Posner, Patroni y Mayer 2018 - Labour Politics in Latin America

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Neoliberal Era
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Labor Politics in Latin America
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Neoliberal Era
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LABOR
POLITICS
IN LATIN
AMERICA
Democracy and Worker Organization

in the Neoliberal Era
Paul W. Posner, Viviana Patroni,

and Jean François Mayer
University of Florida Press

Gainesville
Neoliberal Era
Copyright 2018 by Paul W. Posner, Viviana Patroni, and Jean François Mayer
All rights reserved
Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper
This book may be available in an electronic edition.
23 22 21 20 19 18 6 5 4 3 2 1
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Posner, Paul W., author. | Patroni, Viviana, 1957– author. | Mayer,
Jean François, author.
Title: Labor politics in Latin America : democracy and worker organization in
the neoliberal era / Paul W. Posner, Viviana Patroni, and Jean François
Mayer.
Description: Gainesville : University of Florida Press, 2018. | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017060697 | ISBN 9781683400455 (cloth : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Labor policy—Latin America. | Labor laws and
legislation—Latin America. | Labor unions—Latin America. | Latin
America—Politics and government.
Classification: LCC HD6530.5 .P67 2018 | DDC 322/.2098—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017060697
University of Florida Press

15 Northwest 15th Street
Gainesville, FL 32611-2079
http://upress.ufl.edu
Neoliberal Era
Contents
List of Figures vii

List of Tables ix
List of Abbreviations xi
Acknowledgments xvii
1. Introduction: Labor Politics in Latin America 1
2. Historical Overview 12
Viviana Patroni
3. Labor Market Flexibility, Employment, and Inequality: Lessons
from Chile 39
Paul W. Posner
4. The Impact of Regime Change and Economic Restructuring on
Mexico’s Labor Relations, 1988–2012 70
Jean François Mayer
5. Uncertain Transitions: Labor and the Politics of Reform in
Argentina 102
Viviana Patroni
6. The Limits of Labor Legislation Reforms: Rigidity, Growth, and
Employment in Brazil, 1995–2010 135
Jean François Mayer
7. Laboring under Chávez: Populism for the Twenty-First Century 162
Paul W. Posner
8. Conclusion 190
Notes 213
Bibliography 223
Index 245
Neoliberal Era
Figures
3.1. Annual Proportional Distribution of Collective Bargaining

Instruments Negotiated by Unions 44
3.2. Percentage of Private Sector Wage Workers Involved in Collective

Bargaining (Contracts and Conventions) 59
4.1. Real Minimum Salary (in Constant 2010 Pesos) 79
4.2. Annual Unemployment Rate (in %) 79
4.3. Strikes per Year 80
4.4. Strike Petitions 80
4.5. Percentage of the Labor Force Employed in the Informal
Sector 84
5.1. Annual Variation of GDP in Constant Prices, 1995–2012 128
5.2. Annual Variation in Consumer Price Index, 1995–2012 128
6.1. Annual Variation in Consumer Prices (Inflation Rate),
1984–2010 144
6.2. Variations in Real Minimum Salary (in Constant 2011 Real),
1980–2010 145
6.3. Annual GDP Growth Rate, 1984–2010 148
6.4. Annual Unemployment Rate, 1984–2010 148
6.5. Variation in Size of the Labor Force Employed in the Informal
Sector, 1991–2010 149
6.6. Poverty Rate, 1985–2009 150
6.7. Gini Index of Socioeconomic Inequality, 1985–2009 150

6.8. Union Density, 1992–2011 153
Neoliberal Era
Tables
3.1. Rates of Unionization and Average Union Size, 1970–2012 45

3.2. Distribution of Income, 1990–2013 48
3.3. Unemployment Rate by Decile of Family Income, 1990–2011 50

3.4. Strike Activity, 1970–2012 60
5.1. Economically Active Population (EAP) and Main Employment
Indicators as % of EAP, 1995–2012 113
Neoliberal Era
Abbreviations
AD—Democratic Action (Acción Democrática)

APPO—Popular Assembly of the Peoples of Oaxaca (Asamblea Popular
de los Pueblos de Oaxaca)

ASI—Independent Trade Union Alliance (Alianza Sindical
Independiente)
ASSA—Union of Flight Attendants (Asociación Sindical de Sobrecargos
de Aviación)
C-CURA—United Revolutionary Autonomous Class Current (Corriente
Clasista, Unitaria, Revolucionaria y Autónoma)
CCC—Classist and Combative Current (Corriente Clasista Combativa)
CGT—General Confederation of Labor (Confederación General de
Trabajo)
CHA—comparative historical analysis
CLT—Consolidation of Labor Laws (Consolidação das Leis do
Trabalho)
CNE—National Electoral Council (Consejo Nacional Electoral)
CODESA—Confederation of Autonomous Trade Unions (Confeder-
ación de Sindicatos Autónomos)
COPARMEX—Employers’ Confederation of the Mexican Republic
(Confederación Patronal de la República Mexicana)
COPEI—Independent Electoral Political Organization Committee (Co-
mité de Organización Política Electoral Independiente)
CPC—Confederation of Production and Commerce (Confederación de

la Producción y del Comercio)
CPI—consumer price index
EBSCO Publishing : eBook Collection (EBSCOhost) - printed on 6/11/2021 11:36 PM via UNIVERSIDAD DEL PACIFICO
Neoliberal Era
xii · Abbreviations
CPME—Council of Small and Medium-Sized Business (Consejo de la

Pequeña y Mediana Empresa)
CROC—Revolutionary Confederation of Workers and Peasants (Con-
federación Revolucionaria de Obreros y Campesinos)
CROM—Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers (Confederación
Regional Obrera Mexicana)
CST—Socialist Workers’ Central (Central Socialista de Trabajadores)
CT—Labor Congress (Confederación del Trabajo)
CTA—Argentine Workers’ Central (Central de Trabajadores de la
Argentina)
CTB—Brazilian Workers’ Central (Central dos Trabalhadores e Trabal-
hadoras do Brasil)
CTC—Confederation of Copper Workers (Confederación de Traba-
jadores del Cobre)
CTEP—Confederation of Workers of the Popular Economy (Confeder-
ación de Trabajadores de la Economía Popular)
CTM—Confederation of Mexican Workers (Confederación de Traba-
jadores Mexicanos)
CTV—Workers’ Confederation of Venezuela (Confederación de Traba-
jadores de Venezuela)
CUT—Sole Workers’ Confederation (Central Única dos Trabalhadores)
(Brazil)
CUT—United Workers’ Central (Central Unitaria de Trabajadores)
(Chile)
EAP—economically active population
ECLAC—Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
EPZ—export processing zone
FADESS—Autonomous Employment Salary and Trade Union Defense
Front (Frente Autónomo en Defensa del Empleo, el Salario y el
Sindicato)
FAPUV—Federation of University Professors of Venezuela (Federación
de Asociaciones de Profesores Universitarios de Venezuela)
FEDECAMARAS—Federation of Chambers of Commerce and
Abbreviations · xiii
Production (Federación de Cámaras y Asociaciónes de Comercio y

Producción)
FEDEPETROL—Federation of Oil Workers (Federación de Traba-
jadores Petroleros)
FEDESSP—Democratic Federation of Unions of Public Servants (Feder-
ación Democrática de Sindicatos de Servidores Públicos)
FENAJUPV—National Federation of Retired Persons and Pensioners
of Venezuela (Federación Nacional de Jubilados y Pensionados de
Venezuela)
FENASINTRASALUD—National Federation of Regional, Sectoral and
Allied Trade Unions of Health Workers (Federación Nacional de
Sindicatos Regionales, Sectoriales y Conexos de Trabajadores de la
Salud)
FENASTEI—National Federation of Unions with Workers in the Infor-
mal Economy (Federación Nacional de Sindicatos con Trabajadores
en la Economía Informal)
FpV—Front for Victory (Frente para la Victoria)
FrePaSo—Front for a Country in Solidarity (Frente País Solidario)
FSBT—Bolivarian Socialist Workers’ Force (Fuerza Socialista Bolivari-
ana de Trabajadores)
FSM—Mexican Union Front (Frente Sindical Mexicano)
FSTSE—Federation of Public Service Workers’ Unions (Federación de
Sindicatos de Trabajadores al Servicio del Estado)
GDP—gross domestic product
IACHR—Organization of American States’ Inter-American Commis-
sion on Human Rights
IADB—Inter-American Development Bank
IFI—international financial institution
ILO—International Labor Organization
IMF—International Monetary Fund
IMSS—Mexican Social Security Institute (Instituto Mexicano de Seguri-
dad Social)
ISI—import substitution industrialization
xiv · Abbreviations
ISSSTE—Social Security and Social Services Institute for State Workers

(Instituto de Seguridad y Servicios Sociales de los Trabajadores del
Estado)
JCA—Boards of Conciliation and Arbitration (Juntas de Conciliación y
Arbitraje)
LFC—Downtown Light and Power (Luz y Fuerza del Centro)
LFT—Federal Labor Law (Ley Federal del Trabajo)
MINPPTRAS—Ministry of Popular Power for Labor and Social Security
(Ministerio del Poder Popular para el Trabajo y la Seguridad Social)
MOBASE—Trade Union Movement of the Base (Movimiento de Sindi-
catos de Base)
MPPEC—Ministry of Popular Power for the Community Economy
(Ministerio del Poder Popular para la Economía Comunal)
MTA—Movement of Argentinean Workers (Movimiento de Traba-
jadores Argentinos)
NAFTA—North American Free Trade Agreement
OECD—Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
PAN—National Action Party (Partido Acción Nacional)
PCdoB—Communist Party of Brazil (Partido Comunista do Brasil)
PCV—Venezuelan Communist Party (Partido Comunista Venezolano)
PDVSA—Venezuelan state oil company (Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A.)
PJ—Justicialist Party (Partido Justicialista)
PJJHD—Program for Unemployed Heads of Family (Programa Jefes y
Jefas de Hogares Desocupados)
PRD—Party of the Democratic Revolution
PRI—Institutional Revolutionary Party (Partido Revolucionario
Institucional)
PROVEA—Venezuelan Program of Education and Action in Human
Rights (Programa Venezolano de Educación Acción en Derechos
Humanos)
PSI—Public Services International
PSUV—United Socialist Party of Venezuela (Partido Socialista Unido de
Venezuela)
Abbreviations · xv
PT—Workers’ Party (Partido dos Trabalhadores)

SAP—structural adjustment program
SINTRAFERROMINERA—Orinoco Iron Miners’ Union (Sindicato de
Trabajadores de Ferrominera Orinoco)
SITUAM—Independent Union of Workers at the Metropolitan Au-
tonomous University (Sindicato Independiente de Trabajadores de la
UAM)
SME—Mexican Union of Electricians (Sindicato Mexicano de
Electricistas)
SNTE—National Teachers’ Union (Sindicato Nacional de Trabajadores
de la Educación)
SNTMM—National Union of Miners and Metal Workers (Sindicato
Nacional de Trabajadores Mineros y Metalúrgicos)
SNTP—National Union of Press Workers (Sindicato Nacional de Traba-
jadores de Prensa)
SNTSS—National Union of Social Security Workers (Sindicato Nacional
de Trabajadores del Seguro Social)
STPRM—Mexican Oil Workers’ Union (Sindicato de Trabajadores
Petroleros de la República Mexicana)
STPS—Secretariat of Labor and Social Welfare (Secretaría de Trabajo y
Previsión Social)
STUNAM—Union of Workers of the National Autonomous University
of Mexico (Sindicato de Trabajadores de la Universidad Nacional
Autónoma de México)
SUNEP-INN—Single National Union of Public Employees of the Na-
tional Institute for Nutrition (Sindicato Único Nacional de Emplea-
dos del Instituto Nacional de Nutrición)
SUNEP-SAS—Single National Union of Public, Professional, Technical,
and Administrative Employees of the Ministry of Health and Social
Development (Sindicato Único Nacional de Empleados Públicos,
Profesionales, Técnicos, Administrativos del Ministerio de Salud y
Desarollo Social)
SUTERM—Sole Union of Electrical Workers (Sindicato Único de Traba-
jadores Electricistas de la República Mexicana)
xvi · Abbreviations
TNC—transnational corporation
UASG—Labor and Trade Union Action Unit (Unidad de Acción Sindi-
cal y Gremial)
UCR—Radical Civic Union (Unión Cívica Radical)
URD—Democratic Republican Union (Unión Republicana
Democrática)
UIA—Argentine Industrial Union (Unión Industrial Argentina)
UNT—National Union of Workers (Unión Nacional de Trabajadores)
(Mexico)
UNT—National Workers’ Union (Unión Nacional de Trabajadores)
(Venezuela)
VAT—value-added tax
Acknowledgments
We are thankful to the University of Florida Press for its steadfast support
during the writing of this book. We would like to particularly empha-
size the work done by our editor, Stephanye Hunter, who provided us
with guidance, encouragement, and enthusiasm, especially during the last
phases of the writing and review process. We are also thankful to the re-
viewers, who invested significant time and effort in helping us to improve
the original manuscript. Their commitment and insightful critiques were
instrumental in enhancing the analytical focus of this book. We are also
grateful to the Latin American Studies Association (LASA) and the Ford
Foundation, from which we received a Special Project Grant that was in-
strumental in advancing our thinking on some of the conceptual matters
that underpin this book. Additionally, we are grateful to Shana Yael Shubs
for her assistance in formatting the manuscript for final submission.
Jean François Mayer would like to thank Concordia University, which
provided financial and logistical support during the rather extensive re-
search and writing periods this book involved. Mayer is grateful to Dr.
André Roy, Concordia University’s dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sci-
ences, and Dr. Graham Carr, provost–vice-president Academic Affairs,
for their backing and the key role they played in making Latin American
studies a vibrant and dynamic research field at Concordia and in the city
of Montréal. A part of the research conducted by Mayer for this book was
funded by a grant he received from the Social Science and Humanities
Research Council (SSHRC). Mayer thanks Dr. Jorge P. Gordin, editor of
the Journal of Politics in Latin America, for the permission to utilize an
article he published in that journal, which constitutes the bulk of chapter
6. Mayer would also like to thank his spouse and colleague, Tina Hilgers,
for her enduring support, patience, and encouragements. Mayer feels par-
ticularly proud to not have to write in this section that he apologizes to
his two wonderful daughters, Elsa Raphaëlle and Fleur Emmanuelle, for
Neoliberal Era
xviii · Acknowledgments
having missed out on some of their childhood because of work-related

concerns. Mayer hopes to be able to continue this often seemingly impos-
sible juggling act of coordinating work and family life, as the results are
well worth the sacrifices supposed by this endeavor.
The Centre for Research on Latin America and the Caribbean and the
Global Labour Research Centre, both at York University in Toronto, have
been welcoming spaces where we have shared with colleagues many of
the ideas in this book. Viviana Patroni would like to thank colleagues
and friends in these institutions and, also, York University’s Faculty of
Liberal Arts and Professional Studies for the generous support extended
during the preparation of this book. Beyond York, Ruth Felder has been a
constant source of much intellectual engagement and encouragement for
Patroni. Similarly, Jean François Mayer and Paul W. Posner were the per-
fect collegial companions in the laboring for this book. Closer to home,
Patroni wishes to acknowledge very specially the personal and intellectual
support of Pablo Idahosa, her partner and colleague, for his unwavering
support, insightful comments to the text, and for always being ready to
listen to the many ideas that come and go throughout the writing process.
Pablo, Bruno, and Isabel bring the joy that makes all efforts gain renewed
meaning. For that Patroni is endlessly thankful.
Paul W. Posner gratefully acknowledges financial support from Clark
University, through the Oliver and Dorothy Hayden Junior Faculty Fel-
lowship, which facilitated field research in Venezuela and Chile, and the
Department of Political Science’s Francis A. Harrington Public Affairs
Fund, which provided resources that were helpful in preparing the manu-
script for publication. He thanks John Wiley and Sons, publisher of Latin
American Politics and Society, for permission to reprint “Laboring Under
Chávez: Populism for the Twenty-first Century,” and Taylor and Francis,
publisher of New Political Economy, for permission to reprint, “Labour
Market Flexibility, Employment and Inequality: Lessons from Chile.” He
is immensely grateful to the Turner family, Benner, Irene, and Juan An-
dres, for their support during his field research in Venezuela. To Viviana
and Jean François—great colleagues and friends—who could imagine
better collaborators? Finally, Posner would like to express his deepest
gratitude to his son, Sam, for challenging him daily with his intellectual
curiosity, and to his wife, Heather, for being an ever-present sounding
board and constant source of care and support.
Index
Page numbers followed by f indicate an illus- 109–18, 132; Menem administration in,
tration; page numbers followed by t indicate 111–21, 132, 195–96, 204; military dictator-
a table. ship of, 104, 107–9, 217nn1,2,3; National Em-
ployment Law of, 114–16; neoliberalism and

Alburquerque, Thomás, 48 structural reforms in, 7, 9, 25, 103–5, 109–16,
Alderete, Carlos, 217n4 132, 203–4, 207; opposition movements and
Alfonsín, Raúl, 109–12 strikes in, 120–22, 126–27, 130–31, 133–34,
Allende, Salvador, 51, 52 218n16; organization of unemployed and
Anner, Mark, 31–32 informal workers in, 119–20, 133–34, 217n10;
Arbache, Jorge Saba, 146 Peronist governance and populism in,
Argentina, 5, 102–34, 195–97, 201–4, 103–7, 109, 122–34, 195–97, 204, 218n1; pink
213n3(Ch1); antipoverty and employment tide government of, 37, 122–33; social safety
initiatives in, 122–33, 218nn13,14; CGT/ net programs in, 105–6, 116–18, 120, 121, 126;
Peronist relationship in, 104–10, 121–34; soybean production in, 36, 214n6; unem-
codification of workers rights in, 15–20, ployment and underemployment in, 112,
105–8, 110–11, 217n4; collective bargaining 113t, 117, 217nn9,10; wages in, 108, 115–16,
in, 105, 108, 111, 115, 118, 120–21, 123–27, 124, 217n5; worker cooperatives in, 218n17.
202; Convertibility Law in, 112–17, 121, See also General Confederation of Labor
123–24, 217n7; crises of 1989 and 1990 Argentine Industrial Union (UIA), 117
in, 111–12; crisis of 2001–2 in, 104, 122, Argentine Workers’ Central (CTA), 119–20,
151, 217n6; decline of organized labor in, 125–27, 132–33, 196–97, 217n9, 218nn15,16
9–10, 33, 37–38, 108, 118–34, 203–4; de Article 123 (Mexico), 74
la Rúa’s Alliance government of, 121–22; Autonomous CTA (Argentina), 127, 132–33,
democratic transition in, 104, 109–11, 203, 218n16
217n4, 221n1; economic recession and Aylwin, Patricio, 41, 61, 215n9
inflation in, 112, 121–22, 128–31, 218n12;
flexibilized labor in, 8, 29–30, 32, 103–4, Bachelet, Michelle, 41, 64–68, 216nn12,17
109, 113–18, 124–26, 195–97, 201- 202, 204, Barrales, Alejandra, 99
217n8, 218n14; Framework Agreement for Barrios, Froilán, 178–79
Employment, Productivity, and Social Eq- Bensusán, Graciela, 74
uity of, 117; GDP and CPI of, 128f, 217n5, Berg, Janine, 46
218n11; heterogeneity of working classes in, Berzoini, Ricardo, 159

119; historical role of organized labor in, Boeninger, Edgardo, 215n9
104–8; import substitution industrializa- Bolivarian Socialist Workers’ Force (FSBT)
tion in, 106; labor reforms in, 103, 107–8, (Venezuela), 176
Neoliberal Era
246 · Index
Bolivia, 205; extractive industry impacts on Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 206; labor code
indigenous communities in, 214n7; rentier reforms of, 136, 143–53, 155, 160, 197–98;
populism in, 163–64, 188–89, 218n1; social Plano Real of, 143–47, 197
welfare policies in, 208 Caro Figueroa, Armando, 117
Bottom-up informalization, 42 Carvalho Filho, Irineu de, 146–47
Brazil, 5, 135–37, 140–61, 197–99, 201–2, 205–7, Cavallo, Domingo, 112, 217n6
213n3(Ch1); Cardoso’s labor policies in, CGT (Argentina). See General Confederation
136–37, 143–53, 155, 160, 197–98, 206, 219n4; of Labor
codification of workers rights in, 15–20, CGT-Azopardo (Argentina), 116
136, 140–42, 152–53, 205–6; Constitutional CGT-San Martín (Argentina), 116
reforms of 2008 in, 156, 160, 199, 206; Con- Chávez, Hugo, 7, 9–10, 199–200; control of
stitution of 1988 of, 140, 142–43; corporatist mass organizations under, 167, 173, 177–79,
labor structure in, 10–11, 140–44; decline of 183, 188–89, 199–200; coup of 1992 and,
organized labor in, 37–38, 152–53; demo- 169–70; death of, 187; economic policies
cratic transition in, 109, 143–44, 207, 221n1; of, 166, 171–72, 187; failed coup of 2002
economic growth and GDP in, 147, 148f, 151, against, 181; failed recall referendum of
157–61, 197–98; flexibilized labor in, 11, 29, 2004 of, 181–82; labor policies of, 163–64,
33, 136–37, 148–53, 155–56, 158–61, 197–99, 166–67, 170–89, 204–5; rentier populism of,
201–2, 213n3(Ch2); formal sector employ- 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 208, 221n1; social
ment in, 158–61; hyperinflation in, 143–44, welfare policies of, 162, 164, 167, 181–83, 200,
219n3; import substitution industrialization 208, 219n3; voter coalition of, 167, 182–83,
(ISI) in, 7; informal economic sector in, 136; 204, 219nn2,3; workers’ rights rhetoric of,
labor code reforms in, 135–37, 143–53, 155, 162–63. See also Venezuela
206, 219n4; labor justice and bargaining Chile, 1, 5, 39–69, 191–93, 202–3, 213n3(Ch1);
system in, 140–43, 146, 156–57, 218n1; Lula’s codification of workers rights in, 15–20, 51;
labor policies in, 10–11, 136–37, 150, 154–60, collective bargaining rights in, 43–44, 57,
197–99, 206; Lula’s social safety-net policies 63, 66, 68, 193, 215nn8,11, 216n12; Concert-
in, 155, 159–60; neoliberalism and structural ación government of, 37, 40, 50–51, 55–68,
reforms in, 7, 11, 25, 136–37, 197–98, 206–7; 192; decline of organized labor in, 10, 33, 42,
new middle class in, 159; New Unionism 43–44, 45t, 51, 55–69; democratic transi-
movement in, 143; pink tide government of, tion in, 40, 55, 61, 192, 221n1; economic
37; poverty and inequality rates in, 135–36, crisis of 1982–83 in, 54; extractive sector
149, 150f, 158–61; real minimum wage in, in, 35, 214n7; flexibilized labor in, 7–8, 29,
145f, 155, 157, 158, 160; Rousseff government 30, 40–51, 56–69, 191–93, 200–201, 214n2;
of, 199, 206; strike activity in, 152; unem- global economic competition of, 192–93;
ployment rate in, 148–49, 151, 152, 157, 158; income inequality in, 40, 47–49, 64, 69,
union density in, 152, 153f, 206 215nn4,5,6; international commodity boom
Burgess, Katrina, 170 and, 35; job security law in, 42–43; Labor
Buxton, Julia, 166 Bureau of, 47, 214n3; labor–political party
links in, 9, 10, 11, 56–57, 192; labor reforms
Caldera, Rafael, 169–70 of 2017 of, 44–46, 68–69, 215n8, 216n17;
Calderón, Felipe, 71, 76, 81–83; declining labor reforms under Concertación in, 46,
unionization under, 95–99; labor relations 56–68, 215nn9,10,11, 216n12; labor reforms
under, 85, 90–95, 100–101 under Pinochet in, 9, 30, 40, 42–44, 53,
Cambiemos (Argentina), 133 56–59, 67, 192, 214n2; neoliberalism and
Cameron, Maxwell A., 165 structural reforms in, 7, 9, 11, 25, 51–56, 190,
Capacity. See Organizational capacity 202–3, 207, 214n1; Nueva Mayoría coalition
Cárdenas, Lázaro, 19, 166 of, 68; Popular Unity government of, 51, 52;
Index · 247
power of business in, 51–56; social safety Corradi, Juan Eugenio, 12

net reforms in, 53, 61; strike activity in, Council of Small and Medium-Sized Business
59, 60t, 65, 67, 216n13; subcontracting law (CPME) (Chile), 52
of, 64–66; tax evasion rates in, 48, 215n6;
unemployment rates in, 40, 42, 46, 49–50, Daer, Adolfo, 121
192, 215n7; wages in, 28–29, 46, 49 Darbishire, Owen, 42
China, 28, 35, 36, 214n6 De la Rúa, Fernando, 121–22, 217n6
Chirino, Orlando, 184, 187–88 D’Elía, Luis, 217n9
Citizenship, 20–21 Democratic Action (AD) (Venezuela), 17,
Classist and Combative Current (CCC) (Ar- 168–71, 219n5
gentina), 120–22 Democratic Federation of Unions of Public
Clientelism, 72, 75–76, 79–81, 85, 97–98, 100, Servants (FEDESSP) (Mexico), 96–97
180–81. See also Corporatism Democratic Republican Union (URD) (Ven-
Collective bargaining rights: in Argentina, ezuela), 168
105, 108, 111, 115, 118, 120–21, 123–27, 202; Destefani San Martín, Luis, 68
in Brazil, 140–43, 146, 156–57, 218n1; in Development strategies. See Neoliberal devel-
Chile, 43–44, 57, 63, 66, 68, 193, 215nn8,11, opment strategies
216n12; of flexibilized labor, 31–32, 39–40, Divino, José Angelo, 146
43–44, 57, 63, 66, 68, 178–79, 202, 215nn8,11, Downtown Light and Power (LFC) (Mexico),
216n12; in Mexico, 87–88, 93, 202, 216n3; in 70–71
Venezuela, 171–74, 178–79, 181, 183–88, 200 Duhalde, Eduarde, 126–27
Collier, David, 5–6, 167 Durán, Gonzálo, 48
Collier, Ruth Berins, 5–6
Colombia, 213n3(Ch2) Echeverría, Magdalena, 47, 50
Comparative historical analysis (CHA), 6–7, Economic Commission for Latin America and
11, 200–207, 213n2(Ch1) the Caribbean (ECLAC), 34–35
Confederation of Copper Workers (CTC) Economic efficiency, 40, 214n1
(Chile), 65–66 Economic growth and employment goals,
Confederation of Mexican Workers (CT/ 2–4, 34–38, 208–11; in Argentina, 122–33;
CTM), 92, 96–99, 216n4 in Brazil, 155, 159–60; capacity of labor
Confederation of Production and Commerce organizations to promote, 3–4, 8, 33, 191,
(CPC) (Chile), 52, 54, 57, 61, 66 213n1(Ch1); neo-structuralist goals of,
Confederation of Workers of the Popular 34–35, 137, 139–40
Economy (CTEP) (Argentina), 133–34 Ecuador, 205; extractive industry impacts on
Consolidation of Labor Laws (CLT) (Brazil), indigenous communities in, 214n7; rentier
136, 140–42 populism in, 163–64, 188–89, 218n1; social
Contreras, Dante, 46 welfare policies in, 208
Convertibility Law (Argentina), 112–17, 121, Ellner, Steve, 166, 180–81
123–24, 217n7 Employers’ Confederation of the Mexican
Cook, Maria Lorena, 30, 31, 42, 151 Republic (COPARMEX), 99
Corporatism, 13, 22–24, 97–98, 213n2(Ch2); of Employment Organization Law (Argentina),
Argentina’s CGT and Peronist governments, 125–26
104–10, 121–34; of Brazil’s labor-party rela- Escalona, Camilo, 66
tionships, 140–43; clientelistic relationships Esparza Flores, Martin, 92
of, 72, 75–76, 79–81, 85, 97–98, 100, 180–81; Estevão, Marcello, 146–47
of Mexico’s labor-party relationships, 72–76, Export economies, 13–14
84–85, 89–90, 100–101, 203, 216n4; of Ven- Export processing zones (EPZs), 27
ezuela’s labor movement, 168–83 External flexibility, 30, 47
248 · Index
Extractive industries, 13–14, 35–37; expansion Fox, Vicente, 76, 81–83; failed labor reforms of,
of, 36–37, 214nn7,8; government revenues 81, 86–87, 100; labor relations of, 85–90, 95;
from, 35, 167, 169, 181, 187; Great Recession union declines under, 95–99
of 2008–9 and, 36; impact on indigenous Frank, Volker, 62
communities of, 214n7; in Venezuela, 167, Frei, Eduardo, 41, 62
169, 175–76, 179, 181, 187 French, John D., 165
Front for Country in Solidarity (FrePaSo)
Fairfield, Tasha, 215n5 (Argentina), 121
Farnsworth, Eric, 39, 139 Front for Victory (FpV) (Argentina), 123,
Federal Labor Law (LFT) (Mexico), 74–76, 79, 130–32, 218n15
86, 93, 98–100; corporatist framework of, Functional flexibility, 30
74–76, 100; Exclusion clause in, 75, 81; flexi-
bilized labor under, 77–78, 99–100; under Galvão, Andréia, 152–53
PAN governance, 81, 85–94, 100–101 Gammage, Sarah, 48
Federation of Chambers of Commerce and General Confederation of Labor (CGT)
Production (FEDECAMARAS) (Venezu- (Argentina), 9, 18, 103–34, 196, 204; divi-
ela), 176 sions and segmentation by, 116, 119–21,
Federation of Public Service Worker’s Unions 122, 132–33, 217n10; health care services of,
(FSTSE) (Mexico), 96–97 105–6, 110–11, 116–18, 120–21, 126; impact
Fernández de Kirchner, Cristina, 103, 123, of neoliberal reforms on, 103–4, 110–11, 118;
127–31, 195–97, 204, 219n1 Kirchner administrations and, 125–33, 196,
Flexibilized labor, 1–11, 13, 28–33, 114, 191–211; 204, 219n1; labor challenges to, 109; leader-
collective bargaining rights of, 31–32, ship structure of, 110; military dictatorship
39–40, 43–44, 57, 63, 66, 68, 178–79, 202, and, 107–9, 217n2; monopoly status of, 105–
215nn8,11, 216n12; comparative analysis of, 6, 109, 117–18, 120–21, 125–27; new alliances
200–207; economic inequality and, 1–3; of, 133–34, 218n17; Peronist administrations
external, internal, and functional forms of, and, 104–10, 121–34, 204; strike activity of,
30, 47; in the formal sector, 32–33; forms of 121–22, 133, 218n16; weakening of, 118–34
temporary employment of, 114–15; hetero- Gerring, John, 5
geneity in working experiences of, 11, 20, Globalization, 4–6, 213n1(Ch1)
30–33, 213n1(Ch2); long-term outcomes of, Global Jobs Pact, 2
2–3, 29–33, 78–81, 121–26, 151–53, 158–60, Gómez, Juan, 179
191–207; neo-structuralist approach and, Gómez Urrutia, Napoléon, 89–91
34–35, 137, 139–40; official rollbacks of, González, Rúben, 185
125–26; organization of, 119–20, 133–34, González Tapia, Mauricio, 68
205, 217n10; purported benefits of, 4, 7–11, Gordillo, Elba Esther, 89, 92–93
29–31, 40–42, 71, 117, 135–40, 214n1; rates of, Great Depression, 16–20
33; rentier populism and, 163–64, 199–200, Great Recession of 2008–9, 26, 28; in Argen-
208; top-down and bottom-up forms of, 42; tina, 128–31, 218n12; in Brazil, 155, 157–59;
unemployment rates and, 40, 42, 46, 49–50, extractive sector and, 36; in Mexico, 94
215n7; union declines and, 2, 32, 42, 166–67, Gutiérrez Fragoso, Valdemar, 93
208–11; wage declines of, 28–29, 46, 49, 78,
139; of women, 33; worker cooperatives and, Handlin, Samuel, 167, 219n3
177–79, 205, 218n17. See also Labor code Harrison, Graham, 25, 42
reforms; individual countries Hawkins, Kurt, 182
Força Sindical (Brazil), 156, 198 Heckman, James, 69
Formal employment, 33, 156 Hershberg, Eric, 165
Index · 249
ILO (International Labor Organization) 58–59; comparative analysis of, 200–207;

Conventions, 171–73, 177, 185–86 diversity of, 31–32; economic impact of,
Import substitution industrialization (ISI), 135–61; erosion of labor rights in, 1, 33;
6–7, 21–22, 76–77, 106 organizational capacity and, 3–4, 8, 33, 191,
Independent Political Electoral Organization 213n1(Ch1); of post-neoliberal regimes, 4–5,
Committee (COPEI) (Venezuela), 168, 11, 34–38; purported goals of, 4–5, 7–11,
170, 219n5 29–31, 40–42, 71, 117, 135–40, 214n1; states’
India, 35 roles in, 3; unemployment rates and, 42; un-
Informal economies, 8–11, 26–28, 32–33; in organized workers and, 9–11, 26–28, 32–33,
Brazil, 136; job creation and employment 213n3(Ch2); worker opposition to, 4, 138,
rates in, 28, 33, 42, 213n3(Ch2); legal 143. See also Flexibilized labor; Neoliberal
protections in, 11, 64–66; unorganized development strategies; Unions; Working
workers in, 9–11; women in, 33 classes; individual countries
Informal labor. See Flexibilized labor Labor Congress (CT) (Mexico), 216n1
Inter-American Development Bank, 40, 41, Labor courts, 146
138 Labor movement. See Unions
Internal flexibility, 47 Lagos, Ricardo, 41, 62–64
International financial institutions (IFIs), Law 25,013 (Argentina), 120–21
1–3, 190–91; power under neoliberalism Law for Small and Medium Enterprises (Ar-
of, 24, 123; promotion of labor reforms gentina) 5, 114
by, 3, 13, 30, 40, 41, 71, 138, 145. See also Leftism (socialism), 164–67, 187–89, 205
Neoliberal development strategies Left populism. See Rentier populism
International Labor Organization (ILO), 2 Leiva, Fernando Ignacio, 58
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1–2, Levinsohn, James, 44
122, 190–91; Brazil’s status with, 157; Levitsky, Steven, 165–66
focus on economic inequality by, 2; labor Light and Power union (Argentina), 217n4
reforms promoted by, 40, 41, 138 López, Diego, 47, 50
International Revolutionary Party (PRI) Lula da Silva, Luiz Inácio, 10–11, 145, 206;
(Mexico). See PRI economic policies of, 154–55, 197–98; labor
Intraregional migration, 208, 209 policies of, 136–37, 150, 155–60, 197–99;
Involuntary underemployment, 112 social programs of, 155, 159–60; union
background of, 154
Johnson, Michael E., 182
Jorratt, Michel, 215n5 Macri, Mauricio, 133
Justicialist Party (PJ) (Argentina). See Per- Maduro, Nicolás, 10, 163, 187–89, 205,
onist party 220nn13,14
Márquez, Gustavo, 139
Katz, Harry C., 42 Martínez, Arturo, 62–64, 66
Kirchner, Cristina. See Fernández de Kirch- Martínez, Benito, 99–100
ner, Cristina Máspero, Marcela, 184
Kirchner, Néstor, 103, 122–27, 129, 195–97, Mazali, Antonio Alberto, 146
204, 219n1 Mazzuca, Sebastián, 163, 166, 188–89, 218n1
Menem, Carlos, 103–4, 111–21, 195–96, 204;
Labor and Trade Union Action Unit (UASG) labor reforms of, 103, 111–16, 118, 121, 132;
(Venezuela), 187–88, 220n12 political support of, 118–19
Labor code reforms, 1–11, 24–26, 28–33, Mexican Oil Worker’s Union (STPRM), 92, 96
39–41; adaptation of organized labor to, Mexican Union Front (FSM), 96–97, 216n1
250 · Index
Mexican Union of Electricians (SME), 70–71, National Employment Law (Argentina), 114–16
91–99, 216n1 National Federation of Regional, Sectoral and
Mexico, 1, 5, 70–101, 193–95, 202, 213n3(Ch1); Allied Trade Unions of Health Workers
codification of workers rights in, 15–16, (FENASINTRASALUD) (Venezuela),
19–20, 74–76, 194; Constitution of 1917 173–74
of, 15, 19; corporatist labor-party links in, National Federation of Unions with Work-
11, 72–76, 79–81, 84–85, 89–90, 97–98, ers in the Informal Economy (FENASEI)
100–101, 203, 216n4; decline of organized (Argentina), 217n10
labor in, 33, 70–76, 78–81, 95–101; energy National Teachers’ Union (SNTE) (Mexico),
monopolies of, 81, 82, 91–92; Federal 89–90, 92–94, 96
Labor Law (LFT) of, 74–76, 79, 81, 86, National Union of Miners and Metal Workers
93, 98–100; flexibilized labor in, 8, 30, (SNTMM) (Mexico), 89–91, 93–94, 96
32, 71–72, 77–81, 83–84, 99–100, 193–95, National Union of Social Security Workers
201–2; import substitution industrial- (SNTSS) (Mexico), 93–94, 96–97
ization in, 76–77; independent union National Union of Workers (UNT) (Mexico),
activism in, 70–71, 88–101, 194–95, 216n1; 93, 96–97, 216n1
international commodity boom and, National Workers’ Union (UNT) (Venezuela),
35; labor reforms in, 70–73, 76, 81, 82, 172, 175–77, 220nn5,6,12,14
100–101, 193; manufacturing (maquila) Negri, João Alberto de, 146
sector in, 27–28; neoliberalism and struc- Neo-extractivism, 35, 214n8
tural reforms in, 7, 11, 25, 71–72, 76–81, Neoliberal development strategies, 1–11, 24–33,
190, 193–94, 203; PAN and democratic 137–40, 190–91, 206–7, 210–11; Argentina’s
transition in, 70–73, 76, 81–101, 194, 221n1; adoption of, 103–5, 109–18, 132, 217nn1,2;
poverty and falling wages in, 78–83; PRI’s Brazil’s adoption of, 136–37, 143–44; capac-
authoritarian era in, 70–81, 94, 100–101; ity of labor organizations under, 3–4, 8,
Revolution of 1910–17 of, 14; social 33, 191, 213n1(Ch1); catalysts of, 24; Chile’s
security pensions in, 81–82, 87, 99; strike adoption of, 7, 9, 11, 25, 51–56, 214n1;
activity in, 78–83, 89–91, 93–94, 216n2; extractive industries in, 35, 214n8; import
Supreme Court rulings on labor regula- substitution industrialization (ISI) in, 6–7,
tions in, 101; unemployment rates in, 21–22, 76–77, 106; informal economy under,
79f, 82–84; white unions and protection 8–10, 26–28, 32–33, 213n3(Ch2); long-term
contracts in, 87–88, 93, 202, 216n3 impact of, 2–3, 5, 27, 29–33, 78–81, 121–26,
Micheli, Pablo, 127 151–53, 158–60, 191–207; manufacturing
Migration, 208, 209 sector and export processing zones (EPZs)
Minimum wage policies, 139–40; in Brazil, of, 27–28, 35; Mexico’s adoption of, 71–72,
145f, 155, 157, 158, 160; in Venezuela, 173 76–81; neo-structuralist response to, 34–35,
Monsueto, Sandro Eduardo, 157 137, 139–40; post-neoliberal reactions to,
Movement of Argentinian Workers (MTA), 2–3, 13, 34–38, 123, 214n5; state corporatism
119–20, 196 and, 22–24, 213n2(Ch2); terminology used
Moyano, Hugo, 119, 121–22, 125, 129–32 in, 24–25; transnationalized economies
Munck, Ronaldo, 30 under, 13, 26–28; unemployment rates
Murillo, Maria Victoria, 31 under, 32; union declines and, 2–3, 5, 8–10,
32, 33, 37–38, 58–59, 166–67, 201–7, 210;
National Action Party (PAN) (Mexico). See Venezuela’s adoption of, 7, 9–10, 25, 162–63,
PAN 166–67. See also Flexibilized labor; Labor
National Copper Company (CODELCO) code reforms
(Chile), 65–66 Neo-structuralism, 34–35, 137, 139–40
Index · 251
New left governments. See Post-neoliberal Piñera, José, 53

regimes Piñera, Sebastián, 216n16
North American Free Trade Agreement Pink tide governments, 13, 26, 34–38, 210–11,
(NAFTA), 77 214n5. See also Post-neoliberal regimes
Pinochet, Augusto: labor reforms of, 9, 30, 40,
Olivera, José, 99 42–44, 53, 56–59, 67, 192, 214n2; power of
Opposition and strike activity: in Argentina, business sector under, 51–56
120–22, 126–27, 130–31, 133–34, 218n16; Political parties. See Clientelism; Corporatism;
in Brazil, 152; in Chile, 59, 60t, 65, 67, specific parties
216n13; in Mexico, 78–83, 89–91, 93–94, Popular Assembly of the Peoples of Oaxaca
216n2; in Venezuela, 175–77, 181, 184–85 (APPO) (Mexico), 91
Organizational capacity, 3–4, 8, 33, 191, Populism, 13, 20–24; in Argentina, 105, 219n1;
213n1(Ch1) in Chávez’s Venezuela, 162–89; classical
Organized labor. See Unions forms of, 166; construction of citizenship
Orinoco Iron Miners’ Union (Venezuela), in, 20–21; control of labor under, 21–24, 167,
185 173, 177–79, 183; import substitution indus-
Ortega, Carlos, 172 trialization strategy of, 21–22; rentier forms
Ortega, Luisa, 220n14 of, 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 199–200, 208,
Ovalle, Alfredo, 66 218n1, 221n1; socialism vs. left-wing forms
Oxhorn, Philip, 213n1(Ch2) of, 164–67, 187–89, 205
Post-neoliberal regimes, 4–5, 11, 34–38, 191,
Pagés, Carmen, 69, 139 210–11; in Argentina, 122–33; in Brazil,
PAN (National Action Party) (Mexico), 10–11, 136–37, 150, 154–60, 197–99, 206; ex-
71–72, 81–101, 194–95; corporatist/clien- tractive sector expansion in, 35–37; focus on
telistic labor relations of, 84–85, 100–101, economic inequality in, 2–3, 13, 34–38, 139–
203; economic growth under, 82–83; 40; international commodity boom and,
independent union activism under, 70–71, 35–37, 210, 214nn7,8; labor code reforms
88–101, 194–95; labor policies of, 85–90; by, 4–5, 11, 34–38; market economies in,
strike activity under, 83, 88–90 50–51, 55–56, 61; neo-structuralist goals of,
Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) 34–35, 137, 139–40; pink tide governments
(Mexico), 87 of, 13, 26, 34–38, 214n5; rentier populism
Pereira da Silva, Arthur Simão, 157 under, 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 199–200,
Pérez, Carlos Andrés, 169–70 208, 219n1, 221n1; socialism vs. populism in,
Pérez Borges, Stalin, 220nn5,6 164–67, 187–89, 205; social program expan-
Pérez Jiménez, Marcos, 168 sion in, 36–37, 214nn5,8; union declines in,
Perón, Isabel, 107 37–38, 55–56, 191; in Venezuela, 162–89
Perón, Juan Domingo, 18–19, 105–7, 166 PRI (International Revolutionary Party) (Mex-
Peronist party (PJ) (Argentina), 103; electoral ico), 71–81, 87, 100–101, 193–95; corporatist/
defeats of, 109, 120–21; Kirchner admin- clientelistic labor relations of, 72–76, 85,
istrations of, 103, 122–34, 195–97, 204, 100, 203, 216n4; electoral defeat of, 84–85;
219n1; neoliberal reforms and, 103–4; role financial resources of, 73; neoliberalism and
of CGT in, 103–10, 121, 129–34. See also structural reforms of, 76–81; strike activity
General Confederation of Labor under, 79, 83, 216n2
Peronist Youth, 123 Progressive governments. See Post-neoliberal
Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA), 175–76, regimes
179 Progressive neo-extractivism, 214n8
Piñeiro, Camila, 180 Protection contracts, 87–88, 93, 216n3
252 · Index
Radical Civic Union (UCR) (Argentina), Sole Union of Electrical Workers (SUTERM)
109–11, 121–22, 217n4 (Mexico), 92, 96
Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers Sole Workers’ Confederation (CUT) (Brazil),
(CROM) (Mexico), 96–97, 216n4 11, 143, 152, 154, 156, 198–99, 206
Rentier populism, 163–64, 166–67, 199–200, Soto Martínez, Leobardo, 98
208, 218n1, 221n1 State corporatism, 213n2(Ch2)
Research methodology, 5–7; case studies in, Stokes, Susan C., et al., 182
5–6; comparative historical analysis in, 6–7, Strikes. See Opposition and strike activity
11, 12–38, 200–207, 213n2(Ch1) Structural reforms (SAPs). See Neoliberal
Revolutionary Confederation of Workers and development strategies
Peasants (CROC) (Mexico), 92, 96, 216n4
Roberts, Kenneth M., 165–66 Thomas, Jim, 29, 42
Rodrigues de Azevedo, Marcello, 152 Top-down informalization, 42
Rodríguez, Agustin, 99 Transnational corporations (TNCs), 27–28
Rodríguez y Pacheco, Alfredo, 98–100
Rosas, Guillermo, 182 Unions, 1–5, 63, 208–11; adaptation to neo-
Rousseff, Dilma, 199, 206 liberal reforms by, 58–59, 210; clientelistic
leaders of, 72, 75–76, 79–81, 85, 97–98, 100;
Sabatini, Christopher, 39, 139 competition and factionalism among, 57–
Salinas, Carlos, 77–80, 83, 94, 100–101 58; control of elections in, 170–75; corporat-
Sánchez, Sergio, 98–99 ist party relations of, 20–24, 72–76, 89–90,
Schmitter, Philippe C., 213n2(Ch2) 100–101, 135, 140–43, 168–77, 213n2(Ch2),
Schneider, Ben R., 106 216n4; decline in Argentina of, 9–10, 33,
Schrank, Andrew, 31 37–38, 108, 118–34, 203–4; decline in Brazil
Siavelis, Peter, 68 of, 37–38, 135, 152–53; decline in Chile
Single National Union of Public Employees of, 42, 43–44, 45t, 51, 55–69; decline in
of the National Institute for Nutrition Mexico of, 33, 70–76, 78–81, 95–101; decline
(SUNEP-INN) (Venezuela), 174–75 in Venezuela of, 162–64, 166–67, 170–89,
Single National Union of Public, Professional, 205; economic inequality and, 2–3, 32, 33;
Technical, and Administrative Employees of negotiation of worker protections by, 15–20,
the Ministry of Health and Social Develop- 105–8; opposition to labor code reforms
ment (SUNEP-SAS) (Venezuela), 173–74 by, 4, 138, 143; organizational capacity of,
Smilde, David, 166 3–4, 8, 33, 191, 213n1(Ch1); origins of, 14–15;
Socialism, 164–67, 187–89, 205 political party links of, 4, 8–11, 33, 37–38,
Socialist Party (Chile), 9, 202 56–57, 202–5; in post-neoliberal regimes,
Socialist Workers’ Central (CST) (Venezuela), 37–38, 55–56, 191; repression of leaders of,
175–76 184–86; weakening of, 2–3, 5, 8–10, 32, 33,
Social safety nets, 8, 13, 32; Argentina’s 37–38, 201–7. See also Collective bargain-
administration of, 105–6, 116–18, 131; in ing rights; Opposition and strike activity;
Chávez’s Venezuela, 162, 164, 167, 181–83, specific unions
200, 208, 219n3; Chile’s reforms of, 53, 61; in United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), 9,
Lula’s Brazil, 155, 159–60; Mexico’s pension 176–77, 202, 219n5
reforms of, 81–82, 87, 99; pink tide govern- United Workers’ Central (CUT) (Chile),
ment expansion of, 36–37, 214n8; worker 56–58, 62–66
cooperatives in, 218n17 UN post-2015 Development Agenda Goal 8, 2
Societal corporatism, 213n2(Ch2) Unregistered workers, 32–33, 112, 113f, 124,
Solari, Ricardo, 62–63 218n14
Index · 253
Vargas, Getúlio, 17, 140–43, 156 Venezuelan Communist Party (PCV), 219n4
Vega, Arturo, 98 Vicente Gómez, Juan, 16, 177
Venezuela, 5, 162–89, 199–200, 202, 204–5;
Chávez regime of, 7, 9–10, 162–64, 166–67, Wage Adjustment Law (Brazil), 146–47
170–89, 199–200, 204–5, 213n3(Ch1); codifi- Washington Consensus, 24, 77, 137–38, 191. See
cation of workers rights in, 15–20, 168, 179, also Neoliberal development strategies
183; collective bargaining rights in, 171–74, Weyland, Kurt, 166
178–79, 181, 183–88, 200; control of mass or- Worker cooperatives, 177–81, 205, 218n17
ganizations in, 167, 173, 177–79, 183, 188–89, Workers’ Confederation of Venezuela (CTV),
199–200; coup of 1992 in, 169–70; decline 220n12; Chávez and, 170–77; Punto Fijo
of organized labor in, 10, 33, 37–38, 162–64, regime and, 168–70
166–67, 170–89, 205; extractive sector Workers’ Party (PT) (Brazil), 11, 154, 198–99,
revenues in, 35, 167, 169, 181, 187; flexibilized 201–2, 206
labor in, 9–10, 33, 163, 166–67, 170, 177–79, Working classes, 13–20; codification of
187–88, 199–200, 204–5, 213n3(Ch2); rights of, 15–20, 51, 74–76, 105–8, 137–39,
international commodity boom and, 35; 168, 179, 183, 190; early organization of,
labor–political party links in, 9–10, 168–77, 14–15; export-producing sectors of, 13–14;
205; land reform in, 175; Maduro regime of, heterogeneity and growth of, 13, 20–21,
10, 163, 187–89, 205, 220nn13,14; minimum 119; intraregional migration of, 208, 209;
wage policies in, 173; neoliberalism and post-neoliberal governments and, 13; rapid
structural reforms in, 7, 9–10, 25, 162–63, urbanization of, 14. See also Unions
166–67, 169–70, 199, 204, 207; oil industry World Bank, 1–2, 40, 41, 138, 190–91
of, 167, 169, 175–76, 179, 181, 187; opposition World Development Report of 2013 (World
and strike activity in, 175–77, 181, 184–85; Bank), 2
Pacto de Avenimiento Obrero-Patronal World Economic Outlook (IMF), 2
of, 168; Punto Fijo regime of, 7, 9, 163, 164, World Trade Organization (WTO), 28
166–70, 199, 204–5, 219nn4,5; rentier popu-
lism in, 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 199–200, Yasky, Hugo, 127
218n1, 221n1; repression of labor leaders in,
184–86, 200; social welfare missions in, 162, Zedillo, Ernesto, 77–79, 83, 94
164, 167, 181–83, 186–87, 200, 208, 219n3;
worker cooperatives in, 177–81, 205. See also
Chávez, Hugo
Paul W. Posner is associate professor in the Department of Political Sci-
ence at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. His current research
focuses on democratization and political participation in Latin America.
In particular, he is interested in the impact of economic globalization and
related state reforms on social organization and collective action in the re-
gion. Current projects examine labor politics, the politics of social welfare
resource distribution, the New Left and populism in Latin America, with
specific focus on Chile, Ecuador, and Venezuela. His work has been pub-
lished in the Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs; Democ-
ratization; Latin American Politics and Society; Political Power and Social
Theory; International Journal of Urban and Regional Research; and New
Political Economy. His book, State, Market, and Democracy in Chile: The
Constraint of Popular Participation, assesses the impact neoliberal reform
has had on the ability of Chile’s urban poor to organize and represent their
interests in the political arena.
Viviana Patroni is associate professor in the Department of Social Science

at York University, where she teaches in the International Development
Studies program. Her research focuses on the political economy of Latin
America, the transformation of the world of work in this region since the
1980s, the centrality of labor struggles in shaping patterns of development,
and the transformation of labor markets in Argentina since the 1990s. She
has also contributed to the study of the impact of Canadian investment
in the Latin American mining sector and, as a codirector of a Canadian-
funded initiative, to a program of activities aimed at supporting the de-
velopment of a Latin American network for human rights education and
research. Her work has been published in the Canadian Journal of Politi-
cal Science; Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies;
Radical Review of Political Economics; and the Journal of Socialist Studies.
Her most recent work includes an interest in the rise of organizations
of informal workers and their challenge to prevalent views within labor
movements about their understanding of work and working class. Be-
tween 2000 and 2007 she was the director of the Centre for Research on
Latin America and the Caribbean, also at York University.
Jean François Mayer specializes in comparative politics and political eth-
nography. His research expertise is on social movements, labor markets,
and organization, as well as state-society relations in Latin America, with
a particular emphasis on Brazil and Mexico. His current work focuses
on the formal and informal strategies of resistance used by people work-
ing in precarious and informal environments; the sociopolitical impacts
of precarious and informal labor contexts (namely insecurity, marginal-
ization, poverty, and violence); and, more broadly, the manner in which
poor people organize to defend and advance their labor and social rights.
Mayer has published in a wide variety of academic journals, including
the Journal of Politics in Latin America; Journal of Social Policy; Bulletin
of Latin American Research; Latin Americanist; and the Journal of Iberian
and Latin American Research. Mayer has held numerous research grants,
among which an Insight Development Grant and a Standard Research
Grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Can-
ada (SSHRC), as well as a research grant from the International Develop-
ment Research Center of Canada (IDRC).
Bibliography
Abrahamer Rothstein, Frances. 2007. Globalization in Rural Mexico: Three Decades of

Change. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Acosta, Alberto. 2013. “Extractivism and Neoextractivism: Two Sides of the Same Curse.”
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Index
Page numbers followed by f indicate an illus- 109–18, 132; Menem administration in,
tration; page numbers followed by t indicate 111–21, 132, 195–96, 204; military dictator-
a table. ship of, 104, 107–9, 217nn1,2,3; National Em-
ployment Law of, 114–16; neoliberalism and

Alburquerque, Thomás, 48 structural reforms in, 7, 9, 25, 103–5, 109–16,
Alderete, Carlos, 217n4 132, 203–4, 207; opposition movements and
Alfonsín, Raúl, 109–12 strikes in, 120–22, 126–27, 130–31, 133–34,
Allende, Salvador, 51, 52 218n16; organization of unemployed and
Anner, Mark, 31–32 informal workers in, 119–20, 133–34, 217n10;
Arbache, Jorge Saba, 146 Peronist governance and populism in,
Argentina, 5, 102–34, 195–97, 201–4, 103–7, 109, 122–34, 195–97, 204, 218n1; pink
213n3(Ch1); antipoverty and employment tide government of, 37, 122–33; social safety
initiatives in, 122–33, 218nn13,14; CGT/ net programs in, 105–6, 116–18, 120, 121, 126;
Peronist relationship in, 104–10, 121–34; soybean production in, 36, 214n6; unem-
codification of workers rights in, 15–20, ployment and underemployment in, 112,
105–8, 110–11, 217n4; collective bargaining 113t, 117, 217nn9,10; wages in, 108, 115–16,
in, 105, 108, 111, 115, 118, 120–21, 123–27, 124, 217n5; worker cooperatives in, 218n17.
202; Convertibility Law in, 112–17, 121, See also General Confederation of Labor
123–24, 217n7; crises of 1989 and 1990 Argentine Industrial Union (UIA), 117
in, 111–12; crisis of 2001–2 in, 104, 122, Argentine Workers’ Central (CTA), 119–20,
151, 217n6; decline of organized labor in, 125–27, 132–33, 196–97, 217n9, 218nn15,16
9–10, 33, 37–38, 108, 118–34, 203–4; de Article 123 (Mexico), 74
la Rúa’s Alliance government of, 121–22; Autonomous CTA (Argentina), 127, 132–33,
democratic transition in, 104, 109–11, 203, 218n16
217n4, 221n1; economic recession and Aylwin, Patricio, 41, 61, 215n9
inflation in, 112, 121–22, 128–31, 218n12;
flexibilized labor in, 8, 29–30, 32, 103–4, Bachelet, Michelle, 41, 64–68, 216nn12,17
109, 113–18, 124–26, 195–97, 201- 202, 204, Barrales, Alejandra, 99
217n8, 218n14; Framework Agreement for Barrios, Froilán, 178–79
Employment, Productivity, and Social Eq- Bensusán, Graciela, 74
uity of, 117; GDP and CPI of, 128f, 217n5, Berg, Janine, 46
218n11; heterogeneity of working classes in, Berzoini, Ricardo, 159

119; historical role of organized labor in, Boeninger, Edgardo, 215n9
104–8; import substitution industrializa- Bolivarian Socialist Workers’ Force (FSBT)
tion in, 106; labor reforms in, 103, 107–8, (Venezuela), 176
Neoliberal Era
246 · Index
Bolivia, 205; extractive industry impacts on Cardoso, Fernando Henrique, 206; labor code
indigenous communities in, 214n7; rentier reforms of, 136, 143–53, 155, 160, 197–98;
populism in, 163–64, 188–89, 218n1; social Plano Real of, 143–47, 197
welfare policies in, 208 Caro Figueroa, Armando, 117
Bottom-up informalization, 42 Carvalho Filho, Irineu de, 146–47
Brazil, 5, 135–37, 140–61, 197–99, 201–2, 205–7, Cavallo, Domingo, 112, 217n6
213n3(Ch1); Cardoso’s labor policies in, CGT (Argentina). See General Confederation
136–37, 143–53, 155, 160, 197–98, 206, 219n4; of Labor
codification of workers rights in, 15–20, CGT-Azopardo (Argentina), 116
136, 140–42, 152–53, 205–6; Constitutional CGT-San Martín (Argentina), 116
reforms of 2008 in, 156, 160, 199, 206; Con- Chávez, Hugo, 7, 9–10, 199–200; control of
stitution of 1988 of, 140, 142–43; corporatist mass organizations under, 167, 173, 177–79,
labor structure in, 10–11, 140–44; decline of 183, 188–89, 199–200; coup of 1992 and,
organized labor in, 37–38, 152–53; demo- 169–70; death of, 187; economic policies
cratic transition in, 109, 143–44, 207, 221n1; of, 166, 171–72, 187; failed coup of 2002
economic growth and GDP in, 147, 148f, 151, against, 181; failed recall referendum of
157–61, 197–98; flexibilized labor in, 11, 29, 2004 of, 181–82; labor policies of, 163–64,
33, 136–37, 148–53, 155–56, 158–61, 197–99, 166–67, 170–89, 204–5; rentier populism of,
201–2, 213n3(Ch2); formal sector employ- 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 208, 221n1; social
ment in, 158–61; hyperinflation in, 143–44, welfare policies of, 162, 164, 167, 181–83, 200,
219n3; import substitution industrialization 208, 219n3; voter coalition of, 167, 182–83,
(ISI) in, 7; informal economic sector in, 136; 204, 219nn2,3; workers’ rights rhetoric of,
labor code reforms in, 135–37, 143–53, 155, 162–63. See also Venezuela
206, 219n4; labor justice and bargaining Chile, 1, 5, 39–69, 191–93, 202–3, 213n3(Ch1);
system in, 140–43, 146, 156–57, 218n1; Lula’s codification of workers rights in, 15–20, 51;
labor policies in, 10–11, 136–37, 150, 154–60, collective bargaining rights in, 43–44, 57,
197–99, 206; Lula’s social safety-net policies 63, 66, 68, 193, 215nn8,11, 216n12; Concert-
in, 155, 159–60; neoliberalism and structural ación government of, 37, 40, 50–51, 55–68,
reforms in, 7, 11, 25, 136–37, 197–98, 206–7; 192; decline of organized labor in, 10, 33, 42,
new middle class in, 159; New Unionism 43–44, 45t, 51, 55–69; democratic transi-
movement in, 143; pink tide government of, tion in, 40, 55, 61, 192, 221n1; economic
37; poverty and inequality rates in, 135–36, crisis of 1982–83 in, 54; extractive sector
149, 150f, 158–61; real minimum wage in, in, 35, 214n7; flexibilized labor in, 7–8, 29,
145f, 155, 157, 158, 160; Rousseff government 30, 40–51, 56–69, 191–93, 200–201, 214n2;
of, 199, 206; strike activity in, 152; unem- global economic competition of, 192–93;
ployment rate in, 148–49, 151, 152, 157, 158; income inequality in, 40, 47–49, 64, 69,
union density in, 152, 153f, 206 215nn4,5,6; international commodity boom
Burgess, Katrina, 170 and, 35; job security law in, 42–43; Labor
Buxton, Julia, 166 Bureau of, 47, 214n3; labor–political party
links in, 9, 10, 11, 56–57, 192; labor reforms
Caldera, Rafael, 169–70 of 2017 of, 44–46, 68–69, 215n8, 216n17;
Calderón, Felipe, 71, 76, 81–83; declining labor reforms under Concertación in, 46,
unionization under, 95–99; labor relations 56–68, 215nn9,10,11, 216n12; labor reforms
under, 85, 90–95, 100–101 under Pinochet in, 9, 30, 40, 42–44, 53,
Cambiemos (Argentina), 133 56–59, 67, 192, 214n2; neoliberalism and
Cameron, Maxwell A., 165 structural reforms in, 7, 9, 11, 25, 51–56, 190,
Capacity. See Organizational capacity 202–3, 207, 214n1; Nueva Mayoría coalition
Cárdenas, Lázaro, 19, 166 of, 68; Popular Unity government of, 51, 52;
Index · 247
power of business in, 51–56; social safety Corradi, Juan Eugenio, 12

net reforms in, 53, 61; strike activity in, Council of Small and Medium-Sized Business
59, 60t, 65, 67, 216n13; subcontracting law (CPME) (Chile), 52
of, 64–66; tax evasion rates in, 48, 215n6;
unemployment rates in, 40, 42, 46, 49–50, Daer, Adolfo, 121
192, 215n7; wages in, 28–29, 46, 49 Darbishire, Owen, 42
China, 28, 35, 36, 214n6 De la Rúa, Fernando, 121–22, 217n6
Chirino, Orlando, 184, 187–88 D’Elía, Luis, 217n9
Citizenship, 20–21 Democratic Action (AD) (Venezuela), 17,
Classist and Combative Current (CCC) (Ar- 168–71, 219n5
gentina), 120–22 Democratic Federation of Unions of Public
Clientelism, 72, 75–76, 79–81, 85, 97–98, 100, Servants (FEDESSP) (Mexico), 96–97
180–81. See also Corporatism Democratic Republican Union (URD) (Ven-
Collective bargaining rights: in Argentina, ezuela), 168
105, 108, 111, 115, 118, 120–21, 123–27, 202; Destefani San Martín, Luis, 68
in Brazil, 140–43, 146, 156–57, 218n1; in Development strategies. See Neoliberal devel-
Chile, 43–44, 57, 63, 66, 68, 193, 215nn8,11, opment strategies
216n12; of flexibilized labor, 31–32, 39–40, Divino, José Angelo, 146
43–44, 57, 63, 66, 68, 178–79, 202, 215nn8,11, Downtown Light and Power (LFC) (Mexico),
216n12; in Mexico, 87–88, 93, 202, 216n3; in 70–71
Venezuela, 171–74, 178–79, 181, 183–88, 200 Duhalde, Eduarde, 126–27
Collier, David, 5–6, 167 Durán, Gonzálo, 48
Collier, Ruth Berins, 5–6
Colombia, 213n3(Ch2) Echeverría, Magdalena, 47, 50
Comparative historical analysis (CHA), 6–7, Economic Commission for Latin America and
11, 200–207, 213n2(Ch1) the Caribbean (ECLAC), 34–35
Confederation of Copper Workers (CTC) Economic efficiency, 40, 214n1
(Chile), 65–66 Economic growth and employment goals,
Confederation of Mexican Workers (CT/ 2–4, 34–38, 208–11; in Argentina, 122–33;
CTM), 92, 96–99, 216n4 in Brazil, 155, 159–60; capacity of labor
Confederation of Production and Commerce organizations to promote, 3–4, 8, 33, 191,
(CPC) (Chile), 52, 54, 57, 61, 66 213n1(Ch1); neo-structuralist goals of,
Confederation of Workers of the Popular 34–35, 137, 139–40
Economy (CTEP) (Argentina), 133–34 Ecuador, 205; extractive industry impacts on
Consolidation of Labor Laws (CLT) (Brazil), indigenous communities in, 214n7; rentier
136, 140–42 populism in, 163–64, 188–89, 218n1; social
Contreras, Dante, 46 welfare policies in, 208
Convertibility Law (Argentina), 112–17, 121, Ellner, Steve, 166, 180–81
123–24, 217n7 Employers’ Confederation of the Mexican
Cook, Maria Lorena, 30, 31, 42, 151 Republic (COPARMEX), 99
Corporatism, 13, 22–24, 97–98, 213n2(Ch2); of Employment Organization Law (Argentina),
Argentina’s CGT and Peronist governments, 125–26
104–10, 121–34; of Brazil’s labor-party rela- Escalona, Camilo, 66
tionships, 140–43; clientelistic relationships Esparza Flores, Martin, 92
of, 72, 75–76, 79–81, 85, 97–98, 100, 180–81; Estevão, Marcello, 146–47
of Mexico’s labor-party relationships, 72–76, Export economies, 13–14
84–85, 89–90, 100–101, 203, 216n4; of Ven- Export processing zones (EPZs), 27
ezuela’s labor movement, 168–83 External flexibility, 30, 47
248 · Index
Extractive industries, 13–14, 35–37; expansion Fox, Vicente, 76, 81–83; failed labor reforms of,
of, 36–37, 214nn7,8; government revenues 81, 86–87, 100; labor relations of, 85–90, 95;
from, 35, 167, 169, 181, 187; Great Recession union declines under, 95–99
of 2008–9 and, 36; impact on indigenous Frank, Volker, 62
communities of, 214n7; in Venezuela, 167, Frei, Eduardo, 41, 62
169, 175–76, 179, 181, 187 French, John D., 165
Front for Country in Solidarity (FrePaSo)
Fairfield, Tasha, 215n5 (Argentina), 121
Farnsworth, Eric, 39, 139 Front for Victory (FpV) (Argentina), 123,
Federal Labor Law (LFT) (Mexico), 74–76, 79, 130–32, 218n15
86, 93, 98–100; corporatist framework of, Functional flexibility, 30
74–76, 100; Exclusion clause in, 75, 81; flexi-
bilized labor under, 77–78, 99–100; under Galvão, Andréia, 152–53
PAN governance, 81, 85–94, 100–101 Gammage, Sarah, 48
Federation of Chambers of Commerce and General Confederation of Labor (CGT)
Production (FEDECAMARAS) (Venezu- (Argentina), 9, 18, 103–34, 196, 204; divi-
ela), 176 sions and segmentation by, 116, 119–21,
Federation of Public Service Worker’s Unions 122, 132–33, 217n10; health care services of,
(FSTSE) (Mexico), 96–97 105–6, 110–11, 116–18, 120–21, 126; impact
Fernández de Kirchner, Cristina, 103, 123, of neoliberal reforms on, 103–4, 110–11, 118;
127–31, 195–97, 204, 219n1 Kirchner administrations and, 125–33, 196,
Flexibilized labor, 1–11, 13, 28–33, 114, 191–211; 204, 219n1; labor challenges to, 109; leader-
collective bargaining rights of, 31–32, ship structure of, 110; military dictatorship
39–40, 43–44, 57, 63, 66, 68, 178–79, 202, and, 107–9, 217n2; monopoly status of, 105–
215nn8,11, 216n12; comparative analysis of, 6, 109, 117–18, 120–21, 125–27; new alliances
200–207; economic inequality and, 1–3; of, 133–34, 218n17; Peronist administrations
external, internal, and functional forms of, and, 104–10, 121–34, 204; strike activity of,
30, 47; in the formal sector, 32–33; forms of 121–22, 133, 218n16; weakening of, 118–34
temporary employment of, 114–15; hetero- Gerring, John, 5
geneity in working experiences of, 11, 20, Globalization, 4–6, 213n1(Ch1)
30–33, 213n1(Ch2); long-term outcomes of, Global Jobs Pact, 2
2–3, 29–33, 78–81, 121–26, 151–53, 158–60, Gómez, Juan, 179
191–207; neo-structuralist approach and, Gómez Urrutia, Napoléon, 89–91
34–35, 137, 139–40; official rollbacks of, González, Rúben, 185
125–26; organization of, 119–20, 133–34, González Tapia, Mauricio, 68
205, 217n10; purported benefits of, 4, 7–11, Gordillo, Elba Esther, 89, 92–93
29–31, 40–42, 71, 117, 135–40, 214n1; rates of, Great Depression, 16–20
33; rentier populism and, 163–64, 199–200, Great Recession of 2008–9, 26, 28; in Argen-
208; top-down and bottom-up forms of, 42; tina, 128–31, 218n12; in Brazil, 155, 157–59;
unemployment rates and, 40, 42, 46, 49–50, extractive sector and, 36; in Mexico, 94
215n7; union declines and, 2, 32, 42, 166–67, Gutiérrez Fragoso, Valdemar, 93
208–11; wage declines of, 28–29, 46, 49, 78,
139; of women, 33; worker cooperatives and, Handlin, Samuel, 167, 219n3
177–79, 205, 218n17. See also Labor code Harrison, Graham, 25, 42
reforms; individual countries Hawkins, Kurt, 182
Força Sindical (Brazil), 156, 198 Heckman, James, 69
Formal employment, 33, 156 Hershberg, Eric, 165
Index · 249
ILO (International Labor Organization) 58–59; comparative analysis of, 200–207;

Conventions, 171–73, 177, 185–86 diversity of, 31–32; economic impact of,
Import substitution industrialization (ISI), 135–61; erosion of labor rights in, 1, 33;
6–7, 21–22, 76–77, 106 organizational capacity and, 3–4, 8, 33, 191,
Independent Political Electoral Organization 213n1(Ch1); of post-neoliberal regimes, 4–5,
Committee (COPEI) (Venezuela), 168, 11, 34–38; purported goals of, 4–5, 7–11,
170, 219n5 29–31, 40–42, 71, 117, 135–40, 214n1; states’
India, 35 roles in, 3; unemployment rates and, 42; un-
Informal economies, 8–11, 26–28, 32–33; in organized workers and, 9–11, 26–28, 32–33,
Brazil, 136; job creation and employment 213n3(Ch2); worker opposition to, 4, 138,
rates in, 28, 33, 42, 213n3(Ch2); legal 143. See also Flexibilized labor; Neoliberal
protections in, 11, 64–66; unorganized development strategies; Unions; Working
workers in, 9–11; women in, 33 classes; individual countries
Informal labor. See Flexibilized labor Labor Congress (CT) (Mexico), 216n1
Inter-American Development Bank, 40, 41, Labor courts, 146
138 Labor movement. See Unions
Internal flexibility, 47 Lagos, Ricardo, 41, 62–64
International financial institutions (IFIs), Law 25,013 (Argentina), 120–21
1–3, 190–91; power under neoliberalism Law for Small and Medium Enterprises (Ar-
of, 24, 123; promotion of labor reforms gentina) 5, 114
by, 3, 13, 30, 40, 41, 71, 138, 145. See also Leftism (socialism), 164–67, 187–89, 205
Neoliberal development strategies Left populism. See Rentier populism
International Labor Organization (ILO), 2 Leiva, Fernando Ignacio, 58
International Monetary Fund (IMF), 1–2, Levinsohn, James, 44
122, 190–91; Brazil’s status with, 157; Levitsky, Steven, 165–66
focus on economic inequality by, 2; labor Light and Power union (Argentina), 217n4
reforms promoted by, 40, 41, 138 López, Diego, 47, 50
International Revolutionary Party (PRI) Lula da Silva, Luiz Inácio, 10–11, 145, 206;
(Mexico). See PRI economic policies of, 154–55, 197–98; labor
Intraregional migration, 208, 209 policies of, 136–37, 150, 155–60, 197–99;
Involuntary underemployment, 112 social programs of, 155, 159–60; union
background of, 154
Johnson, Michael E., 182
Jorratt, Michel, 215n5 Macri, Mauricio, 133
Justicialist Party (PJ) (Argentina). See Per- Maduro, Nicolás, 10, 163, 187–89, 205,
onist party 220nn13,14
Márquez, Gustavo, 139
Katz, Harry C., 42 Martínez, Arturo, 62–64, 66
Kirchner, Cristina. See Fernández de Kirch- Martínez, Benito, 99–100
ner, Cristina Máspero, Marcela, 184
Kirchner, Néstor, 103, 122–27, 129, 195–97, Mazali, Antonio Alberto, 146
204, 219n1 Mazzuca, Sebastián, 163, 166, 188–89, 218n1
Menem, Carlos, 103–4, 111–21, 195–96, 204;
Labor and Trade Union Action Unit (UASG) labor reforms of, 103, 111–16, 118, 121, 132;
(Venezuela), 187–88, 220n12 political support of, 118–19
Labor code reforms, 1–11, 24–26, 28–33, Mexican Oil Worker’s Union (STPRM), 92, 96
39–41; adaptation of organized labor to, Mexican Union Front (FSM), 96–97, 216n1
250 · Index
Mexican Union of Electricians (SME), 70–71, National Employment Law (Argentina), 114–16
91–99, 216n1 National Federation of Regional, Sectoral and
Mexico, 1, 5, 70–101, 193–95, 202, 213n3(Ch1); Allied Trade Unions of Health Workers
codification of workers rights in, 15–16, (FENASINTRASALUD) (Venezuela),
19–20, 74–76, 194; Constitution of 1917 173–74
of, 15, 19; corporatist labor-party links in, National Federation of Unions with Work-
11, 72–76, 79–81, 84–85, 89–90, 97–98, ers in the Informal Economy (FENASEI)
100–101, 203, 216n4; decline of organized (Argentina), 217n10
labor in, 33, 70–76, 78–81, 95–101; energy National Teachers’ Union (SNTE) (Mexico),
monopolies of, 81, 82, 91–92; Federal 89–90, 92–94, 96
Labor Law (LFT) of, 74–76, 79, 81, 86, National Union of Miners and Metal Workers
93, 98–100; flexibilized labor in, 8, 30, (SNTMM) (Mexico), 89–91, 93–94, 96
32, 71–72, 77–81, 83–84, 99–100, 193–95, National Union of Social Security Workers
201–2; import substitution industrial- (SNTSS) (Mexico), 93–94, 96–97
ization in, 76–77; independent union National Union of Workers (UNT) (Mexico),
activism in, 70–71, 88–101, 194–95, 216n1; 93, 96–97, 216n1
international commodity boom and, National Workers’ Union (UNT) (Venezuela),
35; labor reforms in, 70–73, 76, 81, 82, 172, 175–77, 220nn5,6,12,14
100–101, 193; manufacturing (maquila) Negri, João Alberto de, 146
sector in, 27–28; neoliberalism and struc- Neo-extractivism, 35, 214n8
tural reforms in, 7, 11, 25, 71–72, 76–81, Neoliberal development strategies, 1–11, 24–33,
190, 193–94, 203; PAN and democratic 137–40, 190–91, 206–7, 210–11; Argentina’s
transition in, 70–73, 76, 81–101, 194, 221n1; adoption of, 103–5, 109–18, 132, 217nn1,2;
poverty and falling wages in, 78–83; PRI’s Brazil’s adoption of, 136–37, 143–44; capac-
authoritarian era in, 70–81, 94, 100–101; ity of labor organizations under, 3–4, 8,
Revolution of 1910–17 of, 14; social 33, 191, 213n1(Ch1); catalysts of, 24; Chile’s
security pensions in, 81–82, 87, 99; strike adoption of, 7, 9, 11, 25, 51–56, 214n1;
activity in, 78–83, 89–91, 93–94, 216n2; extractive industries in, 35, 214n8; import
Supreme Court rulings on labor regula- substitution industrialization (ISI) in, 6–7,
tions in, 101; unemployment rates in, 21–22, 76–77, 106; informal economy under,
79f, 82–84; white unions and protection 8–10, 26–28, 32–33, 213n3(Ch2); long-term
contracts in, 87–88, 93, 202, 216n3 impact of, 2–3, 5, 27, 29–33, 78–81, 121–26,
Micheli, Pablo, 127 151–53, 158–60, 191–207; manufacturing
Migration, 208, 209 sector and export processing zones (EPZs)
Minimum wage policies, 139–40; in Brazil, of, 27–28, 35; Mexico’s adoption of, 71–72,
145f, 155, 157, 158, 160; in Venezuela, 173 76–81; neo-structuralist response to, 34–35,
Monsueto, Sandro Eduardo, 157 137, 139–40; post-neoliberal reactions to,
Movement of Argentinian Workers (MTA), 2–3, 13, 34–38, 123, 214n5; state corporatism
119–20, 196 and, 22–24, 213n2(Ch2); terminology used
Moyano, Hugo, 119, 121–22, 125, 129–32 in, 24–25; transnationalized economies
Munck, Ronaldo, 30 under, 13, 26–28; unemployment rates
Murillo, Maria Victoria, 31 under, 32; union declines and, 2–3, 5, 8–10,
32, 33, 37–38, 58–59, 166–67, 201–7, 210;
National Action Party (PAN) (Mexico). See Venezuela’s adoption of, 7, 9–10, 25, 162–63,
PAN 166–67. See also Flexibilized labor; Labor
National Copper Company (CODELCO) code reforms
(Chile), 65–66 Neo-structuralism, 34–35, 137, 139–40
Index · 251
New left governments. See Post-neoliberal Piñera, José, 53

regimes Piñera, Sebastián, 216n16
North American Free Trade Agreement Pink tide governments, 13, 26, 34–38, 210–11,
(NAFTA), 77 214n5. See also Post-neoliberal regimes
Pinochet, Augusto: labor reforms of, 9, 30, 40,
Olivera, José, 99 42–44, 53, 56–59, 67, 192, 214n2; power of
Opposition and strike activity: in Argentina, business sector under, 51–56
120–22, 126–27, 130–31, 133–34, 218n16; Political parties. See Clientelism; Corporatism;
in Brazil, 152; in Chile, 59, 60t, 65, 67, specific parties
216n13; in Mexico, 78–83, 89–91, 93–94, Popular Assembly of the Peoples of Oaxaca
216n2; in Venezuela, 175–77, 181, 184–85 (APPO) (Mexico), 91
Organizational capacity, 3–4, 8, 33, 191, Populism, 13, 20–24; in Argentina, 105, 219n1;
213n1(Ch1) in Chávez’s Venezuela, 162–89; classical
Organized labor. See Unions forms of, 166; construction of citizenship
Orinoco Iron Miners’ Union (Venezuela), in, 20–21; control of labor under, 21–24, 167,
185 173, 177–79, 183; import substitution indus-
Ortega, Carlos, 172 trialization strategy of, 21–22; rentier forms
Ortega, Luisa, 220n14 of, 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 199–200, 208,
Ovalle, Alfredo, 66 218n1, 221n1; socialism vs. left-wing forms
Oxhorn, Philip, 213n1(Ch2) of, 164–67, 187–89, 205
Post-neoliberal regimes, 4–5, 11, 34–38, 191,
Pagés, Carmen, 69, 139 210–11; in Argentina, 122–33; in Brazil,
PAN (National Action Party) (Mexico), 10–11, 136–37, 150, 154–60, 197–99, 206; ex-
71–72, 81–101, 194–95; corporatist/clien- tractive sector expansion in, 35–37; focus on
telistic labor relations of, 84–85, 100–101, economic inequality in, 2–3, 13, 34–38, 139–
203; economic growth under, 82–83; 40; international commodity boom and,
independent union activism under, 70–71, 35–37, 210, 214nn7,8; labor code reforms
88–101, 194–95; labor policies of, 85–90; by, 4–5, 11, 34–38; market economies in,
strike activity under, 83, 88–90 50–51, 55–56, 61; neo-structuralist goals of,
Party of the Democratic Revolution (PRD) 34–35, 137, 139–40; pink tide governments
(Mexico), 87 of, 13, 26, 34–38, 214n5; rentier populism
Pereira da Silva, Arthur Simão, 157 under, 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 199–200,
Pérez, Carlos Andrés, 169–70 208, 219n1, 221n1; socialism vs. populism in,
Pérez Borges, Stalin, 220nn5,6 164–67, 187–89, 205; social program expan-
Pérez Jiménez, Marcos, 168 sion in, 36–37, 214nn5,8; union declines in,
Perón, Isabel, 107 37–38, 55–56, 191; in Venezuela, 162–89
Perón, Juan Domingo, 18–19, 105–7, 166 PRI (International Revolutionary Party) (Mex-
Peronist party (PJ) (Argentina), 103; electoral ico), 71–81, 87, 100–101, 193–95; corporatist/
defeats of, 109, 120–21; Kirchner admin- clientelistic labor relations of, 72–76, 85,
istrations of, 103, 122–34, 195–97, 204, 100, 203, 216n4; electoral defeat of, 84–85;
219n1; neoliberal reforms and, 103–4; role financial resources of, 73; neoliberalism and
of CGT in, 103–10, 121, 129–34. See also structural reforms of, 76–81; strike activity
General Confederation of Labor under, 79, 83, 216n2
Peronist Youth, 123 Progressive governments. See Post-neoliberal
Petróleos de Venezuela (PDVSA), 175–76, regimes
179 Progressive neo-extractivism, 214n8
Piñeiro, Camila, 180 Protection contracts, 87–88, 93, 216n3
252 · Index
Radical Civic Union (UCR) (Argentina), Sole Union of Electrical Workers (SUTERM)
109–11, 121–22, 217n4 (Mexico), 92, 96
Regional Confederation of Mexican Workers Sole Workers’ Confederation (CUT) (Brazil),
(CROM) (Mexico), 96–97, 216n4 11, 143, 152, 154, 156, 198–99, 206
Rentier populism, 163–64, 166–67, 199–200, Soto Martínez, Leobardo, 98
208, 218n1, 221n1 State corporatism, 213n2(Ch2)
Research methodology, 5–7; case studies in, Stokes, Susan C., et al., 182
5–6; comparative historical analysis in, 6–7, Strikes. See Opposition and strike activity
11, 12–38, 200–207, 213n2(Ch1) Structural reforms (SAPs). See Neoliberal
Revolutionary Confederation of Workers and development strategies
Peasants (CROC) (Mexico), 92, 96, 216n4
Roberts, Kenneth M., 165–66 Thomas, Jim, 29, 42
Rodrigues de Azevedo, Marcello, 152 Top-down informalization, 42
Rodríguez, Agustin, 99 Transnational corporations (TNCs), 27–28
Rodríguez y Pacheco, Alfredo, 98–100
Rosas, Guillermo, 182 Unions, 1–5, 63, 208–11; adaptation to neo-
Rousseff, Dilma, 199, 206 liberal reforms by, 58–59, 210; clientelistic
leaders of, 72, 75–76, 79–81, 85, 97–98, 100;
Sabatini, Christopher, 39, 139 competition and factionalism among, 57–
Salinas, Carlos, 77–80, 83, 94, 100–101 58; control of elections in, 170–75; corporat-
Sánchez, Sergio, 98–99 ist party relations of, 20–24, 72–76, 89–90,
Schmitter, Philippe C., 213n2(Ch2) 100–101, 135, 140–43, 168–77, 213n2(Ch2),
Schneider, Ben R., 106 216n4; decline in Argentina of, 9–10, 33,
Schrank, Andrew, 31 37–38, 108, 118–34, 203–4; decline in Brazil
Siavelis, Peter, 68 of, 37–38, 135, 152–53; decline in Chile
Single National Union of Public Employees of, 42, 43–44, 45t, 51, 55–69; decline in
of the National Institute for Nutrition Mexico of, 33, 70–76, 78–81, 95–101; decline
(SUNEP-INN) (Venezuela), 174–75 in Venezuela of, 162–64, 166–67, 170–89,
Single National Union of Public, Professional, 205; economic inequality and, 2–3, 32, 33;
Technical, and Administrative Employees of negotiation of worker protections by, 15–20,
the Ministry of Health and Social Develop- 105–8; opposition to labor code reforms
ment (SUNEP-SAS) (Venezuela), 173–74 by, 4, 138, 143; organizational capacity of,
Smilde, David, 166 3–4, 8, 33, 191, 213n1(Ch1); origins of, 14–15;
Socialism, 164–67, 187–89, 205 political party links of, 4, 8–11, 33, 37–38,
Socialist Party (Chile), 9, 202 56–57, 202–5; in post-neoliberal regimes,
Socialist Workers’ Central (CST) (Venezuela), 37–38, 55–56, 191; repression of leaders of,
175–76 184–86; weakening of, 2–3, 5, 8–10, 32, 33,
Social safety nets, 8, 13, 32; Argentina’s 37–38, 201–7. See also Collective bargain-
administration of, 105–6, 116–18, 131; in ing rights; Opposition and strike activity;
Chávez’s Venezuela, 162, 164, 167, 181–83, specific unions
200, 208, 219n3; Chile’s reforms of, 53, 61; in United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), 9,
Lula’s Brazil, 155, 159–60; Mexico’s pension 176–77, 202, 219n5
reforms of, 81–82, 87, 99; pink tide govern- United Workers’ Central (CUT) (Chile),
ment expansion of, 36–37, 214n8; worker 56–58, 62–66
cooperatives in, 218n17 UN post-2015 Development Agenda Goal 8, 2
Societal corporatism, 213n2(Ch2) Unregistered workers, 32–33, 112, 113f, 124,
Solari, Ricardo, 62–63 218n14
Index · 253
Vargas, Getúlio, 17, 140–43, 156 Venezuelan Communist Party (PCV), 219n4
Vega, Arturo, 98 Vicente Gómez, Juan, 16, 177
Venezuela, 5, 162–89, 199–200, 202, 204–5;
Chávez regime of, 7, 9–10, 162–64, 166–67, Wage Adjustment Law (Brazil), 146–47
170–89, 199–200, 204–5, 213n3(Ch1); codifi- Washington Consensus, 24, 77, 137–38, 191. See
cation of workers rights in, 15–20, 168, 179, also Neoliberal development strategies
183; collective bargaining rights in, 171–74, Weyland, Kurt, 166
178–79, 181, 183–88, 200; control of mass or- Worker cooperatives, 177–81, 205, 218n17
ganizations in, 167, 173, 177–79, 183, 188–89, Workers’ Confederation of Venezuela (CTV),
199–200; coup of 1992 in, 169–70; decline 220n12; Chávez and, 170–77; Punto Fijo
of organized labor in, 10, 33, 37–38, 162–64, regime and, 168–70
166–67, 170–89, 205; extractive sector Workers’ Party (PT) (Brazil), 11, 154, 198–99,
revenues in, 35, 167, 169, 181, 187; flexibilized 201–2, 206
labor in, 9–10, 33, 163, 166–67, 170, 177–79, Working classes, 13–20; codification of
187–88, 199–200, 204–5, 213n3(Ch2); rights of, 15–20, 51, 74–76, 105–8, 137–39,
international commodity boom and, 35; 168, 179, 183, 190; early organization of,
labor–political party links in, 9–10, 168–77, 14–15; export-producing sectors of, 13–14;
205; land reform in, 175; Maduro regime of, heterogeneity and growth of, 13, 20–21,
10, 163, 187–89, 205, 220nn13,14; minimum 119; intraregional migration of, 208, 209;
wage policies in, 173; neoliberalism and post-neoliberal governments and, 13; rapid
structural reforms in, 7, 9–10, 25, 162–63, urbanization of, 14. See also Unions
166–67, 169–70, 199, 204, 207; oil industry World Bank, 1–2, 40, 41, 138, 190–91
of, 167, 169, 175–76, 179, 181, 187; opposition World Development Report of 2013 (World
and strike activity in, 175–77, 181, 184–85; Bank), 2
Pacto de Avenimiento Obrero-Patronal World Economic Outlook (IMF), 2
of, 168; Punto Fijo regime of, 7, 9, 163, 164, World Trade Organization (WTO), 28
166–70, 199, 204–5, 219nn4,5; rentier popu-
lism in, 163–64, 166–67, 188–89, 199–200, Yasky, Hugo, 127
218n1, 221n1; repression of labor leaders in,
184–86, 200; social welfare missions in, 162, Zedillo, Ernesto, 77–79, 83, 94
164, 167, 181–83, 186–87, 200, 208, 219n3;
worker cooperatives in, 177–81, 205. See also
Chávez, Hugo
Paul W. Posner is associate professor in the Department of Political Sci-
ence at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. His current research
focuses on democratization and political participation in Latin America.
In particular, he is interested in the impact of economic globalization and
related state reforms on social organization and collective action in the re-
gion. Current projects examine labor politics, the politics of social welfare
resource distribution, the New Left and populism in Latin America, with
specific focus on Chile, Ecuador, and Venezuela. His work has been pub-
lished in the Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs; Democ-
ratization; Latin American Politics and Society; Political Power and Social
Theory; International Journal of Urban and Regional Research; and New
Political Economy. His book, State, Market, and Democracy in Chile: The
Constraint of Popular Participation, assesses the impact neoliberal reform
has had on the ability of Chile’s urban poor to organize and represent their
interests in the political arena.
Viviana Patroni is associate professor in the Department of Social Science

at York University, where she teaches in the International Development
Studies program. Her research focuses on the political economy of Latin
America, the transformation of the world of work in this region since the
1980s, the centrality of labor struggles in shaping patterns of development,
and the transformation of labor markets in Argentina since the 1990s. She
has also contributed to the study of the impact of Canadian investment
in the Latin American mining sector and, as a codirector of a Canadian-
funded initiative, to a program of activities aimed at supporting the de-
velopment of a Latin American network for human rights education and
research. Her work has been published in the Canadian Journal of Politi-
cal Science; Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies;
Radical Review of Political Economics; and the Journal of Socialist Studies.
Her most recent work includes an interest in the rise of organizations
of informal workers and their challenge to prevalent views within labor
movements about their understanding of work and working class. Be-
tween 2000 and 2007 she was the director of the Centre for Research on
Latin America and the Caribbean, also at York University.
Jean François Mayer specializes in comparative politics and political eth-
nography. His research expertise is on social movements, labor markets,
and organization, as well as state-society relations in Latin America, with
a particular emphasis on Brazil and Mexico. His current work focuses
on the formal and informal strategies of resistance used by people work-
ing in precarious and informal environments; the sociopolitical impacts
of precarious and informal labor contexts (namely insecurity, marginal-
ization, poverty, and violence); and, more broadly, the manner in which
poor people organize to defend and advance their labor and social rights.
Mayer has published in a wide variety of academic journals, including
the Journal of Politics in Latin America; Journal of Social Policy; Bulletin
of Latin American Research; Latin Americanist; and the Journal of Iberian
and Latin American Research. Mayer has held numerous research grants,
among which an Insight Development Grant and a Standard Research
Grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Can-
ada (SSHRC), as well as a research grant from the International Develop-
ment Research Center of Canada (IDRC).

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Democracy and Worker Organization

Paul W. Posner, Viviana Patroni,

University of Florida Press

This book may be available in an electronic edition.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

University of Florida Press

List of Figures vii

3.1. Annual Proportional Distribution of Collective Bargaining

3.2. Percentage of Private Sector Wage Workers Involved in Collective

6.7. Gini Index of Socioeconomic Inequality, 1985–2009 150

3.1. Rates of Unionization and Average Union Size, 1970–2012 45

3.3. Unemployment Rate by Decile of Family Income, 1990–2011 50

AD—Democratic Action (Acción Democrática)

de los Pueblos de Oaxaca)

CPC—Confederation of Production and Commerce (Confederación de

CPME—Council of Small and Medium-Sized Business (Consejo de la

Production (Federación de Cámaras y Asociaciónes de Comercio y

ISSSTE—Social Security and Social Services Institute for State Workers

PT—Workers’ Party (Partido dos Trabalhadores)

having missed out on some of their childhood because of work-related

ployment Law of, 114–16; neoliberalism and

218n11; heterogeneity of working classes in, Berzoini, Ricardo, 159

power of business in, 51–56; social safety Corradi, Juan Eugenio, 12

ILO (International Labor Organization) 58–59; comparative analysis of, 200–207;

New left governments. See Post-neoliberal Piñera, José, 53

Viviana Patroni is associate professor in the Department of Social Science

Abrahamer Rothstein, Frances. 2007. Globalization in Rural Mexico: Three Decades of

In Beyond Development: Alternative Visions from Latin America, edited by Miriam

journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0486613416635053. Print: vol. 50, no. 1 (2018):

———. 2010b. “Who Mobilizes? Participatory Democracy in Chávez’s Bolivarian Revo-

Serie de Documentos de Trabajo 379, March. Santiago: Departamento de Economía,

Orovitz Sanmartino, Jorge. 2010. “Crisis, acumulación y forma de estado en la Argentina

———. 2010. “Globalization and Labor in Four Developing Regions: An Institutional

ployment Law of, 114–16; neoliberalism and

218n11; heterogeneity of working classes in, Berzoini, Ricardo, 159

power of business in, 51–56; social safety Corradi, Juan Eugenio, 12

ILO (International Labor Organization) 58–59; comparative analysis of, 200–207;

New left governments. See Post-neoliberal Piñera, José, 53

Viviana Patroni is associate professor in the Department of Social Science

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