Research

Methodology
Semester I, MBA (Communication Management)
Batch: 2021-23
Faculty: Mudita Mishra
 Why study research: The specifics

The subjects you have studied so far

The endeavours you will embark upon
https://techcrunch.com/2019/01/03/netflix-
gives-a-behind-the-scenes-look-at-the-
making-of-bandersnatch-in-a-new-video/
 Where’s the research?

Think about research behind a biopic, an inspired by events film, a

fiction book, or an autobiography.

Think about art such as painting.

Think about theoretical physics.
Think about the digital space we are in.
 Once upon a time

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4366892

https://hbr.org/1985/05/backward-market-
research
Spot the research
around you
The soup Swiggy-Zomato are
in, served by truly theirs-
delivery ‘partners’
FICCI EY report
Dynamic research to aid
consumer insights
 Links to build a link

• https://www.financialexpress.com/brandwa
gon/dell-emerges-as-indias-most-desired-
brand-tra-research/2299636/
What is research, then?
 The method to the
madness
Problem definition

Research design

Develop tools for research

Data collection

Data analysis

Reporting
‘But what’s a process without a flowchart- and a
hefty looking one at that?’

- A research teacher, circa 2021

 This is where
literature review
That’s where the could happen
research process
starts
That’s where the
literature review
usually happens
Case based examples
Theory, Concepts, Proposition & Hypothesis:
Towards a Problem Definition
•Abstract level (concepts & propositions):
Levels of Reality
In theory development, the level of

knowledge expressing a concept that exists

only as an idea or a quality apart from an

object.

•Empirical level (variables & hypotheses):

Level of knowledge reflecting that which is

•A generalizedConcept
idea about a class of

objects, attributes, occurrences, or

processes that has been given a name

•Building blocks that abstract reality

•“leadership,” “productivity,” and

“morale”

•“gross national product,” “asset,” and

 Proposition

•Proposition is a statement concerned

with the relationship among concepts.

(morale and productivity)

 Hypothesis and variable
•A hypothesis is a proposition that is

empirically testable. It is an empirical

statement concerned with the

relationship among variables.

•A variable is anything that may assume

different numerical values.
 Identify the
concepts- and the
proposition
The Ken
 Theory Development
Deductive reasoning moves from

generalized principles that are known to be

true to a true and specific conclusion

–We know that all teachers are human beings.

–If we also know that Mudita is a teacher,
–then we can deduce that Mudita is a human
being.
 Theory
•Inductive Development
reasoning moves from

specific instances into a generalized

conclusion

– All teachers that have ever been seen by me

are human beings; (Yesterday I saw Mudita,

she looked human enough, interacting with

other human teachers)

– Therefore, all teachers in the world must be

 About Us

Research Methodology

2 credits

100 marks - 60/40

2 assignments

William Zikmund
Your assignment starts
today
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

SESSION 2

MUDITA MISHRA
EXERCISE

Operational definitions/Operationalizing the concepts

CAN YOU LIST OUT POSSIBLE
CONCEPTS AND PROPOSITIONS
HERE?

• The Ken Story

CAN YOU LIST OUT POSSIBLE
CONCEPTS AND PROPOSITIONS
HERE?
• Harley-Davidson Goes Abroad
Before Harley-Davidson elaborates expansion strategies
overseas, it must perform considerable research on that market.
Consumers in some countries might prefer economical and
practical motor bikes (e.g., France or Italy); others might find
Harley more prestigious or luxury (India). Harley learned that
positive consumer opinions and a growing economy (pre-Covid)
were not enough to move into India because high duties (taxes)
would make them cost prohibitive. One opportunity for Harley
was to investigate the growing U.S. women’s market for bikes.
CAN YOU LIST OUT POSSIBLE
CONCEPTS AND PROPOSITIONS
HERE?
• Swifter or Swiffer?
Procter & Gamble conducted research aimed at designing a
better mop and learned that consumers didn’t want to mop
at all. Mopping was time consuming, boring, and messy, and
they wanted to throw away their mops. The result was
Swiffer, the chemically treated cloths that pick up dirt like a
magnet and can be thrown away. This research led to other
types of disposable cleaning products (e.g., toilet brushes).
Defining the Problem
The formulation of the problem is often more essential than
its solution.

-Albert Einstein
 The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the Determine unit of
decision maker’s analysis
objectives

Understand Determine
background of relevant variables
the problem

Isolate/identify State research

the problem, not questions and
the symptoms objectives
ASCERTAIN THE DECISION
MAKER’S OBJECTIVES
• (Managerial) goals expressed in measurable terms
• The Iceberg Principle
• Exercising judgment
• Situation analysis
 Isolate and Identify the Problems, Not
the Symptoms
Problem Definition
Organization Symptoms Based on Symptom True Problem

Twenty-year-old Membership has been Neighborhood Demographic changes:

neighborhood declining for years. residents prefer the Children in this 20-year-
swimming New water park with expensive water park old neighborhood have
association in a wave pool and water and have negative grown up. Older
major city slides moved into image of swimming residents no longer
town a few years ago. pool. swim anywhere.
DETERMINE THE UNIT OF
ANALYSIS (SAMPLE DEFINITION)
• Individuals, households, organizations, etc.
• In many studies, the family rather than the individual is the
appropriate unit of analysis.
CAN YOU ADD MORE FACTORS
AIDING IN FORMULATION OF
PROBLEM DEFINITION?
• What is the purpose of the study?
• How much is already known?
• Is additional background information necessary?
• What is to be measured? How?
• Can the data be made available?
• Should research be conducted?
• Can a hypothesis be formulated?
• Sometimes, reverse engineering your way up to the problem works – Who will
study? What will I ask them? What do I want them to answer?
AND THE FINAL AID IN CLEARLY
DEFINING THE PROBLEM…

Literature Review (is academic in orientation):

• For Theoretical Framework

• For Methodological Framework
AN INFORMAL ‘LITERATURE’ REVIEW
TO ARRIVE AT THE PROBLEM
DEFINITION
• Current News
• Blogs/Articles
• Industry Reports

1. Thematization of various categories under which topic is

covered
2. Selecting the topic
RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY
THEORY, CONCEPTS, PROPOSITION, HYPOTHESIS-
TOWARDS PROBLEM DEFINITION

MUDITA MISHRA
 1. DEFİNİTİON OF THEORY

A coherent set of general propositions used as principles of

explanation of the apparent relationships of certain
observed phenomena.

Two Purposes of Theory:

• Understanding
• Prediction
2. LEVELS OF REALİTY

• Abstract level (concepts & propositions): in theory development, the

level of knowledge expressing a concept that exists only as an idea or a
quality apart from an object.

• Empirical level (variables & hypotheses): level of knowledge reflecting

that which is verifiable by experience or observation.
2.1. CONCEPT (OR CONSTRUCT)

• A generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,

occurrences, or processes that has been given a name
• Building blocks that abstract reality
• “leadership,” “productivity,” and “morale”
• “gross national product,” “asset,” and “inflation”
A LADDER OF ABSTRACTION
FOR CONCEPTS

Increasingly more abstract

Vegetation

Fruit

Banana

Reality
2.2. PROPOSITIONS

• Propositions are statements concerned with the relationships among

concepts.

• A hypothesis is a proposition that is

empirically testable. It is an empirical
statement concerned with the relationship
among variables.
• A variable is anything that may assume
different numerical values.
 PROPOSITION AT ABSTRACT LEVEL

Concept A Concept B
(Reinforcement) (Habits)

Hypothesis at Empirical Level

Dollar bonus for

sales volume Always makes
over quota four sales calls
a day
HOW TO BUILD A THEORY?
3.1. DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Deductive reasoning moves from generalized principles that are

known to be true to a true and specific conclusion

• We know that all managers are human beings.

• If we also know that Mr. Das is a manager,
• then we can deduce that Mr. Das is a human being.
3.2. INDUCTIVE REASONING
• Inductive reasoning moves from specific instances into a
generalized conclusion
• All managers that have ever been seen are human beings; (Yesterday
I saw Mr. Das, he looked human enough, interacting with other
human managers, namely, A, B, and C)
• Therefore, all managers are human beings.
Operational definitions/Operationalizing the concepts
CAN YOU LIST OUT POSSIBLE
CONCEPTS AND PROPOSITIONS
HERE?

• The Ken Story

CAN YOU LIST OUT POSSIBLE
CONCEPTS AND PROPOSITIONS
HERE?
• Harley-Davidson Goes Abroad
Before Harley-Davidson elaborates expansion strategies
overseas, it must perform considerable research on that market.
Consumers in some countries might prefer economical and
practical motor bikes (e.g., France or Italy); others might find
Harley more prestigious or luxury (India). Harley learned that
positive consumer opinions and a growing economy (pre-Covid)
were not enough to move into India because high duties (taxes)
would make them cost prohibitive. One opportunity for Harley
was to investigate the growing U.S. women’s market for bikes.
CAN YOU LIST OUT POSSIBLE
CONCEPTS AND PROPOSITIONS
HERE?
• Swifter or Swiffer?
Procter & Gamble conducted research aimed at designing a
better mop and learned that consumers didn’t want to mop
at all. Mopping was time consuming, boring, and messy, and
they wanted to throw away their mops. The result was
Swiffer, the chemically treated cloths that pick up dirt like a
magnet and can be thrown away. This research led to other
types of disposable cleaning products (e.g., toilet brushes).
Defining the Problem
The formulation of the problem is often more essential than
its solution.

-Albert Einstein
 The Process of
Problem Definition
Ascertain the Determine unit of
decision maker’s analysis
objectives

Understand Determine
background of relevant variables
the problem

Isolate/identify State research

the problem, not questions and
the symptoms objectives
ASCERTAIN THE DECISION
MAKER’S OBJECTIVES
• (Managerial) goals expressed in measurable terms
• The Iceberg Principle
• Exercising judgment
• Situation analysis
 Isolate and Identify the Problems, Not
the Symptoms
Problem Definition
Organization Symptoms Based on Symptom True Problem

Twenty-year-old Membership has been Neighborhood Demographic changes:

neighborhood declining for years. residents prefer the Children in this 20-year-
swimming New water park with expensive water park old neighborhood have
association in a wave pool and water and have negative grown up. Older
major city slides moved into image of swimming residents no longer
town a few years ago. pool. swim anywhere.
DETERMINE THE UNIT OF
ANALYSIS (SAMPLE DEFINITION)
• Individuals, households, organizations, etc.
• In many studies, the family rather than the individual is the
appropriate unit of analysis.
CAN YOU ADD MORE FACTORS
AIDING IN FORMULATION OF
PROBLEM DEFINITION?
• What is the purpose of the study?
• How much is already known?
• Is additional background information necessary?
• What is to be measured? How?
• Can the data be made available?
• Should research be conducted?
• Can a hypothesis be formulated?
• Sometimes, reverse engineering your way up to the problem works – Who will
study? What will I ask them? What do I want them to answer?
AND THE FINAL AID IN CLEARLY
DEFINING THE PROBLEM…

Literature Review (is academic in orientation):

• For Theoretical Framework

• For Methodological Framework
AN INFORMAL ‘LITERATURE’ REVIEW
TO ARRIVE AT THE PROBLEM
DEFINITION
• Current News
• Blogs/Articles
• Industry Reports

1. Thematization of various categories under which topic is

covered
2. Selecting the topic
Literature review
A D I S C U S S IO N
The Next Step in the Research Process…
Defining ‘Literature Review’

➢A literature review is a comprehensive summary of previous research on a topic. The literature

review surveys scholarly articles, books, and other sources relevant to a particular area of
research (https://guides.library.bloomu.edu/litreview).

➢A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources that provides an overview of a particular

topic. Literature reviews are a collection of the most relevant and significant publications
regarding that topic in order to provide a comprehensive look at what has been said on the topic
and by whom (https://writingcenter.ashford.edu/writing-literature-review).
Why is a Literature Review needed?
A Literature review helps in establishing the following:

➢Theoretical Framework (set of guiding theories for a particular research work)

➢Conceptual Framework (concept/construct identification and operationalization, leading to
variable identification etc.)
➢Methodological Framework (a guiding research methodology for a particular research work,
including approaches, methods of data collection and analysis etc.)
Why is a Literature Review needed?
(contd.)
A Literature review helps in establishing the following:

➢Research Gaps (What’s known/not known/why is it important to know; “identifying the gap
isn't important, it’s identifying why filling the gap is important” for journal publications; source:
(https://guides.library.harvard.edu/literaturereview)
➢Positioning of one’s research in a validated model
➢Significance of the area of one’s research
 The Mechanics of it:
How to find papers and articles for the review?
1. Sources: Research paper databases, University library databases, independent open access networking sites like research gate etc.

2. What to search for in these sources?

➢ A review should start with the research area, and not your exact topic!
➢ Identify the phrases/ key words you would want to base your search of literature on.
➢You may start by searching directly in search engines (add the acronym pdf for better results), and then then in the sources as
mentioned above
➢ It is okay to read studies that fall outside the geographical scope of your research; they might still help you with concepts and
framework identification as discussed earlier)
The Mechanics of it:
How to organize and manage the collected
literature (optional step, but useful)
➢Go Freestyle!
➢ Create an annotated bibliography (a list of your references with a summary of the content and
the publication’s relationship to your research question
(https://writingcenter.ashford.edu/writing-literature-review))
S. no. Citation (APA style)
1.
Dwi vedi, Y. K., Ka poor, K. K., & Chen, H.
(2015). Soci al media marketing and
a dvertising. The Marketing
Revi ew, 15(3), 289-309.
2.
As hl ey, C., & Tuten, T. (2015). Crea tive
s tra tegies in s ocial media marketing: An
expl oratory s tudy of branded s ocial
content and consumer
enga gement. Ps ychology &
Ma rketing, 32(1), 15-27.
Annotation Theme, if any
Soci al media as a n impactful channel of
communication i n these modern times of
di gi tized l iving. Facilitates participatory
i nteraction a mongst businesses, groups,
s oci eties, organizations, consumers,
communities, forums, and the like. This
s ubject has received increased attention Both talk about the
i n the literature with many of i ts practical i mportance of social media as
a pplications including social media the rel evant platform of
ma rketing fa ci litating s pecific kinds of
Ta l ks a bout importance of frequent promotions, possibly even
upda tes a nd i ncentives for participation. s ocially themed.
Di s cussion of strategies were associated
wi th customer engagement, s pecifically
experiential, i mage, and exclusivity
mes sages. Despite the value of these
crea tive approaches, most branded s ocial
content can be categorized as functional.
 How to arrange and write the review?
➢Cosmetic Arrangement of review: chronological or thematic
➢Writing of the review :
i. Understand, analyze, critique and synthesize
(http://gseacademic.harvard.edu/~instruct/gutman_library/litreview/process/player.html)
ii. Synthesize: ‘make a whole of the parts’; the implications of synthesis may be different in
context of your study. Write in your own expression- it is your communication of your
understanding of the work done in that area and its implications for your research.
Are you back to square one? Worry not.
➢A literature review exercise could make you ponder on the finer points of your chosen research
area/topic.

➢Since your objectives and hypothesis are still not concretized, you can afford to revisit and
reconsider.
Experiential Learning!
➢Writing a literature review is not as simple as slide 7 makes it look !

➢Practicing to write reviews is the only way to accomplish producing good literature reviews

➢Look out for exercises and other aids to experience the steps of Literature Review first hand

➢To get you started:

https://content.bridgepointeducation.com/curriculum/file/bdd26ae5-871f-489f-8d46-
d47aaac1885e/1/Sample%20Literature%20Review.pdf
All the best and happy reviewing!
SURVEY RESEARCH

Mudita Mishra
SAMPLE SURVEY
Survey research is a method to
collect __________based on a communication with a
representative sample of individuals called
_________.
EFFECTIVE SURVEY SHOULD HAVE:
 Clarity
 Completability

 Processability

 Analyzability

 Timeliness
WHAT WOULD A SURVEY RESEARCH
MEASURE

 Type of information collected depends on the

objective:
- Char. of target markets
- Customer attitudes
- Consumer purchase patterns
- ? Any other
WHAT WOULD A SURVEY RESEARCH
MEASURE

 Who, What , Where, When

 How/Why
ALTERNATIVES TO SURVEY RESEARCH?
Errors in Survey Research
SOURCE: W. ZIKMUND, BRM, PAGE 205
NON-RESPONSE ERROR
 Non-respondents
 No contacts

 Refusals

 Self-selection bias (eg. in a restaurant, only

extremes respond, not indifferent respondents)
RESPONSE BIAS
 Skewed/influenced answers that misrepresent
the truth
 Deliberate falsification (intell., conceal,
embar., boredom, perceived expect., please) – avg.
person hypothesis
 Unconscious misrepresentation (might not have
exp. other brand, forgotten, misunderstood,
inability of expression, time lapse)
TYPES OF RESPONSE BIAS
Pl. refer. chart
TOOLS OF SURVEY RESEARCH
 Interactive
 Non-Interactive
CLASSIFICATION ON BASIS OF:
 Structured/Unstructured/Hybrid
 Disguised (proj. tech.)/Undisguised
CLASSIFICATION ON BASIS OF:
 Temporal nature
-Cross Sectional
-Longitudinal (tracking study/consumer panel)
Preparing the draft of
Research Design

Mudita Mishra
What to keep in mind when defining
the research design of your paper…
 RD based on LR- methodology section
 RD based on LR within LR
 RD based on objectives in proposal
The good ol’ research process

 https://s3.studentvip.com.au/notes/14786-sample.pdf?v=1509670105
Naming the research design

 Exploratory
 Descriptive
 Experimental/Causal/Correlational

 Ethnographic (collective)
 Phenomenological (individual)

❖ Epistemological positions for paradigms

Want combinations?

 Sequential Exploratory
 Sequential Explanatory
 Concurrent MMR

o Dig deeper in LR…

o The Question of Qualitative and Quantitative: Mixed Methods Research
Sampling design: the three questions

 Who ?
 How ?
 How many?

I. Define the population- Theoretical/Study

II. Define the sampling frame to arrive at sample
Layers to Population and Sample
Sampling Techniques
 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f69b/7459a56fafb89750200325902d511982
4ab0.pdf
 https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/8bca/c0a5cb8de936ecbc6808884114f83
da5068d.pdf (129)
 https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/patterson/files/cricket_asr_final.pdf (86)
study population
Research tools

 Tools of data collection decided by the RD

 Tools of data collection decided by the objectives
 Questions within the tools to be tied to the objectives (survey questionnaire
/ interview discussion guide)
 Basic questions to be covered as freebie- allows for possible association or
causality later
Assignment I

 Define your research problem (1 mark)

 Enumerate the objectives (1 mark)
 Do a secondary data research (5 non-academic sources; 300 words) (4
marks)
 Do a literature review (10 academic papers; 500 words) (6 marks)
 Identify the tentative research design (4 marks)
 Identify the sampling design (4 marks)
Upcoming sessions

 Reliability and Validity of research instruments

 Survey research
 Errors in survey research
 Research Tools –Qualitative and Quantitative
DATA COLLECTION: A BASIC OVERVIEW

Mudita Mishra
HAVE YOU IDENTIFIED YOUR METHODOLOGICAL
FRAMEWORK?
 The literature review
 Any other sources that shed light on data collection (and analysis)

 General overview of the data collection (and analysis) in the

domain of your research over years
 Identifying some models/frameworks:

Manovich, Lev. "New Media From Borges to HTML". The New Media Reader. Ed.
Noah Wardrip-Fruin & Nick Montfort. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2003. 13–
25. (numerical representation, modularity of structure and independence,
automation, variability of versions, transcoding across formats and display)
SECONDARY DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS (ONE FORM:
CONTENT ANALYSIS)

 Literature review analysis

 Meta data analysis

 Industry report analysis

 Media analysis
MAPPING INVESTIGATION QUESTIONS WITH OBJECTIVES
 O1: Q1, Q2
 O2: Q3, Q4, Q5

 O3: Q6, Q7, Q8

 O4: Q9, Q10, Q11

PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

 Survey Questionnaires (structured/semi structured; 10-12 questions;

creation of questions based on concepts and objectives; scaling, MCQs,
binary?; sample size)

 In-depth interviews (structured/semi structured; interview guide; creation

of questions based on concepts and objectives; duration; any recording
or physically; sample size)

 **Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) (structured/semi structured; FGD guide;

based on concepts and objectives; duration; video only recording or
physically; sample size)

**expertise or moderator required

TIMELINES
 Create a pilot and send out
 See if it is revealing the same insights as you sought in your objectives

 See if you think you’d be able to make meaningful interpretations from

the data collected (Google Forms will generate Google Sheet, or Interview
will generate themes)
 Send out the final questions
SOME THINGS TO REMEMBER
 Basic details
 Opening questions

 Only ask one question.

 The question must be worded appropriately for the target

population.
 The question must be clear and unambiguous.

 Make the question simple to understand.

 Avoid unnecessary adjectives and adverbs.

 Leading/Loaded questions
ISSUES OF RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY
 Consistency
 Actuality
Experimental Research
Designs
Mudita Mishra
Symbolisms in Experimental Research Designs
• X = exposure of a group to an experimental treatment
• O = observation or measurement of the dependent variable (O1, O2,
O3 for temporal order)
• R = random assignment of sample units
• Experimental group
• Control group
• Left to right time flow
Pretest-Posttest Control-Group Design
• (Before--After with Control group)

• Experimental group: R O1 X O2
• Control group: R O3 O4
• The effect of experimental treatment is calculated as (O2-O1) – (O4-
O3)
Posttest only Control Group Design
• (After-only Control Group)
• Experimental group: R X O1
• Control group: R O2
• The effect of experimental treatment is calculated as (O2-O1)
Recap of the process (and topics)
• What is Research
• Understanding Research Process
• Problem Definition
• Research Design (Survey, Observation, Experimental)
• Data Collection Tools
• Sampling Designs
• Data Analysis – Descriptive; Inferential: Univariate (t, z, chi square),
Bivariate (t, z, chi square, ANOVA-F test), Correlation, Regression,
Multivariate Analysis (Multiple Regression, Discriminant Analysis,
MANOVA, Factor Analysis)
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
DESIGN
Mudita Mishra
WHAT IS RESEARCHING BY OBSERVATION
 A process where the researcher observes and
systematically records the activities of various
individuals to describe their behaviors

 No questioning or communicating with people is

needed
OBSERVATION AS A TOOL FOR SCIENTIFIC
INQUIRY

1. Observation serves a formulated research

purpose

2. The observation is planned systematically

3. The observation is recorded systematically, and

is related to general propositions, rather than
simply reflecting a set of interesting curiosities

4. The observation is subjected to checks and

controls on validity and reliability
WHAT CAN BE OBSERVED?
PHYSICAL ACTION
 A worker’s movement during an assembly
process
VERBAL BEHAVIOUR
 Statements made by airline passengers while
waiting in line
EXPRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR
 Facial expressions, tones of voices and forms of
body language
SPATIAL RELATIONS AND LOCATIONS
 Proximity of manager’s office to president’s office
TEMPORAL PATTERNS
 Length of time it takes to execute a stock
purchase order
PHYSICAL OBJECTS
 Percentage of recycled materials compared to
trash
VERBAL AND PICTORIAL RECORDS
 Number of illustrations appearing in a training
booklet
NATURE OF OBSERVATION STUDIES
 Visible observation

 Hidden observation
BEHAVIORAL OBSERVATION
 Direct observation and systematic recording of
behaviors, usually in natural settings

 Unobtrusive observations
 Subject reactivity

 Subjective interpretation by observer

 Reliability issues
COUNTERING THE PROBLEM OF
SUBJECTIVITY
 Operational definition of behaviour
 Behavioral categories
 Well trained observers
 List behaviour of interest
 Videotape
 Multiple observers to assess inter-rater
reliability
EXAMPLE OF OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
 https://www.noldus.com/blog/two-examples-of-on-
site-observational-studies-with-elderly-people
 http://www.open.edu/openlearn/ocw/pluginfile.ph
p/629639/mod_resource/content/1/t211_1_5.pdf
BEHAVIOUR RECORDING PARAMETERS
 Frequency
 Number of times a behaviour is emitted
 Duration
 Amount of time spent engaged in the behaviour
 Interval
 Dividing observation period into intervals and noting
whether behaviour occurred in certain intervals or
not
SAMPLING OBSERVATIONS
 Take samples of potential observations rather
than watch/record everything
 Divide observation period into time intervals
 Time sampling: observing for one interval, then
pausing during the next interval
 Event sampling: specific behaviour recorded and then
onto next behaviour
 Individual sampling: one participant per interval
OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH INTEGRATED
WITH CONTENT ANALYSIS

 Video content analysis (Semiotics, CDA,

Narrative Analysis)

 https://hiltondesignblog.wordpress.com/2015/11/0
5/introduction-to-semiotics/
 https://www.sevanoland.com/cultural-
semiotics.html
 https://www.flickr.com/photos/gforsythe/8623886
644
 https://www.researchgate.net/figure/A-typology-
of-narrative-analyses_fig1_248912857
NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
 Researcher observes behavior in a natural setting
as unobtrusively as possible

 Participants may or may not know that they're

being observed.

 One way mirror, FGD

https://twitter.com/amycaram/status/79676253787430
0928

 Goodall (1971, 1986) https://janegoodall.org/

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
 Researcher engages in the same activities as
people being observed

 Mystery Shoppers

 Rosenhan (1973) investigated experiences of

mental patients and patient-staff interactions in
psychiatric hospital
https://www.newscientist.com/definition/the-
rosenhan-experiment/
CONTRIVED OBSERVATION
 Researcher sets up situation that is likely to
produce the behavior

 Participants asked to come into laboratory

 Natural setting manipulated in field experiments

QUALITATIVE DATA
IMPORTANT TOPICS

 THICK data in relation to BIG data

 Qualitative Research: Overview, background, approach and scope

 Data Analysis in Qual. Research: Coding process, examples, exercises

 Introduction to Narrative Inquiry & Phenomenology

 Introduction to Grounded Theory

 Netnography (ethnography)
OVERVIEW
“Why do so many companies
make bad decisions, even with
access to unprecedented
amounts of data? With stories
from Nokia to Netflix to the
oracles of ancient Greece, Tricia
Wang demystifies big data and
identifies its pitfalls, suggesting
that we focus instead on "thick
data" -- precious, unquantifiable
insights from actual people -- to
make the right business
decisions and thrive in the
unknown.” –Tricia Wang,
Technology Ethnographer, TED
Talk, Sept,2016
HOW THICK DATA CHANGED NETFLIX
 Being
aware that relying only on Big Data creates distorted
images of users/clients, Netflix opted for a Thick Data
perspective and contacted a well-known anthropologist,
Grant McCraken.

 McCraken lived with Netflix users around the world, building

ethnographic knowledge about changes in viewers patterns,
domestic culture, and offline relationships.
HOW THICK DATA CHANGED NETFLIX

 While Netflix algorithms pointed to how we interacted with the

platform, McCraken concentrated on writing the full experience,
gaining an enormous amount of contextual data and new lines of
innovation.
 In McCraken’s research, he discovered that users liked to watch
chapter after chapter of the same series, the famous
“binging”.
 One would think that after doing this, the users would feel “bad” to
spend hours and hours in front of the TV but … They loved it!
 And Netflix said … “Wow, this is new.”
 THE CURIOUS CASE OF LEGO GROUP
 LEGO, a successful company, was near collapse in the early
2000s because they lost touch with their customers.

 Afterfailed attempts to reposition the company with action

figures and other concepts, CEO of the Danish Lego firm,
decided to engage in a major qualitative research project.
THE CURIOUS CASE OF LEGO GROUP
 Children in five major global cities were studied to help Lego better
understand the emotional needs of children in relation to Legos.

 After evaluating hours of video recordings of children playing with

Legos, a pattern emerged. Rather than the instant gratification of
toys like action figures, Children were passionate about the
“play experience” and the process of playing. Children
valued the experience of imagining and creating.

 The results were clear; Lego needed to go back to marketing its

traditional building blocks and focus less on action figures and
toys. Today, Lego is once again a successful company, and thick
data proved to be its savior.
WHEN DO YOU CONDUCT A
QUALITATIVE STUDY?
 Michael Quinn Patton (2002) said, “Qualitative analysis
transforms data into findings. No formula exists for that
transformation. Guidance, yes. But no recipe. Direction can
and will be offered, but the final destination remains unique
for each inquirer, known only when—and if—arrived at” (p.
432).
BIG
PICTURE
RESEARCH QUESTION:
Steps to developing a research question:
1) Choose an interesting general topic.
2) Do some preliminary research on your general topic.
3) Consider your audience.
4) Start asking questions.

Is your research question clear? Is your

research question focused? Is your
research question complex?
EXAMPLES: RESEARCH QUESTIONS
 Unclear: Why are social networking sites harmful?
 Clear: How are online users experiencing or addressing privacy issues
on such social networking sites as MySpace and Facebook?

 Unfocused: What is the effect on the environment from global

warming?
 Focused: How is glacial melting affecting penguins in the Arctic
Circle?

 Too simple: How are doctors addressing diabetes in India?

 Appropriately Complex: What are common traits of those suffering
from diabetes in India, and how can these commonalities be used to aid
the medical community in prevention of the disease?
POTENTIAL RESEARCH APPROACH BASED ON RESEARCH Q:
SAMPLE SIZE IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:

For an Ethnography, Morse (1994) suggested

approximately 30 – 50 participants.
For Grounded Theory: Morse (1994)
suggested 30 – 50 interviews, while Creswell
(1998) suggested only 20 – 30.
For Phenomenological Studies, Creswell
(1998) recommends 5 – 25 interviews and
Morse (1994) suggests at least six.
 DATA ANALYSIS IN QUAL. RESEARCH:

“Coding is like using a LEGO bricks to make an art. It

always starts with using meaningless pieces of bricks
to create meaningful piece of art.”

Coding is a process of identifying a passage in the text

or other data items, searching and identifying
concepts and finding relations between them.
PRACTITIONERS WHO WORK AT PUBLIC RELATIONS AGENCIES
DESCRIBE THEIR GENERATION OF PUBLIC RELATIONS
PRACTITIONERS
Open code Properties Examples of participants’
 Open codes for RQ 1
words
Wanting experiential Seeking credentials Seeking experience
learning Feeling ambitious Ambitious
Seeking excitement Hungry for responsibility
Being eager Want to be the next big thing
Driven
Ready to roll
Always looking for a new thrill
Grow quickly
Learn things on our own
Pioneering social mediaBeing comfortable with Not being afraid of technology
and easily adapting to social media Risk-taking
change Wanting to lead Being fresh
Creating and embracing Creating and accepting new ideas
new ideas Embracing a rapid fire speed
Being creative

Feeling entitled due to Coming equipped with a Mostly PR majors instead of majoring in
unique qualifications, public relations education other fields
as compared to and several internships Being educated in public relations
previous generations Starting jobs with several internships under
the belt
Having a great foundation from majors and
Open Coding Properties Examples of participants’
words
Craving immediate Desiring attention
feedback and being Wanting to impress Want to feel valued and appreciated
motivated by feeling Wanting a mentor Want to be recognized
appreciated Want feedback
Want to be rewarded for good work
Seeking personal
Advocating a fulfillment Don’t want to work our lives away
work-life balance Recharging by enjoying Want to have room for a life outside of
a rich personal life work
Being raised to believe Raised to expect excellence in our
they could have it all personal lives

Possessing the Getting along well with Friendly, sociable

personal skills and people Motivated by friendships at work
characteristics Being intelligent Smart, clever, sharp
needed Valuing ethics Ethical
AXIAL CODES AND SELECTIVE CODE BASED ON THE
OPEN CODES
Open codes Focused/Axial Theoretical/ Selective
codes code
Wanting experiential learning; Believing they are ready to be
constantly learning; working in a
set loose on accounts
good environment; pioneering social
media and easily adapting to change;
feeling entitled due to unique
qualifications, as compared to
previous generations; possessing the
personal skills and characteristics
needed; being groomed
Craving immediate feedback and
being motivated by feeling
Seeking external validation Wanting to
appreciated; detesting getting called
out; receiving verbal encouragement make
and making observations
Mind reading and expectations for a Silently blaming employers
a difference
miracle worker;getting called out; not
for failures
being heard
Advocating a work-life balance; being Wanting a meaningful
cared for as a whole person;
experience at work and
accommodating interests and
Traditional Criteria for Judging Alternative Criteria for Judging
Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

internal validity credibility

external validity transferability

reliability dependability

objectivity confirmability
 CREDIBILITY
LINCOLN AND GUBA'S EVALUATIVE CRITERIA Triangulation
Peer debriefing
 Lincoln and Guba posit that trustworthiness of a Negative case analysis
Member-checking
research study is important to evaluating its
worth. Trustworthiness involves establishing:
 Credibility - confidence in the 'truth' of the findings
TRANSFERABILITY
 Transferability - showing that the findings have Thick description
applicability in other contexts
 Dependability - showing that the findings are
consistent and could be repeated DEPENDABILITY
Inquiry audit
 Confirmability - a degree of neutrality or the extent to
which the findings of a study are shaped by the CONFIRMABILITY
respondents and not researcher bias, motivation, or Triangulation
interest.
NARRATIVE RESEARCH
 WHY NARRATIVES?
 Narrative
- Non-random sequence of events
-Convey action and movement through time
-Plot/Causality

 Important because
-we make sense of the world through the stories we tell
-narratives are one of our main ways of communicating
-narratives are everywhere
-People lead storied lives (Riessman, 1993)
 Research focus of N.A.– Exploring the life of an individual
 Unit of analysis – Studying one or more individuals

 Type of research problem best suited for N.A. – Needing to tell

stories of individual experiences
 Forms of data collection –Using primarily interviews/documents

 Strategies of data analysis – Analyzing data for stories, “restorying”

stories, and developing themes often using a chronology
 Concluding format – Interpreting patterns of meaning

 Eg. Case Study Approach

Journal- Journal of Organizational Change
Management

Title of paper – Learning and innovation: A narrative

analysis
..\RESEARCH Material\Videos qual
methods\Narrative Research\Example_Narrative
paper.pdf

EXAMPLE NARRATIVE RESEARCH PAPER

OF
PUBLISHED BY STEFANIE REISSNER,
NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY, U.K. (2005)
PHENOMENOLOGY
PHENOMENOLOGY?
 Study of people’s perceptions of the world
 Multiple ways of interpreting the same experience

The Key
-Gain the subjective experience of the subject

Result
-New meaning
-Fuller meaning
-Renewed meaning
 PERCEPTION DOES NOT MIRROR REALITY

Perception of an
object is partial,
subjective and
incomplete. It
does not mirror
reality.
There is no single
reality; each
individual has his
or her own reality.

phenomenological
We must be
aware that people
see different
realities in
different
situations, in the
company of
different people
and at different
times.
IN SUM

Thefocus of phenomenological research is

people's experience in regard to a
phenomenon and how they interpret their
experiences.
KEY CHARACTERISTICS:
 Natural setting : setting influences the way humans behave

 Direct data collection : Researcher collects data directly from

source.

 Data gathering methods: Participants have lived through the

experiences being investigated, are willing to share their thoughts
about the experiences, can articulate conscious experiences.
 Process orientation: Focus on why and how behaviours occur
STEPS IN PHENOMENOLOGY -INDUCTIVE DATA ANALYSIS
• Description of researcher’s experiences w/
1 phenomenon
• Statements that show how the participants
2 experience the phenomenon are identified
• Meaningful units are formed from statements
using verbatim language from the participants as
3
illustration
• Descriptions from what was experienced are
4 separated from how it was experienced
• Researcher may reflect on own experiences or
5 integrate w/ those of participants

• Overall description of the meaning of the

6 experience is constructed
RQS SUITABLE FOR PHENOMENOLOGICAL INQUIRY
 What is it like to live with chronic pain?
 What are the various meanings of feeling “distant”

from a loved one?

 How does it feel to move to a new school as a young

adolescent?
 How does a woman’s sense of identity change during

the transition to motherhood?

EXAMPLE of Phenomenological paper: ..\RESEARCH Material\Videos

qual methods\Phenomenology vids\A phenomenological study of
instructors’ experiences.pdf
NETNOGRAPHY/ETHNOGRAPHY
12 PHASES OF NETNOGRAPHY
1. Introspection- the role of research 7. Immersion- immerse in the data
in your life, which group/concept
should you focus on? It begins with
you 8. Indexing –collect an adequate
amount of data (not too much not too
little)
2. Investigation –which
group/concept goes well together &
how to study this particular 9.Interpretation-interpret the data
group/concept
3. Information –are there any ethical 10. Iteration – go back & forth b/w
concerns? field, text & theories
4. Interviews –initial interviews with 11. Instantiation – exemplify
users
5. Inspection –which part of the 12.Integration –integrate all these to
group/site should I focus on? a story, a research tale
6. Interaction- you start to interact
(participant observation) on the site
ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

Mudita Mishra
WHAT ARE RESEARCH ETHICS?

 Ethics are norms or standards of behavior that

guide moral choices about our behavior and our
relationships with others.

 The goal is to ensure that no one is harmed or

suffers adverse consequences from research
activities.
APPROACHES TO ETHICS
 There is no single approach to ethics. Deontology
advocates that ethical behavior should be directed by
duties regardless of the positive circumstances that
might result from behavior that is in contradiction to
the duty. An example might be “Do not lie,” even
when lying might result in a positive outcome.

 Another approach is that of ethical relativism.

Ethical relativism is based on an individual’s sense of
morality. Therefore, each person decides for his or
herself what is ethical behavior. A middle ground is
necessary and provided through ethical standards of
behavior for researchers.
ETHICAL TREATMENT OF
PARTICIPANTS

 Begin data collection by explaining to the

participant the benefits expected from the
research.

 Explain to the participants that their rights and

well-being will be adequately protected, and say
how this will be done.

 Be certain that interviewers obtain the informed

consent of the participant.
DISCUSS STUDY BENEFITS
 In direct contact with the participant, the
researcher should discuss the study’s benefits
after his/her introduction;
 Neither overstate nor understate the
benefits;
 Sometimes, the actual purpose and benefits
of the study must be concealed from the
participants to avoid introducing bias;
 But concealing the objectives of the research
leads directly to the problem of deception.
DECEPTION
 Deception occurs when the participants are told
only part of the truth or when the truth is fully
compromised. Two reasons suggested for
deception are:
 To prevent biasing the participants before the survey
or experiment; and
 To protect the confidentiality of a third party (e.g.,
the sponsor)
ISSUES RELATED TO PROTECTING
PARTICIPANTS

 Informed consent
 Debriefing

 Right to Privacy/Confidentiality
1. INFORMED CONSENT
 Securing informed consent from
participants is a matter of fully disclosing
the procedures of the proposed survey or
other research design before requesting
permission to proceed with the study.
 If there is a chance the data could harm
the participant (offering only limited
confidentiality), a signed form detailing
the types of limits should be obtained.
 For most business research, oral consent
is sufficient.
INFORMED CONSENT PROCEDURES FOR
SURVEYS
 Introduce yourself.
 Brief description of the survey topic.
 Geographical area of the respondents and target
sample.
 Sponsor’s name.
 Describe purpose of research.
 Time estimate for completing the interview
 Promise anonymity and confidentiality (when
appropriate).
 Tell the interviewee that participation is voluntary.
 Tell the participant that item-nonresponse is
acceptable.
 Ask permission to begin.
2. DEBRIEFING PARTICIPANTS

 Debriefing involves several activities following

the collection of data:
 Explanation of any deception.
 Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the
study.
 Post study sharing of results.
 Post study follow-up medical or psychological
attention.
3. RIGHTS TO PRIVACY
 Privacy is more than confidentiality.
 A right to privacy means one has the right
to refuse to be interviewed or to refuse to
answer any question in an interview.
 To address these rights, ethical
researchers do the following:
 Inform participants of their right to refuse to
answer any question or participate in the
study.
 Obtain permission to interview participants.
 Schedule field and phone interviews.
 Limit the time required for participation.
 Restrict observation to public behavior only.
ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO THE
CLIENT/RIGHTS TO PRIVACY
 All individuals have a right to privacy, and
researchers must respect that right.
 The privacy guarantee is important not only to
retain validity of the research but also to protect
participants.
 The researcher protects participant’s
confidentiality in several ways:
 Obtaining signed nondisclosure documents.
 Restricting access to participant identification.
 Revealing participant information only with written
consent.
 Restricting access to data instruments where the
participant is identified.
 Not disclosing data subset.
ETHICS AND THE SPONSOR:
CONFIDENTIALITY
 Some sponsors wish to undertake research
without revealing themselves. They have a right
to several types of confidentiality including
 Sponsor non-disclosure
 Purpose non-disclosure

 Findings non-disclosure
SPONSOR NON-DISCLOSURE
 Companies have a right to dissociate
themselves from the sponsorship of a research
project.
 Due to the sensitive nature of management
dilemma, or the research question, sponsor may hire
an outside consulting or research firm to complete
research project:
 For example, when a company is testing a new product idea or
 If a company is contemplating entering a new market, it may not
wish to reveal its plans to competitor.
 In such cases, it is the responsibility of the researcher to respect
this desire.
PURPOSE NON-DISCLOSURE
 A research sponsor may be testing a new idea that is
not yet patented and may not want anyone to know of
its plans
 It may be investigating employee complaints and may
not want to spark union activity
 The sponsor might be contemplating a new public
stock offering, where advance disclosure would spark
the interest of authorities or cost the firm heavily.
FINDINGS NON-DISCLOSURE
 Most sponsors feel no need to hide their identity or the
study purpose but want the research data and findings
to be confidential, at least until the management
decision is made.
 Thus sponsors usually demand and receive findings
nondisclosure between themselves or their
researchers.
RIGHT TO QUALITY RESEARCH
 An important ethical consideration for the researcher
and the sponsor is the sponsor’s right to quality
research. This right entails:
 Providing a research design appropriate for the research
question.
 Maximizing the sponsor’s value for the resources expended.
 Providing data handling and reporting techniques
appropriate for the data collected.
ETHICS RELATED TO SPONSOR
 Sometimes researchers will be asked by
sponsors to participate in unethical
behavior.
 To avoid coercion by sponsor the
researcher should:
 Educate sponsor to the purpose of research
 Explain researcher’s role
 Explain how distortion of the truth leads to
future problems
 If necessary, terminate relationship with
sponsor
ETHICAL ISSUES RELATED TO
RESEARCHERS AND TEAM
MEMBERS
 Safety
 Ethical behavior of assistants

 Protection of anonymity
SOME CASES
 https://www.utwente.nl/en/bms/research/forms-
and-downloads/bryman-bell-2007-ethics-in-
business-research.pdf
 https://oir.nih.gov/sites/default/files/uploads/sourc
ebook/documents/ethical_conduct/case_studies-
2014.pdf