Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2

CHAPTER 2
TRANSMISSION MEDIA & SWITCHING

Syllabus Topics:
2.1 Communication Media:Guided Transmission Media, Twisted-Pair Cable, Coaxial Cable, Fiber- Optic
Cable
2.2 Unguided Transmission Media: Radio Waves, Microwaves, Infrared, Satellite
2.3 Line of Sight Transmission:point to point, Broadcast
2.4 Multiplexing: Frequency Division Multiplexing, Time Division Multiplexing
2.5 Switching: Circuit Switched Networks, Packet Switched Networks

2.1 Communication Media

 In a data transmission system, the transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and
receiver.
 For guided media, electromagnetic waves are guided along a solid medium, such as copper twisted pair,
copper coaxial cable, and optical Fiber.
 For unguided media, wireless transmission occurs through the atmosphere, outer space, or water.
 The characteristics and quality of a data transmission are determined both by the characteristics of the
medium and the characteristics of the signal.
 In the case of guided media, the medium itself is more important in determining the limitations of
transmission.

MSBTE QUE. What are different transmission media? (Summer-2017)

Transmission media is broadly classified into two groups.

1) Wired or Guided Media or Bound Transmission Media
(a) Twisted pair cable
(i) Shielded twisted pair
(ii) Unshielded twisted pair
(b) Co-axial cable
(c) Fiber optic cable
2) Wireless or Unguided Media or Unbound Transmission Media
(a) Radio wave
(b) Microwave
(c) infrared

MSBTE QUE. State the criteria for selection of transmission media.

(Winter-2014, Winter-2015, Summer-2016)
MSBTE QUE. Explain the factors to be considered while selecting a cable to establish a network.
(Summer-2018)

Criteria to be considered:
Factors to be considered while selecting a cable:
1. Bandwidth: It refers to the data carrying capacity of a channel or medium. Higherbandwidth
communication channels support higher data rates.
2. Flexibility: In order to expand network, the need for extra equipment or devices.
3. Reliability: The consistency of transmission media (effect of weather conditions).
4. Radiation: It refers to the leakage of signal from the medium due to undesirableelectrical
characteristics of the medium.
5. Noise Absorption: It refers to the susceptibility of the media to external electrical noisethat can
cause distortion of data signal.
6. Attenuation: It refers to loss of energy as signal propagates outwards. The amount ofenergy lost
depends on frequency.
7. Number of receivers. The number of users to be connected.

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
8. Transmission Rate: This refers to the speed or data transmission rate.
9. Cost and Ease of Installation
10. Distance between each device

MSBTE QUE. State the need of transmission media. (Summer-2016)

1. Transmission media are needed for interacting with the devices.

2. Without transmission media communication cannot take place.
3. Communication media is the middle part of sender and receiver.
4. It is needed for faster communication.
5. It is needed for reliable delivery of data with efficient methods.
6. It is needed for secure transmission of data

MSBTE QUE. Compare wire and wireless transmission. (Summer-2018)

MSBTE QUE. Define guided and unguided communication media. (Winter-2019)

MSBTE QUE. State the two advantages and disadvantages of unguided media (Winter-2019)

Advantages:
1.Use for long distance communication.
2. High speed data transmission.
3. Many receiver stations can receive signals from same sender station

Disadvantages :
1.Radio waves travel through Lowest portion of atmosphere which can have lot of noise and interfering
signals
2. Radio wave communication through unguided media is an insecure communication.
3.Radio wave propagation is susceptible to weather effects like rain, thunder and storm etc.

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
2.1.1 Guided Transmission Media

MSBTE QUE. Define guided media. List the types of guided media. (Winter-2015)

 Guided media are wired media, Electrical/Optical signals are passed through a solid medium (different
types of cables/wires) as the path traversed by the signals is guided by shape and length of the wire, this
type of media is called guided media.
 In Guided media, the signals are confined within the wire and do not propagate outside of the
wire/media.

Cable
 For guided transmission media, the transmission capacity, in terms of either data rate or bandwidth,
depends critically on the distance and on whether the medium is point-to-point or multipoint.
 Table indicates the characteristics typical for the common guided media for long-distance point-to-point
applications;

Types of Guided Media:

1. Copper Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP),
2. Copper Shielded Twisted Pair (STP),
3. Co-axial cables
4. Fiber Optic Cables.

MSBTE QUE. State characteristics of cables. (Summer-2016)

1. Bandwidth
2. Transmission impairments
3. Interference
4. Number of receivers
5. Range of communication

2.1.2 Twisted-Pair Cable

MSBTE QUE. Explain twisted pair cable with neat sketch. (Winter-2015, Summer-2018)

The least expensive and most widely used guided transmission medium is twisted pair.

Figure Twisted Pair Cable, UTP & STP

Physical Description
 A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular spiral pattern.
 A wire pair acts as a single communication link.
 Typically, a number of these pairs are bundled together into a cable by wrapping them in a tough
protective sheath.

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 Over longer distances, cables may contain hundreds of pairs.
 The twisting tends to decrease the crosstalk interference between adjacent pairs in a cable.
 Neighboring pairs in a bundle typically have somewhat different twist lengths to reduce the crosstalk
interference.
 On long-distance links, the twist length typically varies from 5 to 15 cm. The wires in a pair have
thicknesses of from 0.4 to 0.9 mm.

Transmission Characteristics
 Twisted pair may be used to transmit both analog and digital transmission.
 For analog signals, amplifiers are required about every 5 to 6 km.
 For digital transmission (using either analog or digital signals), repeaters are required every 2 or 3 km.
 Compared to other commonly used guided transmission media (coaxial cable, optical fiber), twisted pair
is limited in distance, bandwidth, and data rate.
 Analog
— Amplifiers every 5km to 6km
 Digital
— Use either analog or digital signals
— repeater every 2km or 3km
 Limited distance
 Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
 Limited data rate (100MHz)
 Susceptible to interference and noise
Unshielded and Shielded Twisted Pair

MSBTE QUE. Draw and explain unshielded twisted pair cable (Winter-2018)

Unshielded twisted pair is the most common kind of copper telephone wiring. Twisted pair is the ordinary
copper wire that connects home and many business computers to the telephone company. To reduce
crosstalk or electromagnetic induction between pairs of wires, two insulated copper wires are twisted
around each other. Each signal on twisted pair requires both wires

Connectors:
i. The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for Registered Jack).
ii. The RJ45 is a keyed connector (the connector can be inserted in only one way).

Application:
1. Local Area Networks, such as 10Base-T and 100Base-T, use twisted pair cable.
2. The most common application of the twisted pair is also the telephone system.

MSBTE QUE. Give any two disadvantages of unshielded twisted pair cable. (Winter-2014)

 Twisted pair comes in two varieties: unshielded and shielded.

 Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is ordinary telephone wire.
 Office buildings, by universal practice, are prewired with excess unshielded twisted pair, more than is
needed for simple telephone support.

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
 This is the least expensive of all the transmission media commonly used for local area networks and is
easy to work with and easy to install.
 Unshielded twisted pair is subject to external electromagnetic interference, including interference from
nearby twisted pair and from noise generated in the environment.
 A way to improve the characteristics of this medium is to shield the twisted pair with a metallic braid or
sheathing that reduces interference.
 This shielded twisted pair (STP) provides better performance at higher data rates.
 However, it is more expensive and more difficult to work with than unshielded twisted pair.

Category 3 and Category 5 UTP

EIA-568-A recognizes three categories of UTP cabling:
• Category 3:
UTP cables and associated connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up
to 16 MHz
Voice grade found in most offices
Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm
• Category 4:
UTP cables and associated connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up
to 20 MHz
• Category 5:
UTP cables and associated connecting hardware whose transmission characteristics are specified up
to 100 MHz
Categories
Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings
Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm
• Category 6
up to 250 MHz (suitable for up to 1000Base-T, expected for 10GBase-T)
Cat 6a up to 500 MHz
• Category 7
up to 1000 MHz
Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons
 Cheap
 Easy to work with
 Low data rate
 Short range
Applications
 By far the most common transmission medium for both analog and digital signals is twisted pair.
 It is the most commonly used medium in the telephone network and is the workhorse for
communications within buildings.
 In the telephone system, individual residential telephone sets are connected to the local telephone
exchange, or “end office,” by twisted-pair wire. These are referred to as subscriber loops.
 Within an office building, each telephone is also connected to a twisted pair, which goes to the in-house
private branch exchange (PBX) system or to a Centrex facility at the end office.
 Twisted pair is also the most common medium used for digital signaling.
 For connections to a digital data switch or digital PBX within a building, a data rate of 64 kbps is
common.
 Twisted pair is also commonly used within a building for local area networks supporting personal
computers.
 Data rates for such products are typically in the neighborhood of 10 Mbps.

MSBTE QUE. Why the network cable is twisted? (Summer-2017, Winter-2017)

 Twisted pair cabling are used in network because its wiring has two conductors of a single circuit

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from
external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables,
and eliminates crosstalk between neighboring pairs.

MSBTE QUE. How cross cable is created? Draw figure and explain. Give its application.
(Summer-2015)

Crossover cable is created by connecting the two UTP cables by swapping transmission and reception
signals as shown below: Here, One end of the cable is crimped in the same way as straight cable, on the
other end the following change has to be done, 1-White and 3 orange- white are to be connected 2 –Green
and 6 orange are to be connected as shown in the fig below.

Application:
1. While connecting one computer to another without going through router, switch or hub, the
crossover cables are used.
2. These are also used when connecting one computer to a device directly, without any other
connecting device.
3. Cross cable is used for connecting similar level devices.
For example : two computers or connecting computer with hub since all are level 1devices.

2.1.3 Coaxial Cable

MSBTE QUE. Draw the constructional sketch of co-axial cable. Describe any three characteristics of
co-axial cable. (Summer-2015)
MSBTE QUE. List type of cable. Draw and label the constructional sketch of co-axial cable
(Summer-2016)
MSBTE QUE. Draw a neat sketch and describe the construction of co-axial cable. (Winter-2016)
MSBTE QUE. Draw and explain Co-axial cable. (Winter-2014)
MSBTE QUE. State any two advantages of coaxial cable.(Winter-2017)

Figure Structure of Coaxial Cable

Physical Description
 Coaxial cable, like twisted pair, consists of two conductors, but is constructed differently to permit it to
operate over a wider range of frequencies.
 It consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire conductor.

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 The inner conductor is held in place by either regularly spaced insulating rings or a solid dielectric
material. The outer conductor is covered with a jacket or shield.
 A single coaxial cable has a diameter of from 1 to 2.5 cm.
 Coaxial cable can be used over longer distances and support more stations on a shared line than twisted
pair.

Transmission Characteristics
1. Used to transmit both analog & digital signals.
2. It carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable.
3. Lower attenuation than twisted pair cable.
4. Supports higher bandwidth.
5. Requires amplifiers every few kilometers for long distance transmission.
6. Requires repeaters every few kilometers for digital transmission.

Advantages of coaxial cable are:-Summer-2017

1. It carries signals of higher frequency ranges than twisted pair cable.
2. Lower attenuation than twisted pair cable.
3. Supports higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages of coaxial cable are:-

1. Cost of coaxial cable is more than twisted pair cable.
2. Less flexible.
3. More difficult to install in a building where a number of twists and turns are required.
4. Limited to size of network.

Applications
 Coaxial cable is widely used as a means of distributing TV signals to individual homes—cable TV.
 Television distribution
o Ariel to TV
o Cable TV
 Long distance telephone transmission
o Can carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
o Being replaced by fiber optic
 Short distance computer systems links
 Local area networks

2.1.4 Fiber-Optic Cable

MSBTE QUE. Draw a sketch indicating the construction of Fiber optic cable. State four advantages
over electrical cables (Winter-2016)
MSBTE QUE. With the help of neat diagram, describe working of fiber optic cable (Summer-2017)
MSBTE QUE. Draw and label fiber optics cable (Summer-2016)
MSBTE QUE. Describe any four physical characteristics of fiber optic cable. (Winter-2015)
MSBTE QUE. Draw and explain fiber optic cable. (Winter-2014, Winter-2019)
MSBTE QUE.Describe advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber cable.
(Winter-2017, Winter-2018)
MSBTE QUE. Draw structural diagram of fiber optic cable and write its functions (Summer-2019)
MSBTE QUE. Describe any four physical characteristics of fiber optic cable. (Summer-2018)

Figure Structure of Fiber Optic Cable

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Physical Description
Core:
This is the physical medium that transports optical data signals from an attached light source to a receiving
device. The core is a single continuous strand of glass or plastic that’s measured in microns (μ) by the size
of its outer diameter. The larger the core, the more light the cable can carry.
Cladding:
This is the thin layer that surrounds the Fiber core and serves as a boundary that contains the light waves
and causes the refraction, enabling data to travel throughout the length of the Fiber segment.
Coating:
This is a layer of plastic that surrounds the core and cladding to reinforce and protect the Fiber core.
Coatings are measured in microns and can range from 250 to 900 microns.
Strengthening Fibers:
These components help protect the core against crushing forces and excessive tension during installation.
The materials can range from Kevlar® to wire strands to gel-filled sleeves.
Cable jacket:
This is the outer layer of any cable. Most Fiber optic cables have an orange jacket, although some types can
have black or yellow jackets.

OR

Fig. Structural diagram for Fibre Optic Cable

MSBTE QUE. Explain different modes of Fiber optic cable. (Winter-2014)

Current technology supports two modes for propagating light along optical channels.
1. Multimode.
2. Single mode.

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Multimode can be implemented in two form:

1. Step index.
2. Graded index.

Multimode :
 Multiple beams from a light source move through the core in different paths. How these beams move
within the cable depends on the structure of the core as shown in the fig.
 In multimode step-index fiber, the density of the core remains constant from the center to the edges. A
beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until it reaches the interface of the
core and the cladding.
 At the interface, there is an abrupt change due to a lower density, this alters the angle of the beam‟s
motion. The term step index refers to the suddenness of this change, which contributes to the distortion
of the signal as it passes through the fiber.
 A multimode graded index fiber decreases this distortion of the signal through the cable. In this,
density is highest at the center of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest at the edge. Following
fig shows the impact of this variable density on the propagation of light beams.

Single mode:
 The single mode fiber is manufactured with a much smaller diameter than that of multimode fiber and
with substantially lower density.
 The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is close enough to 900 to make the propagation of
beams almost horizontal.
 In this case propagation is almost identical and delays are negligible.
 All the beams arrive at the destination together and can be recombined with little distortion to the
signal.

Transmission Characteristics
 Optical fiber transmits a signal-encoded beam of light by means of total internal reflection.
 Total internal reflection can occur in any transparent medium that has a higher index of refraction than
the surrounding medium.
 In effect, the optical fiber acts as a waveguide for frequencies in the range of about to this covers
portions of the infrared and visible spectra.
 Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz
o Portions of infrared and visible spectrum: Light Emitting Diode (LED)
o Cheaper

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
o Wider operating temp range
o Last longer
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
o More efficient
o Greater data rate: Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Working:
Fiber optics transmits signals in the form of light.

Following figure shows:

 How ray of light changes direction when going from one substance to another.
 When the angle of incidence i is less than critical angle then the ray refracts.
 Angle of incidence i is equal to critical angle then, the rays bends along the surface.
 When the angle of incidence i is greater than critical angle, then the ray reflects.
 The ray incident above the critical angle it is trapped in the fiber.

Optical Fiber advantages: Summer-2018

 Higher bandwidth : Fiber-optic cable can support dramatically higher bandwidths (and hence data
rates) than either twisted-pair or coaxial cable
 Less signal attenuation: Fiber-optic transmission distance is significantly greater than that of other
guided media. A signal can run for 50 km without requiring regeneration.
 Immunity to electromagnetic interference: Electromagnetic noise cannot affect fiber-optic cables.
 Resistance to corrosive materials: Glass is more resistant to corrosive materials than copper.
 Light weight: Fiber-optic cables are much lighter than copper cables.
 Greater immunity to tapping: Fiber-optic cables are more immune to tapping than copper cables.
Copper cables create antenna effects that can easily be tapped.
 Lesser number of repeaters
 Electrical isolation: - Optical Fibers are fabricated from glass or plastic polymers which are electrical
insulators. Hence they do not exhibit earth loop.
 Signal security: - The light from Optical Fiber does not radiate significantly & therefore they provide a
high degree of signal security.

Optical Fiber disadvantages:

 Installation: Not easy to install.
 Maintenance: Its maintenance requires expertise.

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 Unidirectional light propagation: Propagation of light is unidirectional. Two fibers are needed for
bidirectional communication.
 Cost: The cable and the interfaces are relatively more expensive than those of other guided media. If
the demand for bandwidth is not high, often the use of optical fiber cannot be justified.

MSBTE QUE. Describe light source for fiber. (Winter-2018)

A Fiber-Optic Cable (FOC) is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form oflight. Light
sources used for FOC are of two types:
i) LED (Light Emitting Diodes)
ii) Semiconductor Laser.
The LED is low cost. It provides an unfocussed light which hits the core boundaries andgets diffused. LED
is preferred only for short distance. It has low data rate.The laser diode can provide a much focused beam
which can be used for a long distancecommunication. It has high data rate. It is very expensive.

Applications
 One of the most significant technological breakthroughs in data transmission has been the development
of practical fiber optic communications systems.
 Optical fiber already enjoys considerable use in long-distance telecommunications, and its use in
military applications is growing.
 The continuing improvements in performance and decline in prices, together with the inherent
advantages of optical fiber, have made it increasingly attractive for local area networking.
 Five basic categories of application have become important for optical fiber:
 Long-haul trunks
 Metropolitan trunks
 Rural exchange trunks
 Subscriber loops
 Local area networks

MSBTE QUE. State eight advantages of fiber optic cable over other cables (Summer-2016)

1. Greater bandwidth
Fiber provides far greater bandwidth than copper and has standardized performance up to 10 Gbps. Fiber
speeds are dependent on the type of cable used. Single-mode cable offers far greater distance than either
62.5- or 50-micron multimode cable. In addition, fiber optic cable can carry more information with greater
fidelity than copper wire. That’s why telephone and CATV companies are converting to fiber.

2. Low attenuation and greater distance

Because the fiber optic signal is made of light, very little signal loss occurs during transmission, and data
can move at higher speeds and greater distances. Fiber does not have the 100-meter (9328-ft.) distance
limitation of unshielded twisted pair copper (without a booster). Fiber distances can range from 300 meters
(984.2 ft.) to 40 kilometers (24.8 mi.), depending on the style of cable, wavelength, and network. Because
fiber signals need less boosting than copper ones do, the cable performs better.

3. Security
Your data is safe with fiber cable. It doesn’t radiate signals and is extremely difficult to tap. If the cable is
tapped, it’s very easy to monitor because the cable leaks light, causing the entire system to fail. Fiber
networks also enable to put all electronics and hardware in one central location, instead of having wiring
closets with equipment throughout the building.

4. Immunity and reliability

Fiber provides extremely reliable data transmission. It’s completely immune to many environmental factors
that affect copper cable. The core is made of glass, which is an insulator, so no electric current can flow
through. It’s immune to Electro Magnetic interference and radio-frequency interference (EM/RFI),
crosstalk, impedance problems, and more. Fiber is also less susceptible to temperature fluctuations than

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copper and can be submerged in water.

5. Design
Fiber is lightweight, thin, and more durable than copper cable. Plus, fiber optic cable has pulling
specifications that are up to 10 times greater than copper cable’s. Its small size makes it easier to handle,
and it takes up much less space in cabling ducts. Although fiber is still more difficult to terminate than
copper, advancements in connectors are making termination easier. In addition, fiber is actually easier to
test than copper cable.

6. Migration
The proliferation and lower costs of media converters are making copper to fiber migration much easier.
The converters provide seamless links and enable the use of existing hardware. Fiber can be incorporated
into network in planned upgrades.

7. Field termination.
Although fiber is still more difficult to terminate than copper, advancements in fiber tools have made
terminating and using fiber in the field easier. Quick fusion splicers enables with auto-alignments enable
fast splicing in the field. Auto-aligning pins ensure accuracy. And the use of pig-tails and pre-terminated
cable make field connections quick and easy.

8. Cost
The cost for fiber cable, components, and hardware is steadily decreasing. Installation costs for fiber are
higher than copper because of the skill needed for terminations. Overall, fiber is more expensive than
copper in the short run, but it may actually be less expensive in the long run. Fiber typically costs less to
maintain, has less much less downtime, and requires less networking hardware. And fiber eliminates the
need to recable for higher network performance.

2.2 Unguided Transmission Media

 Here information is transmitted by sending electromagnetic signals through free space and hence the
name unguided media, as the signals are not guided in any specific direction or inside any specific
medium.
 All unguided media transmission are classified as wireless transmission.
 Wireless transmission can be used as the medium in both LAN and WAN environments, as illustrated in
the diagrams below

 Two laptops communicating within a LAN using a wireless Access Points

MSBTE QUE.List any four Unguided Transmission Media. (Summer-2019)

(1) Radio wave(2) Microwave(3) infrared(4) Satellite

2.2.1 Radio Waves

 Radio waves are a type of electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum
longer than infrared light.
 Radio waves have frequencies from 300 GHz to as low as 3 kHz, and corresponding wavelengths

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ranging from 1 millimetre (0.039 in) to 100 kilometres (62 mi).
 Like all other electromagnetic waves, they travel at the speed of light.
 Naturally occurring radio waves are made by lightning, or by astronomical objects.
 Artificially generated radio waves are used for fixed and mobile radio communication, broadcasting,
radar and other navigation systems, communications satellites, computer networks and innumerable
other applications.
 Different frequencies of radio waves have different propagation characteristics in the Earth's
atmosphere;
 Long waves may cover a part of the Earth very consistently,
 Shorter waves can reflect off the ionosphere and travel around the world, and
 Much shorter wavelengths bend or reflect very little and travel on a line of sight.

Speed, wavelength and frequency

 Radio waves travel at the speed of light in a vacuum.
 When passing through an object, they are slowed according to that object's permeability and
permittivity.
 The wavelength is the distance from one peak of the wave's electric field to the next, and is inversely
proportional to thefrequency of the wave.
 The distance a radio wave travels in one second, in a vacuum, is 299,792,458 meters (983,571,056 ft)
which is the wavelength of a 1 hertz radio signal.
 A 1 megahertz radio signal has a wavelength of 299.8 meters (984 ft).

Radio communication
 In order to receive radio signals, for instance from AM/FM radio stations, a radio antenna must be used.
 However, since the antenna will pick up thousands of radio signals at a time, a radio tuner is necessary
to tune in a particular signal.
 This is typically done via a resonator (in its simplest form, a circuit with a capacitor, inductor, or crystal
oscillator, but many modern radios use Phase Locked Loop systems).
 The resonator is configured to resonate at a particular frequency, allowing the tuner to amplify sine
waves at that radio frequency and ignore other sine waves.
 Usually, either the inductor or the capacitor of the resonator is adjustable, allowing the user to change
the frequency at which it resonates.
 Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and paging systems.
 They can penetrate through walls.

Omnidirectional antenna
Applications of Radio Waves
 Used for fixed and mobile radio communication
 Broadcasting
 Radar and other navigation systems
 Communications satellites
 Radio waves are used for multicast communications such as radio and television, and paging
systems

2.2.2 Microwaves
MSBTE QUE. Give any two applications of microwave communication, (Summer-2015, Summer-
2017)

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
 Microwave transmission is the transmission of information or energy by electromagnetic waves whose
wavelengths are conveniently measured in small numbers of centimetre; these are called microwaves.
 This part of the radio spectrum ranges across frequencies of roughly 1.0 gigahertz (GHz) to 30 GHz.
These correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimetres down to 1.0 cm
Uses
1) Radar uses microwave radiation to detect range, speed & other characteristics of remote object.
2) It is used in satellite for long distance communication.
3) Satellite phones
4)Microwaves are widely used for point-to-point communications because their small wavelength allows
conveniently-sized antennas to direct them in narrow beams, which can be pointed directly at the receiving
antenna.

MSBTE QUE. Explain microwave link with diagram. (Winter-2017)

Microwave link :
 Microwaves use the line of sight method of propagation, as the signals do not travel along the surface
of the earth.
 Thus, two antennas must be in a straight line, able to see each other without any obstacle in between.
 The taller the antenna, the more distance that these waves can travel. Thus, they are always positioned
at higher levels like on mountains.
 Microwave signals travel only one direction at a time.

 Thus for two way communication like telephone systems, two frequencies are allocated.
 At both ends, a transceiver is used which is a combination of a transmitter and receiver, operating at
two respective frequencies.
 Therefore only one antenna can server both the functions and cover both the frequencies.
 Repeaters are used along with the antennas to enhance the signal.
 The data rates defined are 1Mbps to 10Gbps.

MSBTE QUE.State two applications of microwave communications.(Winter-2014)

Microwaves sue to their unidirectional properties are useful when one to one communication is needed
between sender and receiver.
They are used in cell phones
Microwaves are used in satellite communication.
Wireless LANs make use of microwave communications.
Remote Sensing Radar microwave radiations to detect range, speed and other characteristics of remote
object.

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2.2.3 Infrared

MSBTE QUE. Explain infrared communication. List any two disadvantages of infrared
communication.(Winter-2014)

 Infrared communication (IR) is an example of wireless communication.

 However, it is limited to very simple applications & suffers from several disadvantages, mainly very
small bandwidth & distances that it can support.
 Infrared communication works in the micrometer range, which is 1 to 430 THZ.
 The term infraredcomes from the fact that red color has the longest wavelength amongst the colors in
visible light.
 However, the wavelength of infrared is longer than that of red color, and hence the frequency of
infrared communications is smaller than that of red color.
 Hence, we have the term „below red color‟ or „Infrared‟.
 Infrared communication is used by military for surveillance, for vision in the darkness at night, tracking
objects, etc.
 We use infrared communication whenever we use our remote controls to operate television sets, DVD
players, etc.
 Weather forecasting & astronomy also make use of infrared communication.

Disadvantage:
i. The major disadvantage is that the sun generates radiation in the infrared band. This can cause a lot of
interference with IR communication.
ii. Infrared signals cannot penetrate walls
iii. Large areas require multiple emitter panels, which will increase the cost of the system.

2.2.4 Satellite

MSBTE QUE. With the help of neat diagram explain satellite communication.
(Winter-2014, Winter-2015, Summer-2015, Summer-2017, Winter-2017)
 In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with the help of
satellite.
 In this process, the signal which is basically a beam of modulated microwaves is sent towards the
satellite called UPLINK (6 Ghz).
 Then the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the receiver’s antenna present on the earth’s
surface called as DOWNLINK (4Ghz), as shown in the diagram given

Figure working of Satellite Communication

 As the entire signal transferring is happening in space.

 Thus this type of communication is known as space communication.
 The satellite does the functions of an antenna and the repeater together.

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 If the earth along with its ground stations is revolving and the satellite is stationery, the sending and
receiving earth stations and the satellite can be out of sync over time.
 Therefore Geosynchronous satellites are used which move at same RPM as that of the earth in the same
direction.
 So the relative position of the ground station with respect to the satellite never changes.
 However 3 satellites are needed to cover earth’s surface entirely.

 Frequency band used in satellite communication:

Band Downlink Uplink

C 3.7 to 4.2 Ghz 5.925 to 6.425Ghz
Ku 11.7 to 12.2 Ghz 14 to 14.5 Ghz
Ka 17.7 to 21 Ghz27.5 to 31 Ghz

Application of satellite:
1. Satellite television
2. Digital cinema
3. Satellite radio
4. Satellite internet access
(Different Ranges---Earth Orbit-705 KM, GPS-12400 Miles, Weather Satellite-36000 KM)

MSBTE QUE.Describe the Characteristics of satellite microwave transmission(Winter-2018)

Characteristics of satellite microwave transmission

In satellite communication, signal transferring between the sender and receiver is done with the help of
satellite.
In this communication, electromagnetic waves are used as carrier signals. These signals carry the
information such as voice, audio, video or any other data between ground and space and vice-versa.
The transmission of signal from first earth station to satellite through a channel is called as uplink. The
frequency with which, the signal is sent into the space is called as Uplink frequency (6Hz).
The satellite transponder converts this signal into another frequency and sends it down to the second earth
station. A transponder is used to increase the strength of the received signal and change the frequency band
of the transmitted signal from the received one.
The transmission of signal from satellite to second earth station through a channel is called as downlink.
The frequency with which, the signal is sent by the transponder is called as Downlink frequency (4GHz).
There are three methods of communication using satellites using three modulation techniques as FDMA,
TDMA and CDMA.
If the earth along with its ground stations is revolving and the satellite is stationery, the sending and
receiving earth stations and the satellite can be out of sync over time. Therefore Geosynchronous satellites
are used which move at same RPM as that of the earth in the same direction.

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
MSBTE QUE. Compare cable and wireless transmission. (Winter-2015)

MSBTE QUE. Distinguish between guided and unguided transmission media. (Winter-2017)

MSBTE QUE. Define Wi-Fi. (Winter-2018)

Commonly termed as Wireless Fidelity, Wi-fi is a facility allowing computers, smartphones, or other
devices to connect to the Internet or communicate with one another wirelessly within a particular area.
Generally IEEE 802.11x standard is referred as Wi-fi for wireless communications.

MSBTE QUE. Enlist any four communication bands for unguided media with their frequency range.
(Winter-2018)

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2

MSBTE QUE. Explain the bands in cellular telephony. (Winter-2018)

Cellular telephony uses Analog transmission. Frequency modulation is used for communication between
the mobile phone and the cell office. Two frequency bands are allocated for this purpose:
i. Communication that is initiated by the mobile phone.
ii. Communication that is initiated by landline phone.
Full duplex operation is possible by separating transmit and receive signals into separate frequency
bands.
Cellular phone units transmit in the lower band of frequencies, 825 to 845 MHz, and receive in the higher
band, 870 to 890 MHz
Within these two bands, 666 separate channels (333 channels per band) have been assigned for voice and
control.
Each channel requires a full-duplex dialog.
For preventing interference, adjacent channels are rarely allocated.
Some channels are also required for control purpose.
This reduces the number of channels available for the cell.
Each channel occupies a bandwidth of 30 kHz.

2.3 Line of Sight Transmission

 Line of sight (LoS) is a type of propagation that can transmit and receive data only where transmit and
receive stations are in view of each other without any sort of an obstacle between them.
 FM radio, microwave and satellite transmission are examples of line-of-sight communication.
 Line Of Sight (LOS) All of our Internet platforms need to have a clear line of sightto either the tower
for fixed wireless Internet, or to the southern sky for our satellite technology.
 If the line of sight is not clear, there could be interference that is affected the Internet signal and service.

2.3.1 Point to Point

 In computer networking, Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer (layer 2) communications
protocol used to establish a direct connection between two nodes.
 It connects two routers directly without any host or any other networking device in between.
 In telecommunications, a point-to-point connection refers to a communicationsconnection between two
communication endpoints or nodes.

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2

2.3.2 Broadcast
 In computer networking, broadcasting refers to transmitting a packet that will be received by every
device on the network.
 Broadcasting a message is in contrast to unicast addressing in which a host sends datagrams to another
single host identified by a unique IP address.
 Broadcasting is the simultaneous transmission of the same message to multiple recipients.
 In networking, broadcasting occurs when a transmitted data packet is received by all network devices.

2.4 Multiplexing

MSBTE QUE. Describe Multiplexing techniques. (Winter-2019)

 Multiplexing is a technique by which different analog and digital streams oftransmission can be
simultaneously processed over a shared link.
 Multiplexingdivides the high capacity medium into low capacity logical medium which isthen shared
by different streams.
 Communication is possible over the air (radiofrequency), using a physical media (cable), and light
(optical fiber). Allmediums are capable of multiplexing.
 When multiple senders try to send over asingle medium, a device called Multiplexer divides the
physical channel andallocates one to each.
 On the other end of communication, a De-multiplexerreceives data from a single medium, identifies
each, and sends to differentreceivers.
 Different multiplexing techniques are:

1.Frequency Division multiplexing2.Time division multiplexing

2.4.1 Frequency Division Multiplexing (Analog Signal):

 When the carrier is frequency, FDM isused.
 FDM is an analog technology.
 FDM divides the spectrum or carrier bandwidth in logical channels and allocates one user to each
channel.
 Each usercan use the channel frequency independently and has exclusive access of it.
 Allchannels are divided in such a way that they do not overlap with each other.
 Channels are separated by guard bands. Guard band is a frequency which is notused by either channel.

 Advantages
1) Large number of Signals transmitted simultaneously
2) No need of synchronization
3) Modulation & demodulation is easy

 Disadvantages
1) Required large bandwidth

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
2) Distortion occurs
3) Crosstalk appears
4) Filter required

 Application Area
-TV Broadcast
-Telephone
-1G Cell Phone

2.4.2 Time Division Multiplexing (Digital Signals)

 TDM is applied primarily on digital signals butcan be applied on analog signals as well.
 In TDM the shared channel is dividedamong its user by means of time slot. Each user can transmit data
within theprovided time slot only.
 Digital signals are divided in frames, equivalent to timeslot i.e. frame of an optimal size which can be
transmitted in given time slot.
 TDM works in synchronized mode. Both ends, i.e. Multiplexer and Demultiplexerare timely
synchronized and both switch to next channelsimultaneously.

 When channel A transmits its frame at one end, the De-multiplexer providesmedia to channel A on
the other end.
 As soon as the channel A’s time slotexpires, this side switches to channel B.
 On the other end, the De-multiplexerworks in a synchronized manner and provides media to
channel B.
 Signals fromdifferent channels travel the path in interleaved manner

 Advantages
1) Easy circuitry
2) No distortion occurs
3) No crosstalk

 Disadvantages
1) Need of synchronization
2) Narrow bandwidth

 Application Area
-Wireless Communication
-Digital Telephone
-Satellite Communication
-Fiber Optic Communication

2.5 Switching
 A network switch (also called switching hub, bridging hub, officially MAC bridge) is a computer
networkingdevice that connects devices together on a computer network by using packet switching to
receive, process, and forward data to the destination device.
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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
 Switched communication networks are those in which data transferred from source to destination is
routed between various intermediate nodes.
 Switching is the technique by which nodes control or switch data to transmit it between specific points
on a network.

2.5.1 Circuit Switched Networks (Analog data)

MSBTE QUE. Explain circuit switching networks with neat sketch. (Winter-2019)

Circuit switching is a connection-oriented network switching technique. Here, a dedicated route is

established between the source and the destination and the entire message is transferred through it.

Phases of Circuit Switch Connection:

Circuit Establishment: In this phase, a dedicated circuit is established from the source to the destination
through a number of intermediate switching centers. The sender and receiver transmits communication
signals to request and acknowledge establishment of circuits.
Data Transfer: Once the circuit has been established, data and voice are transferred from the source to
the destination. The dedicated connection remains as long as the end parties communicate.
Circuit Disconnection: When data transfer is complete, the connection is relinquished. The
disconnection is initiated by any one of the user. Disconnection involves removal of all intermediate links
from the sender to the receiver.

The diagram represents circuit established between two telephones connected by circuit switched
connection. The blue boxes represent the switching offices and their connection with other switching
offices. The lack lines connecting the switching offices represent the permanent link between the offices.

 Advantages
1) Guarantees of data communication
2) No delay for data flow
3) Dedicated channel setup
4) Less bandwidth

 Disadvantages
1) Whole channel is get used & no other can use at same time
2) Required more bandwidth
3) Takes more time for connection

 Application area
-Telephone network
-Internet
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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2

2.5.2 Packet Switched Networks (Digital data)

 The entire message is broken down into smaller chunks called packets.
 The switching information is added in the header of each packet and transmitted independently.
 It is easier for intermediate networking devices to store small size packets and they do not take much
resource either on carrier path or in the internal memoryof switches.

 Packet switching enhances line efficiency as packets from multiple applications can be multiplexed
over the carrier.
 The internet uses packet switching technique. Packet switching enables the user to differentiate data
streams based on priorities.
 Packets are stored and forwarded according to their priority toprovide quality of service.

 Advantages
1) Greater line utilization
2) Priority based transmission
3) Error correction occurs
4) New call can be added or deleted

 Disadvantages
1) Longer delay occurs
2)Header overhead reduces data carrying capacity
3) More process required for communication establishment
4) No dedicated channel setup
5) Consumes more bandwidh

 Application area
- In Personal Computer

MSBTE QUE. What advantages does TDM have over FDM in a circuit switched network?
(Summer-2019)
 In TDM, each signal uses all of the bandwidth some of the time, while for FDM, each signal uses a
small portion of the bandwidth all of the time.
 TDM uses the entire frequency range but dynamically allocates time, certain jobs might require less
or more time, which TDM can offer but FDM is unable to as it cannot change the width of the
allocated frequency.
 TDM provides much better flexibility compared to FDM.
 TDM offers efficient utilization of bandwidth
 Low interference of signal and minimizes cross talk

MSBTE QUE. Compare Analog and Digital signal (Summer-2019)

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2

MSBTE QUE. Differentiate between FDM and TDM (Summer-2019)

MSBTE QUE. Why is circuit switching preferred over packet switching in voice communication?
(Summer-2019)

Switching is a mechanism by which data/information sent from source towardsdestination which are not
directly connected. Networks have interconnectingdevices, which receives data from directly connected
sources, stores data, analyse itand then forwards to the next interconnecting device closest to the
destination.
Switching can be categorized as:
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Message switching

Circuit switching is preferred over packet switching in voice communicationbecause:

In circuit switching, a dedicated path is established between sender andreceiver which is maintained for
entire duration of conversation.
It provides continuous and guaranteed delivery of data.
During the data transfer phase, no addressing is needed.
Delays are small.
It uses connection oriented service.
Message received in order to the destination

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2

MSBTE QUE. A system uses CRC on a block of 8 bytes. How many redundant bits are sent per
block? What is the ratio of useful bits to total bits? (Summer 2019)

CRC is one of the most common and powerful error detecting code which can bedescribe as follows. The
polynomial code also known as CRC with co-efficient of0s and 1s.In this method the sender and receiver
must agree upon generatorpolynomial g(x) in advance. Both the high and low order bits of the generator
(divisor) must be 1. To compute the checksum for some frame (data) with m bits,the frame must be longer
than generator polynomial. The idea is to appendchecksum to the end of frame in such a way that the
polynomial represented by thechecksum frame is divisible by g(x). When the receiver gets the checksum
frame it tries dividing it by g(x). If there is remainder there has been a transmission errorand zero
remainder means no error in the transmission. r is degree of g(x)polynomial.
Step by step procedure:
1. Append a string of r zero bits to the lower order end of data word(m) where r isless than the number of
bits pre-decided divisor by 1 bit i.e. if divisor = 5 bits then r= 4 zeros. Now data word contains m+r bits
2. Divide the newly generated data unit in step 1 by the divisor. It is module – 2division
3. The remainder obtained after division is the r bit CRC.
4. This CRC will replace the r zeros appended to the data unit to get the code wordto be transmitted.
NOTE: The polynomial code for calculation of redundant bits is not given .hencethe data given is
insufficient for calculating redundant bits and the ratio of usefulbits to total bits.

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
MSBTE Asked
Summer-2015
1) Give any two applications of microwave communication.
(Each application- 1Mark, Any Two applications)(Refer Section 2.2.2)
2) State two applications of optical fiber cable.
(Each application- 1Mark, Any Two applications)(Refer Section 2.1.4)
3) With the help of neat diagram explain satellite communication. Winter-2015, Summer-2017, Winter-2017
(Diagram- 2 Marks, Explanation -2 Marks)(Refer Section 2.2.4)
4) How cross cable is created? Draw figure and explain. Give its application.
(Creation: 4M; Diagram : 2M; Application : 2M)(Refer Section 2.1.2)
5) Draw the constructional sketch of co-axial cable. Describe any three characteristics of co-axial cable.
( Sketch -2 Marks, Any three characteristics- 2 Marks)(Refer Section 2.1.3)

Winter-2015
1) Define guided media. List the types of guided media.
(Definition - 1Mark, list types of guided media - 1Mark)(Refer Section 2.1.1)
2) State the criteria for selecting transmission media.
(1/2 Marks for any eight factors)(Refer Section 2.1)
3) Compare cable and wireless transmission.
(Any four points - 4Marks.)(Refer Section 2.2.4)
4) Explain satellite communication with the help of neat diagram. Summer-2015, Summer-2017, Winter-2017
(Diagram - 2 Marks & Explanation - 2 Marks)(Refer Section 2.2.4)
5) Explain twisted pair cable with neat sketch. Summer-2017
(Diagram - 2Marks Explanation - 2Marks)(Refer Section 2.1.2)
6) Describe any four physical characteristics of fiber optic cable.
(Any Four physical characteristics - 1 Mark each)(Refer Section 2.1.4)

Summer-2016
(1) State the criteria for selection of transmission media.
(Any four criteria - ½ marks each)(Refer Section 2.1)
(2) Draw and label fiber optics cable.
(Diagram - 1 mark; Labeling - 1 mark)(Refer Section 2.1.4)
(3) List type of cable. Draw and label the constructional sketch of co-axial cable.
(Listing - 1 mark; Diagram - 2 marks; Labeling - 1 mark)(Refer Section 2.1.3)
(4) State the need of transmission media.
(Any relevant four points - 1 mark each)(Refer Section 2.1)
(5) State characteristics of cables.
(Any Four Points - 1 mark each)(Refer Section 2.1.1)
(c) State eight advantages of fiber optic cable over other cables.
(Any 8 advantages - 1 mark for each) (Refer Section 2.1.4)

Winter–16
1) State four applications of satellite communication.
(Any four applications: / mark)(Refer Section 2.2.4)
2) Draw a neat sketch and describe the construction of co-axial cable.
(Neat labelled Diagram: 2 marks, Description: 2 marks)(Refer Section 2.1.2)
3) Draw a sketch indicating the construction of Fiber optic cable. State four advantages over electrical cables.
(Diagram: 2 marks, Four advantages:½ marks each) (Refer Section 2.1.4)

Summer–17
1) Give any two application of microwave communication. 2M
(1 mark each for any 2 correct applications)(Refer Section 2.2.2)
2) What are different transmission media? 2M
(1 mark each for 2 types) (Refer Section 2.1)
3) Why the network cable is twisted? 2M Winter-2017
(2 mark for explanation)(Refer Section 2.1.2)
4) State any 2 advantages of co-axial cable. 2M
(1 mark each for any 2 correct advantages)(Refer Section 2.1.3)
5) With the help of neat diagram, describe working of fiber optic cable. 4M
(2 marks for diagram,2 marks Explanation)(Refer Section 2.1.4)

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Chapter 2Transmission Media & Switching Unit 2
6) Draw a sketch of shielded twisted pair cable and describe any two characteristics. 4M Winter-2015
(Diagram: 2 marks, Any 2 Characteristics: 1 mark each)(Refer Section 2.1.2)
7) With the help of diagram, explain satellite communication. 4M Summer-2015 Winter-2015, Winter-2017
(Diagram/ Any similar: 2 marks, Explanation :2 marks)(Refer Section 2.2.4)

Winter–17
1) Describe advantages and disadvantages of optical fiber cable. 8M
(Any 4 Advantages :1 mark each, Any 4 Disadvantages: 1 mark each)(Refer Section 2.1.4)
2) State any two advantages of coaxial cable. 2M
(Any 2 advantages :1 mark each)(Refer Section 2.1.3)
3) Distinguish between guided and unguided transmission media. 4M
(Any 4 correct points:1 mark each )(Refer Section 2.2.4)
4) Explain microwave link with diagram. 4M
(Explanation:3marks, Any suitable Diagram: 1mark)(Refer Section 2.2.2)

Summer-2019
1) Draw structural diagram of fiber optic cable and write its functions 2M (Refer Section 2.1.4)
2) List any four Unguided Transmission Media. 2M (Refer Section 2.2)
3) What advantages does TDM have over FDM in a circuit switched network? 4M (Refer Section 2.5.2)
4) Compare Analog and Digital signal 4M (Refer Section 2.5.2)
5) Differentiate between FDM and TDM 4M(Refer Section 2.5.2)
6) Why is circuit switching preferred over packet switching in voice communication? 4M (Refer Section 2.5.2)
7) A system uses CRC on a block of 8 bytes. How many redundant bits are sent per block? What is the ratio of useful
bits to total bits? 4M (Refer Section 2.5.2)

Winter-2019
1) Define guided and unguided communication media (Refer Section 2.1)
2) State the two advantages and disadvantages of unguided media (Refer Section 2.1)
3) Draw and explain fiber optic cable (Refer Section 2.1.4)
4) Describe Multiplexing techniques (Refer Section 2.4)
5) Explain circuit switching networks with neat sketch. (Refer Section 2.5.1)

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