25

Meaning of Judgment and Propositions

Objectives
Subtopic 1 of this module will help the students:
1. determine how judgments are made.
2. distinguish a proposition from a sentence.

Judgment
We are making a judgment as we mentally compare one idea with another idea
and enunciate their agreement or disagreement. Judgment is the mental enunciation or
pronouncement regarding the agreement or disagreement between two ideas. It is an
act of the mind affirming an idea by another idea, or denying an idea from another idea.
For example when we say: “This table is rectangle in shape,” we are enunciating the
relationship of agreement between the ideas “this table” and “rectangle in shape”.
When we say: “This pen is not blue,” we are enunciating the relationship of disagreement
between the ideas “this pen” and “blue”.
There are three things necessary for the making of a judgment.
1. The mind must have an understanding of the two ideas about which it intends
to make a judgment.
2. The mind must compare the two ideas in question.
3. The mind must enunciate the agreement or disagreement between the two
ideas compared together.
Truth and falsity reside in the judgment for judgment expresses the relationship
between the mind and reality. If a judgment agrees with reality, it is true; otherwise, it is
false. Thus, a judgment is either true or false. Truth, then, is the agreement of a
judgment with reality.

Proposition
As we verbalize or express this mental operation in words, we are stating a
proposition. A proposition is the verbal expression of a judgment. It is a statement in
which something is affirmed or denied.
As a statement, it is a kind of a sentence, word or group of words that expresses a
complete thought. Thus, all propositions are sentences but not all sentences are
propositions. A sentence does not always affirm or deny something. On the basis of the
preceding statements, we can distinguish a propositional sentence from every other kind,
such as the following: interrogative – “Who are you?”, sentence expressing an appeal –
“If only you can remember me.”, imperative – “Do this.”, exclamatory – “Ouch!”, etc.
Only a declarative sentence expresses an assertion or denial about something;
hence, a proposition. Happiness is momentary; Dogs are not rational; Love is blind; are
declarative sentences and are called propositions in the point of view of logic.

Activities
Recitation: After discussion of the topic the instructor conducts a graded
recitation to check their comprehension of the topic.
 26

Categorical Proposition

Objectives
Subtopic 2 will help the students:
1. define a categorical proposition and give examples for it.
2. identify the basic elements and logical structure of a categorical proposition.
3. construct and distinguish categorical propositions according to the logical structure.

Categorical Proposition
A categorical proposition is one, which gives a direct assertion of agreement or
disagreement between the subject term and the predicate term. It is called categorical
because it declares something unconditionally and it deals with the relationship between
categories or classes of things. The classes in question are denoted by subject term and
the predicate term, and the categorical proposition asserts that either all or part of the
class denoted by the subject term is included in or excluded from the class denoted by the
predicate term.
The term is the verbal expression of an idea. It is an articulate sound which
serves as a conventional sign of an idea. Since it is a sign of an idea, a term signifies
something in reality. The term “c-a-t”, for example, is a sign or representation of the real
thing – an animal which is four-legged, furry, has whiskers, meows and can be
domesticated as an anti-rat measure of a household.
A term may also be understood as an idea or group of ideas expressed in words
and taken together as a unit. Examples are the terms “tall, dark, handsome, and sociable
gentleman”, “blue mansion on top of the hill”, “animals that do not lay eggs”. We form
ideas form the things we perceive, and then, we express our ideas to others by means of
terms or words. Not all words, however, are terms; since some words do not represent
ideas, such as if, from, by, in, some, since, etc. But all terms are words, for all terms are
combinations of letters.
The subject term and the predicate term in a categorical proposition always refers
to classes of things or reality. A class is the collection of the totality of things/referents
which can be correctly referred to by the term. For example, lions, tigers, cheetahs,
leopards, pumas, panthers are referents of the term cats and thus belong to the class of
cats.
Here are some examples of categorical propositions.
Ex: No human beings are perfect.
This proposition asserts that the entire class of human beings is excluded from the
class of perfect beings.
Ex: All Buddhists are vegetarians.
This proposition asserts that the entire class of Buddhists is included in the class
of vegetarians;
Ex: Not all students like logic.
This proposition asserts that a part of students are excluded from the class of
persons who like logic.
Some lions live in the zoo.
 27

This proposition asserts that a part of the class of lions is included in the class of
animals that live in the zoo.

Elements and Logical Structure of a Categorical Proposition (Q-S-c-P)

A categorical proposition has three elements:
1. subject term – is that about which something is affirmed or denied.
2. predicate term – is that which is affirmed or denied by the subject term.
3. copula – is the linking verb is (am, are, was, were)or is not (am not, are not, was not,
were not) expressing the agreement or disagreement between the subject term and the
predicate term.
The subject term and the predicate term constitute the material element of the
proposition. The copula, which expresses the agreement and disagreement between the
subject term and the predicate term, is the formal element.
The logical structure or standard form refers to the pattern or arrangement of the
essential components of the proposition into a logical unit. The logical structure of the
categorical proposition, therefore, is the subject-copula-predicate form or the “S-copula-
P” (S-c-P). For example, in the proposition All Ilocanos are Filipinos, Ilocanos is the
subject term (S), Filipinos is the predicate term (P) and are is the copula (c). All is a
quantifier, which we will introduce later in the quantity of categorical proposition.
Similarly, in the proposition Some Filipinos are not Ilocanos, the subject term is
Filipinos; the predicate is Ilocanos; the copula is are not, and Some is the quantifier. In
logic, the copula is not part of the predicate. It is regarded as a distinct cognate part of
the proposition. Unlike in English grammar wherein the linking verb is part of the
predicate. Many times the logical subject and logical predicate are not as simple as the
ones given above and they are as complex as the following examples:
1) Some irresponsible citizens of this country are government officials themselves.
S P
2) All youths who were sent as delegates to the conference are active members of the
S P
civic club of our barangay.

3) Few wild animals in Mt. Makiling are not endangered species protected by the
S P
government.

The logical subjects and predicates are terms underlined. Take note that the
quantifier is not part of the logical subject and likewise the copula is not part of the
predicate.

Exercise 3.1.1
Underline and label the subject and predicate of the following propositions.
1. All crops that are rich sources of nitrogen are plants used in crop rotation.
2. Few electronic gadgets are not radiation-free devices.
3. Some garbage thrown into the rivers are materials that contain hazardous chemicals.
4. All people who do not know how to look back to where they came from are people
who will never reach their destination.
 28

5. Few children who belong to broken families are victims of drug trafficking.

The Four Standard Form Categorical Propositions

Objectives
This subtopic will help the students:
1. memorize the standard forms and basic reducible forms of standard categorical
propositions.
2. construct categorical propositions according to the four standard forms.
3. determine the form of categorical propositions by their standard forms.
4. identify the form categorical propositions by its letter representation.

The Standard Categorical Forms

The form of a categorical proposition is a result of the combination of the two
essential characteristics of a categorical proposition, which are the quality and quantity.
The quality of a categorical proposition consists in the nature of the proposition as either
affirmative or negative. It refers to the relationship of agreement or disagreement
between the subject term and the predicate term. The quantity of a proposition consists
in the nature of the proposition as either universal or particular. It refers to the
denotation or number of referents to which the subject term applies.
Combining the quality and quantity of propositions, we come up with four
standard form categorical propositions. The standard form consists of four parts: first the
quantifier, then the subject term, next the copula, and finally the predicate term. The
schema may be written as: Q – S – c – P. The words ‘all’, ‘no’, ‘some’ are quantifiers
because they specify how much of the subject class is included to or excluded from the
predicate class.
1. (A) Universal Affirmative: The form is All S is/are P. This means that the whole of
the subject class is included in the predicate class.
Ex: All cats are animals.
All men are mortals.
2. (E) Universal Negative: The form is No S is/are P. This means that the whole of the
subject class is excluded in the predicate class.
Ex: No athletes are vegetarians.
No stars are planets.
N.B.: “All S are not P.” is reducible to the standard form “No S are P.” All athletes
are not vegetarians; All stars are not planets.
3. (I) Particular Affirmative: The form is Some S is/are P. This means that a part of
the subject class is included in the predicate class.
Ex: Some congressmen are nature-lovers.
Some fish are poisonous.
4. (O) Particular Negative: The form is Some S is not/are not P. This means that a
part of the subject class is excluded in the predicate class.
Ex: Some horses are not thoroughbreds.
Some students are not scholars.
 29

N.B.: “Not all S are P.” and “S are not all P.” are reducible to the standard form
“Some S are not P.” Not all horses are thoroughbred; Horses are not all
thoroughbreds.
Traditional logicians designate each kind of proposition by a vowel of the
alphabet: A for universal affirmative, E for universal negative, I for particular
affirmative, and O for particular negative. Hence we have the A, E, I, O propositions.
The letters A and I come from the first two vowels of the Latin word ‘AffIrmo’, which
means “I affirm” and are so assigned to affirmative propositions; while letters E and O
come from the two vowels of the Latin word ‘nEgO’, which means “I deny” and are so
assigned to negative propositions.
The following diagram shows the four standard form categorical propositions and
their designated letters.

A E
Universal All S are P. No S are P.

I O
Particular Some S are P. Some S are not
P.
Affirmative Negative

Exercise 3.1.2
Determine whether the following propositions are A, E, I, or O.
1. All that glitters is not gold.
2. All plants are givers of oxygen.
3. No elephants are found in the Philippines.
4. Some books are not good companions.
5. Some people are weak-hearted.

Distribution of Terms

Objectives
This subtopic will help the students:
1. know the meaning of distribution terms.
 30

2. understand the rules of distribution of terms.

3. memorize the distribution of terms.
4. determine the distribution of terms of a proposition.

Distribution of Terms
While quality and quantity are inherent characteristics of propositions,
distribution is the inherent characteristic of the terms (subject and predicate) of
propositions. Distribution refers to whether a term is included (excluded) totally or in
part in the assertion in a categorical proposition. The terms of a categorical proposition
are not distributed in and by themselves; rather, they are distributed by the propositions in
which they occur.
Terms in the categorical proposition are either distributed or undistributed. They
are distributed if and only if they stand for or make an assertion about all members of a
class denoted by the term. They are undistributed if and only when they stand for or
make an assertion about unspecified and indeterminate portion of the totality of the
members of a class signified by the term. In other words, distributed terms are those,
which are universal or singular in denotation; while undistributed, are particular in
denotation.
Knowledge in the distribution of terms is very important in determining the
validity of arguments. We will see this practical value later as we study syllogisms.
The following diagrams show the rules on the distribution of terms of both subject
and the predicate.
Rules on Distribution of Terms Diagram
1. The subject term of all universal propositions is always distributed.
A and E propositions have distributed subject terms.
It asserts that all members of the subject class It asserts that all members of the subject class
are included in the members of the predicate are excluded in the members of the predicate
class. class.

S
S P

P
A E
All Filipinos are Asians. No human beings are angels.
All men are mortals. No Filipinos are Africans.
2. The subject term of all particular propositions is always undistributed.
I and O propositions have undistributed subject terms.
It asserts that some members of the subject It asserts that some members of the subject
class are included in the members of the class are excluded in the members of the
predicate class. predicate class.
 31

S P S P

I O
Some Filipinos are democrats. Some Filipinos are not Ilocanos.
Some Filipinos are Ilocanos. Some persons are not professionals.
3. The predicate term of all negative propositions is always distributed.
E and O propositions have distributed predicate terms.
It asserts that all members of the subject class It asserts that some members of the subject
are excluded in all of the members of the class are excluded in all of the members of the
predicate class. predicate class.

S P S P

E O
No cats are dogs. Some Filipinos are not Ilocanos.
No human beings are angels. Some Filipinos are not professionals.
4. The predicate term of all affirmative propositions is always undistributed.
A and I have undistributed predicate terms.
It asserts that all members of the subject class It asserts that some members of the subject
are included in some of the members of the class are included in some of the members of
predicate class. the predicate class.

S
S P
P
A I
All Filipinos are Asians. Some Asians are Filipinos
All men are mortals. Some politicians are democrats.

These four rules must be observed in determining the distribution of terms. On

must be careful not to be confused with the basis of distribution between the subject and
the predicate. For the subject, the ultimate basis is the quantity of the proposition
(universal or particular) and for the predicate, the quality of the proposition (affirmative
or negative).
The following diagram is a guide in determining the distribution of terms.
DIAGRAM OF DISTRIBUTION
Subject Term
DISTRIBUTED

UNIVERSAL
A E
All S are P. No S are P.
Predicate Term Predicate Term
UNDISTRIBUTE I O DISTRIBUTED
 PARTICULAR
Subject Term 32
UNDISTRIBUTED

SUMMARY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF TERMS

A All Sd are Pu.
E No Sd are Pd.
I Some Su are Pu.
O Some Su are not Pd.
In determining the distribution of the subject term, one has to see the quantity of
the proposition. If the proposition is universal, A & E, the subject term is distributed. If
the proposition is particular, I & O, the subject term is undistributed. Whereas, in
determining the distribution of the predicate term, one has to see the quality of the
proposition. If the proposition is affirmative, A & I, the predicate term is undistributed.
If the proposition is negative, E & O, the predicate term is distributed.
The following are examples on determining the distribution:
1. All students who graduated after the EDSA revolution are successful alumni.
Sd Pu
The subject term students who graduated after the EDSA revolution is universal
because the proposition is universal; and the predicate term successful alumni is
particular because the proposition is affirmative.
2. No administrators are nonprofessionals.
Sd Pd
The subject term administrators is universal because the proposition is universal;
and the predicate term nonprofessionals is universal because the proposition is
negative.
3. Some traditional politicians who are under the administration party are modern-day
Su Pu
technocrats.
Since the proposition is particular, the subject term traditional politicians who
are under the administration party is particular; and since the proposition is
affirmative, the predicate modern-day technocrats is also particular.
4. Some tables are not round things.
Su Pd
 33

Since the proposition is particular, the subject term table is particular; and since
the proposition is negative, the predicate term round is universal.

Exercise 3.1.3
Underline the subject terms and predicate terms of the following propositions and
determine their distribution of terms as shown in the above examples.
1. A: All human beings are wretched sinners who need God’s mercy and forgiveness.
Sd Pu
2. E: No soldiers who fought in the Gulf War are disgraceful cowards afraid of death.
Sd Pd
3. Some men who live in Africa are not black people enslaved by the Europeans.
4. Many young children begging in the streets are victims of parental neglect.
5. Not all red apples sold in the market are products imported from Washington.