ and N, and an optimal value of 𝐿′ exists.
′
• A similar derivation of 𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛 , for the stripper, results in an expression analogous to Eq (8):
′ 𝐿′
𝐺𝑚𝑖𝑛 = (fraction of solute stripped) (8)
𝐾𝑁
Note
- Operating line - composition of passing streams

- Stream leaving a stage at equilibrium

- When transfer of material occurs from liquid to gas (e.g. distillation,

stripping) the operating line is below the equilibrium

- In absorption, the operating line is above the equilibrium line because the
solute is being transferred from gas to liquid.

- Calculation of the minimum L/G ratio (L/G min) is the slope of the line
that connects (Y1,Xo) to the intersection of the equilibrium line and YN+1.

- (L/G)min corresponds to the minimum liquid consumption in an absorption

column

- In very dilute systems Y ≈ y and X ≈ x

Example 1
Gas from a petroleum distillation column has its concentration of H2S
reduced from 0.0059 kmol/kmol inert hydrocarbon gas to 0.0003
kmol/kmol inert hydrocarbon gas by scrubbing with an amine-water
solvent in a counter-current tower, operating at 300K and at atmospheric
pressure. H2S is soluble in such a solution and the equilibrium relation
may be taken as 𝑌 = 2𝑋, where 𝑌 is the kmol of H2S per kmol of inert gas
and 𝑋 is the kmol of H2S per kmol of solvent. The solvent enters the
tower free of H2S and leaves containing 0.002456 kmol of H2S per kmol
solvent. If the flow of inert hydrocarbon gas is 0.015 kmol.m-2.s-1 of the
tower cross-section and the gas phase resistance controls the process,
calculate the height of absorption tower necessary and number of
transfer units required.

• 𝐾𝐺 𝑎 = 0.04 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑚−3 . 𝑠 −1

32
Solution
The gas outlet mole fraction is reduced to 1% of the inlet value,
which is 0.03 × 0.01 = 0.0003.

Material balance across the absorption tower

𝐺𝑀 𝑌1 − 𝑌2 = 𝐿𝑀 (𝑋1 − 𝑋2 ) (from Eq. 2.22 where 𝑋 and 𝑌 are
mole ratios)
0.015 0.0059 − 0.0003 = 𝐿𝑀 (0.002456 − 0)
𝐿𝑀 = 0.0342 𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙. 𝑚−2 . 𝑠 −1

Material balance over the bottom of the tower

𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑔𝑎𝑠
= 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝐺𝑀 𝑌 − 𝑌1 = 𝐿𝑀 𝑋 − 𝑋1

The operating line for the tower is thus

𝐿𝑀
𝑌= 𝑋 − 𝑋1 + 𝑌1
𝐺𝑀
0.0342
= 𝑋 − 0.002456 + 0.0059
0.015
= 2.28𝑋 + 0.0003

33
34
The number of transfer units is 9
35
The height of the transfer unit is
𝐺𝑀 0.015
𝐻𝑂𝐺 = = = 0.375 𝑚 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝐾𝐺 𝑎𝑃 0.04 1

The height of the transfer unit is

𝑍 = 𝑁𝑂𝐺 × 𝐻𝑂𝐺 = 9 × 0.375 = 3.375𝑚

36
Algebraic Method for Determining the Number of
Equilibrium Stages
• Graphical methods for determining equilibrium stages have great educational value
because a fairly complex multi-stage problem can be readily followed and understood.
• Furthermore, one can quickly gain visual insight into the phenomena involved.
• However, the application of a graphical method can become very tedious when
1) The problem specification fixes the number of stages rather than the percent
recovery of solute.
2) When more than one solute is being absorbed or stripped.
3) When the best operating conditions of temperature and pressure are to be
determined so that the location of the equilibrium curve is unknown, and/or
4) If very low or very high concentrations force the graphical construction to the
corners of the diagram so that multiple y-x diagrams of varying sizes and
dimensions are needed.
• Then, application of an algebraic method may be preferred.
• The Kremse/Group method is ideal for absorption and stripping of dilute mixtures.
 Analytical –Kremser Equation
𝑁
𝐿 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦 ∗
=
𝑚𝐺 𝑦1 − 𝑦 ∗
To solve for N:
𝑚𝐺 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦 ∗ 𝑚𝐺
ln 1− ∗ +
𝐿 𝑦1 − 𝑦 𝐿
𝑁=
𝐿
ln
𝑚𝐺
Where:
m = the gradient of the equilibrium curve equation in the form of y=mx+c
L = solvent flowrate
G = gas flowrate
𝑦𝑛+1 = inlet gas phase composition
𝑦1 = outlet gas composition
𝑦 ∗ = is the equilibrium concentration corresponding to X0

38
 Example 2
• Apply the Kremser equation to Example 1 to find the number of stages:
𝑚𝐺 𝑦𝑛+1 − 𝑦 ∗ 𝑚𝐺
ln 1− ∗ +
𝐿 𝑦1 − 𝑦 𝐿
𝑁=
𝐿
ln 𝑚𝐺
m=2
L/G = 2.28
𝑦𝑛+1 = 0.0059
𝑦1 = 0.0003
𝑦 ∗ = 2*0 = 0

0.0059 − 0
ln 1 − 2 × 0.438596 0.0003 − 0 + 2 × 0.438596
𝑁= =
2.28
ln 2

𝑁 = 9.09
39
 Analytical –Group Method
Multicomponent absorption and stripping, the group method is used to
determine the number of theoretical stages of a column.

Schematic diagram of an
absorber (a) and stripper
(b)

VN overall molar flowrate of the gas leaving stage N

νi,,N molar flowrate of the soluble component i of the gas that is being transferred to or from the liquid,
leaving stage N
yi mole fraction of the soluble component i in gas stream
LN overall molar flowrate of liquid leaving stage N
li,N molar flowrate of the soluble component i of the gas that is being transferred to or from the liquid,
leaving stage N
40
xi mole fraction of soluble component i in the liquid stream
Analytical –Group Method
Absorption factor
Stripping factor
Recovery factor

41
 Example 3
The heavier components have to be removed from a gas stream by absorption. The
column operates at 2 760 kPa. The entering liquid is high molecular mass oil. Estimate
the compositions and flow rates of the exit streams by using the method given above.
It can be assumed that the A and S values can be based on the entering values of L and
V (given in the table below), and that the K-values can be determined at the average top
and bottom temperatures of the absorber. There are six stages in the column and hence
N = 6.

42
 Solution
Lean gas, V1

lo v7 K
Oil, 32 ° C
(kmol/h) (kmol/h)
N=1
Lo CH4 (C1) - 160 6.65
C2H6(C2) - 370 1.64
C3H8(C3) - 240 0.584
n-C4H10(C4) 0.05 25 0.195
Feed gas, V7 N=6
n-C5H12(C5) 0.78 5 0.0713
40 ° C Oil 164.17 - 0.0001
Rich oil, L6
Total flowrate l0 = 165 V7 = 800

43
 Solution
l 165 0.206
Ai = = =
Ki V 800K i Ki

1
Si = = 4.85K i
Ai

Equation (18) and (20) are used to calculate the ϕAi ’s and ϕSi ’s.

Equation (15) is used to calculate the vi’s.

The following equation is used to calculate the l6 i’s:

𝑙𝑖 6 = 𝑙𝑖 0 + 𝑣𝑖 7 − 𝑣𝑖 1

44
 Solution
K A S ϕA ϕS v1 l6
(kmol/ h) (kmol/ h)h
C1 6.65 0.0309 - 0.969 - 155.0 5.0
C2 1.64 0.126 - 0.874 - 323.5 46.5
C3 0.584 0.353 - 0.647 - 155.4 84.6
C4 0.195 1.06 0.946 0.119 0.168 3.02 22.03
C5 0.0713 2.89 0.346 0.00112 0.654 0.28 5.5

Oil 0.0001 - 0.0005 - 0.9995 0.075 164.09

Total 637.275 327.725

C1
0.206 0.206
𝐴= = = 0.0309
𝐾 6.65

Ae − 1 Ae − 1 0.0309 − 1
ϕA = = = = 0.9691
AN+1
e −1 A7e − 1 0.03097 − 1
v1 = vN+1 ϕA = 160 × 0.9691 = 155.056 kmol/h
Oil
𝑆 = 4.85𝐾 = 4.85 × 0.0001 = 4.85 × 10−4
45
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• Absorption and stripping are frequently conducted in packed columns, particularly when:
1) The required column diameter is less than 2 ft;
2) The pressure drop must be low, as for a vacuum service;
3) Corrosion considerations favour the use of ceramic or polymeric materials; and/or
4) Low liquid holdup is desirable.
• Structured packing is often desired over random packing for revamps to overcome capacity
limitations of trayed towers.
• Packed columns are continuous differential contacting devices that do not have the physically
distinguishable stages found in trayed towers.
• Thus, packed columns are best analysed by mass transfer considerations rather than by the
equilibrium-stage concept for trayed towers.
• Nevertheless, in practice, packed-tower performance is often analysed on the basis of
equivalent equilibrium stages using a packed height equivalent to a theoretical (equilibrium)
plate (stage), called the HETP or HETS and defined by the equation:
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑑 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑙𝑇
𝐻𝐸𝑇𝑃 = = (9)
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑏𝑟𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑠 𝑁𝑡
• The HETP concept, unfortunately, has no theoretical basis.
• Accordingly, although HETP values can be related to mass transfer coefficients, such values are
best obtained by back-calculation from Eq (1) using experimental data from laboratory or
commercial-size columns.
• For packed columns, it is preferable to determine packed height from a more theoretically
based method involving mass-transfer coefficients for the liquid and vapour phases.
• As with cascades of equilibrium stages, countercurrent flow of vapour and liquid is generally
preferred over cocurrent flow.
• Consider the countercurrent-flow packed columns shown in Figure 6.29, which is analogous to
Figure for trayed towers.
• For packed absorbers and strippers, operating-line equation, that are analogous to those of
trayed towers can be derived in terms of mole fractions and total molar flow rates.
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• Thus, for the absorber in Figure 6.29a, a material balance around the upper envelope, for the
solute gives
𝑥𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑛 + 𝑦𝐺𝑙 = 𝑥𝐿𝑙 + 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 (10)

or solving for y, assuming dilute solutions such that 𝐺𝑙 = 𝐺𝑖𝑛 = 𝐺𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐺 and 𝐿𝑙 = 𝐿𝑖𝑛 =
𝐿𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 𝐿
𝐿 𝐿
𝑦=𝑥 + 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝑥𝑖𝑛 (11)
𝐺 𝐺

• Similarly for the stripper in Figure 6.29b,

𝐿 𝐿
𝑦=𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖𝑛 − 𝑥𝑜𝑢𝑡 (12)
𝐺 𝐺

• In Eqs (10) to (12), mole fractions y and x represent, respectively, bulk compositions of the gas
and liquid streams in contact with each other at any elevation of the packed part of the column.
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• For the case of absorption, with
mass transfer of the solute from the
gas stream to the liquid stream, the
two-film theory, can be applied as
illustrated in Figure 6.30.
• A concentration gradient exists in
each film.
• At the interface between the two
phases, physical equilibrium is
assumed to exist.
• Thus, as with trayed towers, an
operating line and an equilibrium
line are of great importance in a
packed column.
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• For a given problem specification, the location of the two lines is independent of whether the
tower is trayed or packed.
• Thus, the method for determining the minimum absorbent liquid or stripping vapour flow rates
in a packed column is identical to the method for trayed towers.
• The rate of mass transfer for absorption or stripping in a packed column can be expressed in
terms of mass transfer coefficients for each phase.
• Coefficients, k, based on a unit area for mass transfer could be used, but the area for mass
transfer in a packed bed is difficult to determine.
• Accordingly, as with mass transfer in the froth of a trayed tower, it is more common to use
volumetric mass transfer coefficients, ka, where the quantity a represents the area for mass
transfer per unit volume of packed bed.
• Thus, ka is based on a unit volume of packed bed.
• At steady state in an absorber, in the presence of chemical reactions, and since species moles
are conserved, the rate of solute mass transfer across the gas-phase film must equal the rate
across the liquid-phase film.
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• If the system is dilute with respect to the solute, unimolecular diffusion (UMD) may be
approximated by the simpler equations for equimolar counterdiffusion (EMD).
• The rate of mass transfer per unit volume of packed bed, r, may be written in terms of mole-
fraction driving forces in each of the two phases or in terms of a partial-pressure driving force
in the gas phase and a concentration driving force in the liquid phase, as indicated in Figure
6.30.
• Using the former with the subscript I to denote the interface:
𝑟 = 𝑘𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 − 𝑦I = 𝑘𝑥 𝑎 𝑥I − 𝑥 (13)

• The composition at the interface depends on the ratio, 𝑘𝑥 𝑎Τ𝑘𝑦 𝑎, of the volumetric mass
transfer coefficients, because Eq (13) can be rearranged to
𝑦 − 𝑦I 𝑘𝑥 𝑎
= (14)
𝑥 − 𝑥I 𝑘𝑦 𝑎

• Thus, a straight line of slope − 𝑘𝑥 𝑎Τ𝑘𝑦 𝑎 drawn from the operating line at point (y, x) intersects
the equilibrium curve at 𝑦I , 𝑥I .
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• This result is shown graphically in
Figure 6.31.
• The slope − 𝑘𝑥 𝑎Τ𝑘𝑦 𝑎 determines
the relative resistances of the two
phases to mass transfer.
• In Figure 6.31 the distance AE is
the gas-phase driving force
𝑦 − 𝑦I , while AF is the liquid-
phase driving force 𝑥 − 𝑥I .
• If the mass transfer resistance in
the gas phase is very low, 𝑦I is
approximately equal to y.
• Then, the resistance resides
entirely in the liquid phase.
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• This situation occurs in the absorption of a solute that is only slightly soluble in the liquid phase
(i.e. a solute with a high K-value) and is referred to as a liquid-film resistance-controlling
process.
• Alternatively, if the resistance in the liquid phase is very low, 𝑥I is approximately equal to x.
• This situation occurs in the absorption of a solute that is very soluble in the liquid phase (i.e. a
solute with a low K-value) and is referred to as gas-film resistance-controlling process.
• It is important to know if one of the two resistances is controlling.
• If so, the rate of mass transfer can be increased by promoting turbulence in and/or increasing
the dispersion of the controlling phase.
• To avoid the need to determine the composition at the interface between the two phases, overall
volumetric mass transfer coefficients can be defined in terms of overall driving forces for either
the gas phase or the liquid phase. Thus,
𝑟 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 − 𝑦 ∗ = 𝐾𝑥 𝑎 𝑥 ∗ − 𝑥 (15)
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• where, as shown in Figure 6.31, 𝑦 ∗ is the fictitious vapour mole fraction that is in equilibrium
with mole fraction , x, in the bulk liquid; and 𝑥 ∗ is the fictitious liquid mole fraction that is in
equilibrium with the mole fraction, y, in the bulk vapour.
• By combining Eq (13) to (15), the overall coefficients can be expressed in terms of the separate
coefficients for the two phases. Thus,
1 1 1 𝑦I − 𝑦 ∗
= + (16)
𝐾𝑦 𝑎 𝑘𝑦 𝑎 𝑘𝑥 𝑎 𝑥I − 𝑥

and
1 1 1 𝑥 ∗ − 𝑥I
= + (17)
𝐾𝑥 𝑎 𝑘𝑥 𝑎 𝑘𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 − 𝑦I

• However, from Figure 6.31, for dilute solutions when the equilibrium curve is approximately a
straight line through the origin,
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
𝑦I − 𝑦 ∗ ED
= =K (18)
𝑥I − 𝑥 BE
and
𝑥 ∗ − 𝑥I CF 1
= = (19)
𝑦 − 𝑦I FB K
where K is the K-value for the solute. Combining Eqs (16) with (18) and (17) with (19)
1 1 𝐾
= + (21)
𝐾𝑦 𝑎 𝑘𝑦 𝑎 𝑘𝑥 𝑎

and
1 1 1
= + (21)
𝐾𝑥 𝑎 𝑘𝑥 𝑎 𝐾𝑘𝑦 𝑎
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• Determination of the packed height of a column most commonly involves the overall gas-phase
coefficient, 𝐾𝑦 𝑎 because the liquid usually has a strong affinity for the solute so that resistance
to mass transfer is mostly in the gas.
• This is analogous to a trayed tower, where the tray efficiency from mass transfer considerations
is commonly based on 𝐾𝑂𝐺 𝑎 or 𝑁𝑂𝐺 .
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• Consider the countercurrent flow absorption column in
Figure 6.32.
• For a dilute system, a differential material balance for
the solute over a differential height of packing dl,
gives:
−𝐺𝑑𝑦 = 𝐾𝑦 𝑎 𝑦 − 𝑦 ∗ 𝑆𝑑𝑙 (22)

• where S is the cross-sectional area of the tower.

• In integral form, with nearly constant terms placed
outside the integral, Eq (22) becomes:
𝐾𝑦 𝑎𝑆 𝑙𝑇 𝐾𝑦 𝑎𝑆𝑙 𝑇 𝑦𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦
න 𝑑𝑙 = =න ∗ (23)
𝐺 0 𝐺 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑦
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• Solving for the packed height gives:
𝑦𝑖𝑛
𝐺 𝑑𝑦
𝑙𝑇 = න (24)
𝐾𝑦 𝑎𝑆 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑦 ∗

• Chilton and Colburn suggest that the right-hand side of Eq (24) be written as the product of two
terms:
𝑙 𝑇 = 𝐻𝑂𝐺 𝑁𝑂𝐺 (25)

where
𝐺
𝐻𝑂𝐺 = (26)
𝐾𝑦 𝑎𝑆

and
𝑦𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦
𝑁𝑂𝐺 = න ∗
(27)
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑦
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• The term 𝐻𝑂𝐺 is called the overall height of a transfer unit (HTU) based on the gas phase.
• Experimental data show that the HTU varies less with G than 𝐾𝑦 𝑎.
• The smaller the HTU, the more efficient is the contacting.
• The term 𝑁𝑂𝐺 is called the overall number of transfer units (NTU) based on the gas phase.
• It represents the overall change in solute mole fraction divided by the average mole fraction
driving force.
• The larger the NTU, the greater is the extent of contacting required.
• Eq (27) was first integrated by Colburn.
• By using the linear equilibrium condition 𝑦 ∗ = 𝐾𝑥 to eliminate 𝑦 ∗ and using the linear solute
material balance operating line, Eq (10), to eliminate x, the result is:

𝑦𝑖𝑛 𝑦𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
න ∗ =න
(28)
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑦 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 1 − 𝐾𝐺 Τ𝐿 𝑦 + 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝐾𝐺 Τ𝐿 − 𝐾𝑥𝑖𝑛
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• Letting 𝐿Τ𝐾𝐺 = 𝐴, the absorption factor, and integrating Eq (19), gives:
𝑙𝑛 𝐴 − 1 Τ𝐴 𝑦𝑖𝑛 − 𝐾𝑥𝑖𝑛 Τ 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 − 𝐾𝑥𝑖𝑛 + 1Τ𝐴
𝑁𝑂𝐺 = (29)
𝐴 − 1 Τ𝐴
• By applying Eqs (29) and (26), the required packed height, 𝑙 𝑇 , can be determined from Eq (25)
• The NTU (e.g. 𝑁𝑂𝐺 ) and the HTU (e.g. 𝐻𝑂𝐺 ) should not be confused with the number of
equilibrium (theoretical) stages, 𝑁𝑡 , and the HETP respectively.
• However, when the operating and equilibrium lines are not only straight but also parallel, NTU
= 𝑁𝑡 and HTU = HETP.
• Otherwise, the NTU is greater than or less than 𝑁𝑡 as shown in Figure 6.33 for the case of
absorption.
Rate-Based Method for Packed Columns
• When the operating and equilibrium lines are straight but not parallel, then:
𝑙𝑛 1Τ𝐴
HETP = 𝐻𝑂𝐺 (29)
1 − 𝐴 Τ𝐴
and
𝑙𝑛 1Τ𝐴
𝑁𝑂𝐺 = 𝑁𝑡 (30)
1 − 𝐴 Τ𝐴
• Although the most common applications of the HTU and NTU are based on Eqs (25) to (27)
and (29), a number of alternative groupings have been used, depending on the selected driving
force for mass transfer and whether the overall basis is the gas phase, as above, or the liquid
phase, where 𝐻𝑂𝐿 and 𝑁𝑂𝐿 apply.
Example 4
When molasses is fermented to produce a liquor containing ethyl alcohol, a CO2-rich vapour
containing a small amount of ethyl alcohol is evolved. The alcohol can be recovered by
absorption with water in a sieve-tray tower. The following conditions are applicable for a
countercurrent flow of liquid and gas, assuming isothermal, isobaric conditions in the tower and
neglecting mass transfer for all components except ethyl alcohol:
Entering gas:
180 kmol/h; 98% CO2, 2% ethyl alcohol; 30 oC, 110 kPa
Entering liquid absorbent:
100% water; 30 oC, 110 kPa
Required recovery (absorption) of ethyl alcohol: 97%
Use an entering liquid flow of 1.5 times the minimum value. The absorption tower is packed with
1.5-in. metal Pall rings. If 𝐻𝑂𝐺 = 2.0 ft, compute the required packed height.
Solution
• From Example 1, G = 180 kmol/h, L = 151.5 kmol/h, 𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 0.020, 𝑥𝑖𝑛 = 0.0, and K = 0.57.
• For 97% recovery of ethyl alcohol, by material balance,
0.03 0.02 180
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 = = 0.000612
180 − 0.97 0.02 180
𝐿 151.5
𝐴= = = 1.477
𝐾𝐺 0.57 180
𝑦𝑖𝑛 0.020
= = 32.68
𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 0.000612

𝑙𝑛 1.477−1 Τ1.477 32.68 + 1Τ1.477

𝑁𝑂𝐺 = = 7.5 transfer units
1.477−1 Τ1.477
• The packed height, is

𝑙 𝑇 = 2.0 7.5 = 15 ft

• Note that 𝑁𝑡 for this example was determined in Example 1 to be about 6.1.
• The value of 7.5 for 𝑁𝑂𝐺 is greater than 𝑁𝑡 because the slope of the operating line, 𝐿Τ𝐺, is
greater than the slope of the equilibrium line, K, so Figure 6.33b applies.
Example 5
Experimental data have been obtained for air containing 1.6% by volume SO2 being scrubbed
with pure water in a packed column of 1.5 m2 in cross-sectional area and 3.5 m in packed height.
Entering gas and liquid flow rates are 0.062 and 2.2 kmol/s, respectively. If the outlet mole
fraction of SO2 in the gas is 0.004 and column temperature is near ambient with 𝐾 𝑂2 = 40,
calculate from the data:
a) The 𝑁𝑂𝐺 for absorption of SO2
b) The 𝐻𝑂𝐺 in meters
c) The volumetric overall mass transfer coefficient, 𝐾𝑦 𝑎 for SO2 in kmolΤm3 − s − ∆y .
Solution
a) Assume a straight operating line because the system is dilute in SO2
𝐿 2.2
𝐴 = 𝐾𝐺 = 40 0.0672
= 0.89 𝑦𝑖𝑛 = 0.016 𝑦𝑜𝑢𝑡 = 0.004
From Eq (6-89),

𝑙𝑛 0.89 − 1 Τ0.89 0.016Τ0.004 + 1Τ0.89

𝑁𝑂𝐺 = = 3.75
0.89 − 1 Τ0.89

b) 𝑙 𝑇 = 3.5 m. From Eq (6-85), 𝐻𝑂𝐺 = 𝑙 𝑇 Τ𝑁𝑂𝐺 = 3.5Τ3.75 = 0.93 m

c) G = 0.062 kmol/s, S = 1.5 m2.
From Eq (6-86), 𝐾𝑦 𝑎 = 𝐺 Τ𝐻𝑂𝐺 𝑆 = 0.062Τ 0.93 1.5 = 0.044 kmolΤm3 − s − ∆y
 Self study
Sizing and Hydraulics

Prescribed text book:

“Chemical Engineering: Particle technology and
Separation Processes”. Coulson and Richardson, 5th
Edition, Vol 1 & 2, Butterworth-Heinemann.

Volume 2- Chapter 12

70