STUDENT ID: 74104298 (R 1709 D 3465127)

KALUBA ABRAHAM

MBA-Masters in Business Administration

FACULTY OF BUSINESS AND SOCIETY

MODULE: DISSERTATION PROJECT (Client Five project-5)

Requirements Elicitation for

Mobile B2B Applications
A project-based consulting approach

COURSE CODE: (BS4DO3-V1)

STUDENT NAME: KALUBA ABRAHAM
STUDENT ID: 74104298 (R 1709D3465127)

INSTITUTION: UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH WALES

TUTOR : DR. EVANTHIA PAPACHRISTOFOROU

DATE OF SUBMISSION: 28th August, 2019

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ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………….3
Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION……………….……………….………………………......4

1.1 Study Objectives……………………………………………………...5

1.2 Study Methodology…………………………………………………...6

Chapter 2: SUPPORTING EVIDENCE ……... …. …….…….…………………………7

2.1 OBJECTIVE 1: Functional Requirements …………………………...7

2.1.1 Market Analysis……………………………………………...8

2.1.2 Stakeholder Analysis………………………………………...8
2.1.3 Software Evaluation and Benchmarking…………………….9

2.2 OBJECTIVE 2: Structural Requirements…………………………...10

2.2.1 System Based Environmental Analysis………………….….10

2.2.2 Personnel Analysis……………………………………….…11
2.2.3 Risk Identification and Analysis……………………………12

2.3 OBJECTIVE 3: Resource Requirements……………………...……13

2.3.1 Project Time Planning……………………………………….13

2.3.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis…………………………………….13

Chapter 3: STUDY GANTT CHART ………………………………………………….14

Chapter 4: CONTRIBUTIONS…………………………………………………………17

4.1 OBJECTIVE 1: Functional Requirements…………………………17

4.1.1 Stakeholder Analysis……………………………………….17

4.1.2 Market Analysis……………………….……………………18
4.1.3 Software Evaluation and Benchmarking……………………18

4.2 OBJECTIVE 2: Structural Requirements…………………………19

4.2.1 Systems Environment Analysis…………………………….19

4.2.2 Personnel Analysis…………………………………………19
4.2.3 Risk Identification and Analysis……………………………20

4.3 OBJECTIVE 3: Resource Requirements…………………………20

4.3.1 Project Time Planning……………………………………..20

4.3.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis…………………………………..21

Chapter 5: CONCLUSION.……………………………………………………………21
Chapter 6: REFERENCES…………………………………………………………….23
Chapter 7: APPENDIX………………………………………………………….…….32
7.1 A3 Map…………………………………………………….32

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ABSTRACT

Consulting bidding process consists of many knowledge intensive processes, among which
requirement elicitation process is perhaps the most critical for the success of the project. The
rationale of the document was to develop a bid report proposal for the Company X scoping
study which sort to determine the necessary requirements for developing and implementation
of the B2B mobile application. The document provides an overview of the techniques,
methods, concepts and models available to support requirement elicitation process and
identify their contextual applications.

The study addressedd thee consulting process by collating important activities that contribute
to the efficient
execution of critical paths of the project. The activities were identified through reviews of
critical paths (functional requirements, structural requirements and resource requirements)
requirements which were analysed by using content analysis with supporting evidence based
on industrial information. The activities were then
integrated as a conceptual framework that consists of a step-by-step procedure by the help of
Gantt Chart.

The Gantt Chart can be used as a guideline by stakeholders, developers and clients to execute
the development and implementation of the B2B mobile application.

The paper predicts that the approach of considering approved consulting bidding processes
will increase satisfaction
timely delivery and linking the project success with an ethical approach.

The overall report, endeavors to use knowledge gained from the course study to identify and
analyze the relevant elements outlined in the Gantt Chart as elicitation requirements.

In view of self-plagiarism, I wish to state that some of the definitions, citations and phrases
will be returned from my previous works already submitted such, strategic Operation
Management, Strategic, Strategic Analysis, Tools and Techniques, Strategic Marketing to
mention a few.

Key Words: Requirement elicitation; Elicitation techniques; Elicitation technique selection;

Evaluation Framework.

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Chapter 1 – Introduction

Given the SME adoption of mobile application marketing, recent mobile society development
presents both opportunities and challenges to the business houses and their managers. With
the phenomenal rate of increase of smart phones and their associated applications, people’s
social interactions have been radically altered and increased mediation of the consumption
experience Schwann & Kwan, (2008) while Okello (2015) stated that there has been an
influence on how people communicate. According to statistics, there are 1.2 million mobile
web users in the world consisting of 17% of the global population, MobiThinking(2011).Smart
phone users across the world are projected to rise steadily to touch four million by year 2020
providing new and universal communication media,(statista.com and Shapiro,2011). As a
result, this raises questions concerning consumer needs, behavior, experiences and the highly
competitive app market which may contribute to the failure of the app by either receive little
or no downloads because of features unrelated to its functionality and usability, such as app
icon, app name, or level of exposure. In order to be successful, the app should ideally appeal
to a large number of users worldwide by way of building apps that are applicable to many
mobile devices providing a cross-platform capability Q,Xu et al(2011) .The use of internet
mobile applications through the use of internet, businesses have been able to collaborate with
trading partners and this kind of collaboration is commonly known as business to business
(B2B) application aiming for e-payment, e-procurement and supply chain-management.
These mobile services have become an indispensable part for the direct impact on the
function of the economy as reported by Deloitte (2012) with Smilansky(2015) stating that
these have been advancing as an important tool for customer relationship while Schwanen &
Kwan,2008 said that “ they are a powerful tool to help people make decisions on the go,
fluidly maintaining network connectivity and enabling ad hoc meetings”( 2008).
Reports suggests that there are more of mobile app users spending more and more of their
time on mobile applications, Alin (2015) and to this effect, most successful and well-known
companies have taken advantage of the mobile applications aiming to deal with the growing
number of users ,software companies responsible for mobile platforms such as ( Google
,Microsoft ,Samsung ,Nokia Sony etc) have sought alternatives to expand their business
through new technologies and processes to assist the development of mobile applications
while other companies in other businesses such as restaurants have used them for reaching
different business goals ,Kapil(2017).
Company X is an SME client providing food products to catering companies, it being aware
of the trends, pros and cons in the mobile app market, the client intends to program and
implement the mobile B2B application for its customers. It is in this regard that the client
sought for the consultant to undertake a scoping study to help determine the necessary
requirements for developing a B2B mobile application. The application is assumed to
promote the company visibility, create direct marketing channels, build brand and
recognition, improve customer engagement, cultivate customer loyalty and gain competitive
advantage, Dan (2017). However, due to concerning available research findings since year
2009 that only 32% of IT projects are successful ,44% challenged and 24% completely failed
cited by , Dannawi(2009) https://dannawi.wordpress.com/page/2/ form 2009 chaos survey
report. Therefore, for successful designing of the system, only extensive elicitation,

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negotiated, specified, analyzed and evaluated requirements solicited by the end users or other
stakeholders during the early stages of software development can enable this success.

Source: standish Chaos Survey Report-June 12,2009

Based on the research results cited from chaos survey report and other sources, point out that
projects are correlated with or strongly depends on the quality of requirements elicitations
(Hickey and Davis, 2003).
The development and integration of software applications in enterprises, demands prior
identification and careful analysis of different functional and non-functional requirements,
Veronica et al (2014). It is in this concern that the client sought for consultant to examine
these requirements. This study will provide valuable information based on the project
objectives outlining all pertinent methods which are of importance to the project and
comprehensively mapping evidence across a range of industrial studies designed to inform
future research practices, programs and policy. Covered will be the following objectives and
correlated approaches in order to expose the client’s requirements for the project of
developing and implementing a B2B mobile application, with objectives and methods
building on one another:
1.1 Study Objectives

It is of fundamental importance in this project study to identify the vital requirements for the
development of a mobile B2B application. The study covers the following objectives and
related methodologies in order to reveal the client ‘s requirements for the project out of which
the objectives and methods will build on one another.
Objective 1: Functional Requirements
Identification of the functional requirements of the mobile B2B applications within the food
market for catering companies. This will help to understand the market trends, needs and its
capabilities, stakeholder expectations, security risks and existing competition. This will be
achieved through:
• Market Analysis Tools
• Stakeholder Analysis/mapping
• Software evaluation and Benchmarking
• Risk Analysis

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Objective 2: Structural Requirements

Objective 2 identifies the structural requirements in order program and implement the
application (mobile B2B) within the company structures and its capabilities to determine how
mobile app. may enable the business competitive advantage by looking at:
• System based environmental Analysis
• Personnel Analysis (Personal Skills)
• Risk Identification & Analysis

Objective 3: Resource Requirements

Objective 3 will help to determine the business economic impact of the proposed mobile app.
development.Resource requirements will be identified which the client has to raise for
programing, implementation and operation on the mobile B2B application and this will be
achieved through the analysis of the following models:
• Project Time Planning
• The Life Cycle Cost Analysis

In order to achieve all these, this study will limit its discussion scope to the three objectives
outlined. The appropriate methods required to reveal the precise requirements will be
illustrated, briefly described and exemplified as adequate methods for the scoping study.
Based on the objectives approximate time need, the author intends to explain the project
implementation with the help of the Gantt chart. Lastly, the contributions based on the
objectives and selected methods will be outlined whilst explaining why the approach to
adopting B2B is the most appropriate for the company objectives outlined. Finally, the
conclusion remarks will summarize the authors findings and discussions and
recommendations to enable informed decision and guidance towards the offer.

1.2 Study Methodology

A descriptive survey based on the perceptions of the author was the method for this study. A
theory-based approach measure was used in order to extensively elicitate, negotiate, specify,
analyze and evaluate requirements solicited by the end users and other stakeholders during
the early stages of software development well known as “requirements engineering or
requirements elicitation” Nahar and Student, (2013). The main criteria for selecting the
strategic models or methods consisted of the fact that the models have been sufficiently used
to analyze business environments both internal and external. A critical literature review
method was chosen to analyze models. Articles included in the review were identified by
various online database which included University of South Wales online library and google
scholar.

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Chapter 2. Supporting Evidence

Mostly, the main aim of supporting evidence is to provide an all-inclusive research approach
for the client. This section discusses individual processes related to the approaches chosen for
the study of all relevant kinds of requirements necessary for the client’s B2B project
implementation.

Since requirement elicitation includes a variety of activities, such as interviews,

brainstorming sessions and surveys (Castro-Herrera et al., 2009; Laurent et al., 2010), there is
a high risk of errors in the process in relation to rich communication between the analysts and
the stakeholders. It is highly apparent that the stakeholders may not recognize or spell out
their actual requirements and the analysts may fail to understand the concepts of business on
account of the cultural gap between the stakeholders and the analysts, Zowghi and Coulin,(
2005) as a result, insufficient requirement elicitation process may cause a lot of damage as
the whole software development process depends upon the satisfaction of requirements
elicitation process.

Existing research explains the reasons when requirements elicitation is ineffective as being
complex communication between the analyst and the stakeholders, Farinha and da-Silva,
(2013). Additionally, it revealed that insufficient requirements are responsible for the vital
problem of ever-changing nature of users’ requirements (Christel and Kang, 1992; Sharma
and Pandey, 2014).With this view ,more effort to remove the communication gap ,such as
semantic confusion and cognitive limitations ,which may play an influential role among
different stakeholders like developers and users (CastroHerrera et al., 2009)must be utilized .
Similarly, (Breaux and Antón ,2005) stated that, besides the complication of stakeholders
located in different geographical boundaries (Damian and Zowghi, 2003; Callele and Wnuk,
2011), semantic models must be used in order to inquire into the interaction of requirements
with privacy policies and to achieve the goals from the policy statements.
2.1 Objective 1: Functional Requirements
The retail environment has been impelled to transformation by the constant change in
consumer behavior. Consumers are connecting more and more with companies through web,
mobile and off-line channels in very diverse ways.This is an indication that consumers have
gotten used to utilizing multiple channels effectively throughout their buying process hence
the need for companies to find different ways to interact with their customers and at the same
time evolve their business in B2B e-commerce.Deloitte report states that already 86% of
consumers use computer or mobile devices for shopping related activities(2014).This was
supported by (Shankar and Balasubramanian 2009) who said that mobile devices exhibit
various characteristics hence making it not just a technological gadget, but a cultural object as
well, meaning that it is part of everyday traditions and practices. It is on this premise that the
offer presents that B2B applications are able to cover several functionalities including its
direction, value creating characteristics that link to purchasing strategies and business-
customer relationships.

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2.1.1 Market Analysis
In order for B2B application to succeed, it is essential to undertake a market analysis based
on the business objectives. To avoid leaning towards superficial evidence available, different
strategic models are used to examine macro-environment, industry and firm and make
decisions (Sadlet,2005) concerning external issues which may have the most direct influence
on the industry ,Grant(2008).Industry analysts are able to utilize strategic management
models and concepts such as PESTEL ,SWOT etc to determine the critical industry key
success factors ,Thompson, et al, (2012) and ensure that the functional assessments are
exhaustive and rigorous to offer analysts a strong overview of a firm’s marketing proficiency.
The process is believed to offer an in-depth knowledge and characteristics of the customers
which are essential to decide on the design of the application and appropriate functionalities.
The analysis helps to understand the expectations, needs and preferences of stakeholders such
as customers etc, which are fundamental elements for determining the integration pathways
of an application and to avoid some technical problems in requirement elicitation process
faced by stakeholder (Christel and Kang, 1992).Available research indicates technology
incompetence and new technology may lead to a challenge which may be overcome whereas
technology illiteracy will lead to an impaired project (Attarzadeh and Ow, 2008). This is why
it is strongly advised to cautiously research the market and understand its target customer
profile which includes the customers affordability, willingness and ability to use the mobile
application. This analysis process determines the potential users of the application, their
characteristics and presents the industry’s key success factors (Thompson, et al, 2012) for
Company X survival and prosperity in the market.
2.1.2 Stakeholder Analysis
The adaptation of stakeholder analysis by many different disciplines from business
management to the use in policy making, development and natural resources management,
has rendered it to widespread confusion over what is really meant by stakeholders’ analysis.
This was supported by Carroll’s (1993) definition of stakeholder where she stated that there is
no universal definition of stakeholders. For the sake of this study, the definition is based on
stakeholder theory of organization and management and ethics which defined stakeholder
analysis as a process of systematic collecting and analyzing qualitative information to
determine whose interests should be considered when developing or implementing a project.
According to Harrison & St.John (1998,p14),stakeholder analysis involves “identifying and
prioritizing key stakeholders ,assessing their needs ,collecting ideas from them and
integrating this knowledge into strategic management processes “ .In addition, Freeman’s
seminal work of (1984) defined a stakeholder as any group or individuals who can affect or is
affected by the achievement of the organization ‘s objectives. Thus, said above, stakeholder’s
identification process includes a variety of activities, such as, interviews, brainstorming
sessions and surveys (Castro-Herrera et al., 2009; Laurent et al., 2010). It is therefore
crucial to consider that each project has its own stakeholders which may partly not be that
obvious due to socio-cultural factors affect this inadequacy of requirements, Davey and Cope
(2008). The identification process usually takes into account of internal and external
environment (Grant2008),with which internal users can be the staff who are known as
internal customers .With respect to internal customers who are organization staff,Jeeff

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Bezo(CEO of Amazon) 2017 speech ,affirmed Walter et al (1994) assertions that “ internal
marketing is the key to superior service and the result is external marketing success’. Other
external stakeholders involve, developers, legislators and decision markers.
Upon identification of stakeholders, communication is necessary in order for developers to
have a proper understanding of the objectives, the user’s needs, resources required and
constraints of time. “The degree of human contact is required for communication to be
successful. Face-to-face communication is said to have the highest level of social presence,
while a telephone call has less and written communication the least. For certain types of
communication face to-face meeting is vital, whereas other communication is adequate by
letter” (King & Xia, 1997). Elicitation may face either the problems of the lack of input from
the users or unrealistic input from the users, despite the fact that the interviews may be well
structured (Rajagopal et al., 2005). This processes ensures that stakeholders are integrated
right from the inception of the project, prioritization of the elemental requirements are
considered according to the stakeholders importance, Harrison & St.John (1998,p14)
Finally, there is a presumption that when needs are not met, there is need to address them
through modification of the lead organization’s plans, policies and activities. Of course, If
this final step is not completely successful, the company can be judged accordingly (Nasi
et al., 1997).

2.1.3 Software Evaluation (Benchmarking)

As a management strategic tool, benchmarking has a new meaning in business in order to

gain knowledge and create conditions for improving the own solutions and results in
business. Peter Drucker (2003, pg. 83) considers benchmarking to be one of the latest tools to
obtain information on productivity while (Macura, P. 2010, pg.12) says that it is the skill of
determining how and why some individuals or organizations do business better than others.
Markets are evaluated and compared to the best organizations as a process for measurement
of internal and external comparison to the leaders with the best practice, Harington, H.Y.&
Harington, J.S. (1996, pg. 15). The study does not intend to define the structured steps in
benchmarking but describes competitive analysis, which includes software companies as well
as best practice examples from comparable markets of the same sector.

Besides companies having different benchmarking methods, the major steps involved are the
issue of getting reliable data by means of a research to gain an objective insight into the
processes and business of the competitors and stakeholders ,then measure the performance of
the best-in-class relative to critical performance variables , second, determine how the levels
of performance are achieved, and third, use the information to develop and implement a plan
for improvement (Omachonu and Ross, 1994).This is all done on account of comparing the
identified stakeholders’ objectives with the detailed benchmarks in order to arrive at the final
functional requirements. However, it must be taken into account that benchmarking has
limitations, such as failure to involve stakeholders (employees/users) during the process as
the (employees/users) will be the ones eventually using the information and improving the
process (Omachonu and Ross, 1994) .Lastly, the factor of ethical aspects of benchmarking
,Samuel C. Certo (1994) ‘s general definition of ethics as “our concern for good behaviour;
our obligation to consider not only our own personal interests but also that of other human

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beings.” Ethics, where benchmarking is concerned, may be defined as “principles, guidelines,
or standards that determine a protocol of interaction between individuals and organizations”
(http://www.spinet.org/legeth.html, 2/19/97), given an example of divulging sensitive data
obtained from benchmarking to outsiders which may disparage users interviewed (Pattison,
1994),such as those with no or lower levels of education.

2.2 Objective 2 – Structural Requirements

A discourse whether B2B mobile app. would enable the business competitive advantage is
elaborated while looking at the pivotal role played by IT, personnel skills, risk capacities and
their influence on deviations and other occurring risks. The discussion focuses on the
question of whether the Client is to capable to fulfil the requirements by looking at systems
environment analysis, personnel skills analysis and risk identification and analysis.

2.2.1 System Based Environmental Analysis

As a requirement elicitation process ,Systems environment analysis is relevant due to its in-
depth examination on B2B application integration process ,offering an understanding of the
application domain in which the system will ultimately reside and the constraints that may be
enforced upon the system and its development, Zave, P., Jackson, M. (1997 ); Jackson, M.
(1995). The analysis examines how easy it is to program and implement the functions of the
IT environment through an in-depth look at the personnel capabilities, existing systems in the
market, interviewing of IT leaders or developers to help understand the integration process,
Bedell (2013).

The process of incorporating new application modifications within the IT environment with
specialized features is observed to be difficult, eMarketer’s (2016),the eMarkers assertion
strengths Abrahamson et al. (2014) postulation that anyone with the needed skills can build a
mobile app while a good knowledge of the specific characteristics and challenges of developing
software for mobile devices is required .Hence most common observed difficulties arises where
the app cannot be noticed, is not unique or is not a brand on itself as shown below;.

Furthermore, difficulties resulting from integrating challenges arising as a result of interactive

systems (Ancarani and Shankar 2003) which are part of the operational enterprise ( Liu et
al.,2016) involving other entities (Bedell,2013),creates constraints which are viewed as
challenges ,even though MacLean et al., (2004) argued that challenges are in fact relevant
due to the question of whether the client is able to handle them. Thus, challenges being the
reason, the analysis must explore, identify the necessities and compare interactive or existing
systems, the modules and interfaces (Perlman88) before and after the new mobile application
and the existing system environment. Subsequently, on the basis of the information gathering
process, a most widely graphically-oriented requirements definition technique-SADT
(Structured Analysis and Design Technique) ,(martin,1988)is applied to enable understanding
of which modules are affected by the new application and which interface tools would be

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necessary to enable data exchange and the operation of the application. Additionally, Systems
environment analysis reveals the existing IT services, security and support processes which
are considered during implementation of the B2B application. Finally, systems environment
analysis enshrines its foundation in the interviews with responsible IT leader, the application
owner (Client), existing system manuals and other externals should the IT processes be
administered by them, Leite (1987).Changes are only conducted upon detecting particular IT
skills that may be needed as a result of SADT and eventually providing the basis for
subsequent personnel analysis.
2.2.2 Personnel Analysis
Upon establishing the functions needed to be programmed and implemented and also
knowing how they would interact with the systems environment, personnel analysis becomes
a necessary requirement in order to determine the required personnel resources to implement
the functions Andrea et al., (2017). The analysis process is considered due to the aspect of
interdependency that the organization interacts or has interdependencies , Carroll’s
(1993).Therefore ,in order to acquire the required skills, taking advantage of human
computer interaction(HCI) which focuses on human factors (key skills ) improves the
practice of software engineering resulting into effective, efficient and satisfactory project
execution ,Dayton et al., (1993).Zhang et al. assertion states that personnel analysis provides
an understanding of human factors, such as affective, physical and cognitive constrains fitting
with the requirements of the systems development lifecycle -SDLC,(2004).
The analysis also illustrates how the projects are integrated within the organization and the
team’s structures. However, existing arguments states that development and implementation
of the project (mobile B2B application) is only executable if the client is able to provide the
required staff with appropriate skill sets Dayton et al., (1993) .Additionally, there must be
supportive efforts of adopting new approaches to system development such as user centered
system design Norman & Drapper,(1986). In support of user centered system design, the staff
and developers are trained in order to build their capacity and reduce the digital divide
OECD, (2002b). Thereafter, comparison of tasks and roles renders the understanding of
specific requirements of the staff in terms of skills set (OECD,2004). Based on the
understanding, role planning is considered to be the first step which defines tasks and roles
based on the functional requirements and the results of the systems environment analysis in
order to ensure compatibility between tasks and technology which results into innovation
Tornatzky and Klein (1982). Finally, the project roles are embedded within the organization
hierarchy taking into account of the technical and administrative tasks.
Since projects brings new tasks and additional roles, organizational capabilities become new
category of generic competency in the context of overall management of business processes,
rather than projects alone. Therefore, training of staff and developers need to be more focused
on integration understanding and skills for e-business, such as how to effectively integrate e-
business processes into existing systems environment.

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2.2.3 Risk Identification and Analysis

Existing research assumptions states that there is no risk free project ,each project is different
and involves some degree of uncertainty .However, many organizations still tend to assume
that all their projects will succeed and often fail to consider and analyses their project risks
and prepare in case some of thing goes wrong .This attitude often leads to project failure and
disappointing results and as many studies have shown ,project success rates are less than
satisfactory (Morris and Hough, 1987; Pinto and Mantel, 1990; Tishler et al., 1996). Due to
rapid dynamic environment changes, it is not enough just to have a good project plan or even
other monitoring systems but organizations need to be prepared for the project risks and be
ready to do something about them. Therefore, each project contains risks that are undesired
events that may cause delays, excessive spending and un-satisfactory projects.

Risk analysis only helps to identify factors that drive the behavior of the project schedule,
cost and technical performance as absolute elimination of risks is not possible. The aim is to
identify and control them. A qualitative and systematic project risk analysis method called
Risk Factor Analysis (FRA) is commonly used on a wide spectrum of projects as a tool for
risk identification and analysis developed by John P. Kindinger, and John L. Darby of Los
Alamos National Laboratory (LANL). Although projects differ, all of them suffer from the
same identified four categories of risks which are generic in nature, Technical risk, Schedule
risk, Cost risk, and Funding risk Shenhar and Dvir ,(1996).However, successful project
completion depends to a great extent on the early identification of immediate risks (Datta and
Mukerjee ,2001) using factor analysis, bearing in mind of the hypothesis that risks adversely
impact project success for software developmentt,” Jiang et al. (2002).

As a basis of risk identification, project risk management (PRM)process is typically

supported by tools and techniques such as checklists, brainstorming ,prototyping, simulation,
and contingency planning ;(Raz and Michael, 1999).This includes purposively selected expert
interviews, expected monetary value along with more advanced risk techniques Pritchard
(2001)and Raz and Michael (1999). Of the studies that have looked at failure, identified a
lack of learning from previous failures as a major failure factor in software development
projects Lyytinen and Robey, (1999).

This process, contains uncertain project risk events or conditions that, if they occur, has
negative effects on a project’s objectives (PMI, 2000). Therefore, this being the reason why
identified risks are analyzed in order to establish whether the client is able to handle them.
Assessment of the project risk or its impact on occurrence depicting the probability attribute
of a risk event such as, “probability,” “likelihood,” “probability of occurrence,” and
“occurrence frequency.” Scales used for these probability ratings ,range from low, medium,
and high, 1 to 10, 0 to 1.0, or some other nonlinear or linear scale, plays a pivotal role, PMI
(2000).Based on the assessment, care must be given with respect to the response plan based
on the category into which the risk falls after ranking( Jiang and Klein ,2001).Depending on
the organization’s strategy and tolerance, analysis of risks across cost, schedule, and technical
categories must occur (Pritchard, 2001).

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2.3 Objective 3 – Resources Requirements
Having known the structural requirements at hand, this tool helps in determining the required
resources the client has to raise for the execution of the project Hartney (2017). The required
resources constitute both tangible and intangible kind of requirements. This process reveals
how long software development would take and the required costs even though cost and time
are difficult to measure during the early stages of a project and may continue to shift over the
project life cycle (Atkinson, 1999). Moreover, these resources require mapping as part of
project management.
2.3.1 Project Time Planning

There is a consensus among authors that projects are unique endeavors, special tasks that
have not been done before. Thus, it is difficult or even impossible to know exactly at the
initial planning stage the activities that need to be carried out in order to complete the project,
and what their cost and duration parameters are.However, project time planning is an
important step, seeing recent studies have shown that when planning processes are improved,
the likelihood of project success increases ( Zwikael & Globerson,2004). Therefore, the goal
of project time planning phase is to prepare the structure or activity-based network (i.e. Gantt
Chart) for project execution and control ((Cooper & Kleinschmidt, 1995).

The structure or activity-based network breakdown, provides the estimate for the amount of
time required in order to develop the schedule of activities. This primary purpose of planning,
establishes a set of direction and sufficient detail showing the team of what to be done, when
it must be done and resources to use in order to successfully produce project deliverables
(Meredith & Mantel, 2006). However, this step requires deeper knowledge in software
programming contributed by the skills and attributes of the project managers who are key in
the planning and termination stages where commitment and energy play a major role (Belassi
& Tukel, 1996). In the same regard, Couilard (1995) scrutiny of project management
approaches devised to reduce the influence of risk and increase the likelihood of project
success, concluded that most experienced managers generally formalized plans, monitored
and controlled them closely. Moreover, the revealed activities are logically arranged such that
their dependencies and individual task durations are according to their ranking and the
resulting impact on occurrence.

The use of knowledge areas helps to avoid mistakes and secures reliability for the planning
approach. Ibbs and Kwak (2000) found that project managers pay most attention to Cost and
Communications areas. Cooke-Davies (2002) argues that Risk and Human Resources
knowledge areas are in fact the critical areas for project ssuccess. Furthermore, Jones (2004)
asserts that inadequate milestone tracking and reporting are the causes of project management
failure.

2.3.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis

It is important to note that costs vary over time, which may result in the risk of relying on
Life Cycle Cos Analysis (LCCA)data rather using it as an orientation tool (Higham et
al.,2015). This process helps to determine the economic value of a project by analyzing initial
costs and future costs. Simply, this technique tackles the question of how much the
cumulative costs for the client will be. Life Cycle Cost Analysis is one of the recommended

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processes due to it being a sensitive approach for the client since it determines the total
financial requirement categorized as direct, indirect, intangible ,contingent and external costs
Norris (2001) of the project by looking at programming, implementation ,follow-up costs,
such as support ,maintenance, operation and disposal ,from the beginning to the end of the
project, (Douglas,2016;Nicholas and Steyn,2012 ).

While activities are broken down into different stages during project time planning phase, life
cycle cost analysis technique provides an overview of the project total costs by summing up
individual activity results. The total cost estimates can be or are arrived at by purposively use
of Delphie technique, a mechanism that helps to reach a consensus by resolving
inconsistencies in the estimation, H. Leung and Z. Fan (2002) while basing the estimates on
current premium market prices.

Chapter 3. Study Gantt -Chart

The project time planning phase provides the basis for the construction of a Work Breakdown
Structure (WBS) most widely used (Liberatore & Titus ,1983; Higgins & Watts, 1986) as a
planning technique identified as a Gantt Chart. The technique is a pedagogic way of showing
when different activities take place in time, making planning of parallel activities easier.
Simply the aim is to identify the activities necessary to perform in order to complete the
project task, Maley (2012). The technique serves the same purpose as specialization of labour
in planning and identifying controllable action sequences.
The Gantt chart highlights the duration of individual activities and their dependencies, their
start and end dates and the possible overlap of activities. This technique is supported and
extended by the Critical Path Model (CPM) displaying which activities involve
interdependencies by demonstrating the order of those critical steps and what the nature of
these interdependencies are. The most important interdependency is the sequential one,
meaning, which activities must be completed in order for the next one to start. Consequently,
the critical path are thereby the most important ones in terms of monitoring and control and in
this consulting project they are; functional requirements, structural requirements and resource
requirements.
The focus on the key activities is scheduled for Six months presented as twenty (26) weeks.
To initiate the project, the first meeting only introduces the relevant stakeholders and their
responsibilities while taking into account of the project constraints and avoidance of conflict
that may raise due to multiple participation of stakeholders (Fuentes et al,.2010).
Subsequently the details of the project are presented in order to avoid lack of understanding
of client requirements and issues such as lack of cooperation between different distributed
teams, (Kuusinen et al.2012).Due to projects dependent on communication in order to
function (Galbraith, 1973), continuous communication between consultant and client remains
intact in order to ensure adequacy of the project study. Furthermore, Thomson(1967),states
that the complexity of the tasks and the more interdependencies between activities ,causes a
greater need for task -relevant communication within the organization ,whereas
Kanter(1983) affirms that projects can be a way of bringing about communication in
organizations with sharp dividing lines between the sub–units and (Katz & Tusman 1980)
concluded that project effectiveness is strongly correlated to the amount of task–relevant
communication in the project organization .

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Therefore, to help client and other stakeholders understand the major project steps for the
study and expected feedback and progress report from the consultancy, the Gantt Chart is
identified and its different sections are divided according to the objectives intended to meet
the client requirements. Each objective is supported by appropriate analytical tool or tools
such as market analysis, stakeholder analysis and existing industrial information.
Figure 1. herewith inserted below, illustrates the Gantt Chart. The sequence of activities in
this case which are the three objectives (Functional Requirements, Structural Requirements &
Resource Requirements), activities duration represented in weeks, with Task IDs depicted in
dependencies. Critical path indicating most important activities leading to the completion of
the project and most important to monitor and control. The critical path bears an assumption
that the completion times of all activities in the project are possible to assess beforehand, and
that these completion times are possible to change within certain limits by changing resources
allocated to the respective activities. However, the Gantt Chart suffers from the lack of
resource allocation which are excluded, which in turn means that interdependencies between
activities in terms of resources are excluded. Therefore, any two parallel activities using the
same resources or machine and people, efforts to co-ordinate them are insufficient due to that
the Gantt chart offers no way of displaying this fact.

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Figure 1. Gantt Chart: Source - Own

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Chapter 4. Contributions
This part of the study will in detail deal with the question of how individual techniques
contribute to the identified objectives of which are;

• To determine the business economic impact of the proposed mobile app.

• To determine how mobile app. is able to enhance business competitive advantage and
• To enable understanding of the market trends, needs, capabilities etc.

The objectives are met by way of a combination of existing industrial insights with existing
research theories of study acquired while investigating on various techniques. Extensive
discussions regarding selected analytical tools or models will be offered in order for the client
to obtain necessary information for the project requirements. Consequently, the client will be
able to make informed decisions regarding the project development.
Furthermore, this process covers important elements that are found in software teams
(Stakeholders), such as coordination of work.

4.1 Objective 1-Functional Requirements

Functional requirements describe what the system will do or simply describing the systems ‘s
functionalities, such as sending a message whenever a client signs up on the App. The
functional requirements are embedded in B2B applications. Al-Naeem et al (2005).
In order for the client to receive knowledge about the market and its key players needs and
wants of the B2B application, the following models were used;
4.1.1 Stakeholder Analysis

Due to increasing interdependencies with whom organizations interact with (Caroll,1993), no

organization is left an island, therefore to create a successful project, usually requires
interaction with project stakeholders ,noticed and listened to more carefully than those who
do not possess salience (Mitchell et al., 1997; O´Higgins and Morgan, 2006). Failure to
understand the interest groups, their salience and potential to influence throughout the project
lifecycle, is major challenge (IFC, 2007; Miller 2000). Therefore, influence can be assessed
through the stakeholder identification and salience model. Thus, it is essential to understand
both objectives of the stakeholders and the means through which their interest can affect the
project (Aaltonen et al., 2008; Paliszkiewicz, 2011). Based on this idea, stakeholder analysis
is important in order to identify those stakeholders likely to influence the mobile app project
and then manage their demands through continuous communication. Furthermore, the process
helps with the need for a more in-depth understanding of the changes in the positions of
stakeholders within the project Olander and Landin (2005) to enable improvements on the
activities. In so doing relevant stakeholders are identified to assist with insights on the design
and features development to ensure that their expectations are met even though earlier
research has acknowledged project stakeholders as a major source of unexpected events
(Söderholm, 2008). Finally, both market and stakeholder analysis present the available
market opportunities, threats and the criteria for the project success.

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4.1.2 Market Analysis

Most authors and theory, holds that this technique contributes significantly to the
transformation of the business because it enables them achieve their purpose (Pursche, 1990)
due to its ability to review market trends, size, market growth and other characteristics such
as existing technology which are the basis for decision making (Alketbi and Gardiner, 2014).
It is acknowledged that market analysis model help transmit information regarding the end
users of the app, their level of exposure to modern technology and also determine the level of
app (technological) complexities they can cope with as Alketbi and Gardiner (2014).It is also
believed that this tool is considered to be the simplest technique used by project managers in
solving complicated issues bordering on stakeholders expectations.Furthermore, the process
allows for in-depth understanding of customers different desires for benefits from the same
products or services and market offerings Backman (1994) . Based on identifying these
characteristics, markers may decide to segment the customers based on benefit segmentation
which is highly viewed as a tool predicting customer behavior better than demographic or
geographic segmentation Loker and Perdue (1992).
Upon adopting this tool, (Dalgic and Leeuw, 1994) postulates that markers can create
successful business ventures.

4.1.3 Software Evaluation and Benchmarking

The fact that earlier research believed benchmarking to be for statistical precision, it is
popularly being used as a guide (Muschter, 1997) with its ultimate objective of process
improvement that meets the attributes of customer expectations (Omachonu and Ross, 1994,
pp. 140-1).The model is viewed as a valuable tool because of its contribution to opening up
many different ideas to processes, approaches and concerns (Allan,1997). On the basis of this
assertion, the analysis is considered suitable for the industry because of its ability to reveal
functionalities that are required and appropriate to a relevant industry. Above all, the goal of
benchmarking contributes to the companies’s realization of world-class competitive
capability by way of identifying and learning from the best practices anywhere in the world
(Allan.1997).

Regarding benchmarking and adaptation process, an investigation on its application ,

(Omachonu and Ross, 1994), found that there were many companies using benchmarking
process which included Avon products, Exxon Chemical, Microsoft, Ford, and General
Motors and one of the best known examples of companies in the USA using benchmarking is
Xerox which eventually became to be known as the “pioneer “ of benchmarking
(Omachonu and Ross, 1994).Xerox did not get all improvements directly from benchmarking
but the improved processes and climate indirectly improved the rest of the organization
(Omachonu and Ross, 1994) as noticed by its results in direct labour cut by 50 per cent and
corporate staff cut by 35 per cent while increasing production volume (Omachonu and Ross,
1994).

While in order for benchmarking to be successful, there are general requirements to be

considered in an organization, such as senior management interest, support and dedication to
ongoing benchmarking efforts (Bateman, 1994).

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4.2 Objective – 2 Structural Requirements

4.2.1 Systems Environment Analysis

As part of the organization strategy and tolerance, the software project management
technique known as system environment analysis is considered as a valuable tool because of
its contribution to revealing different ideas, processes, approaches and concerns (Allan,1997).
The major concerns tackled in this process before and during requirement elicitation,
provides the basis for management decision making, according to Johnson (2001), 97 % of
projects which are successful are managed by skilled and experienced project managers.
Among the many concerns is the personnel and risk analysis since the IT environment
requires particular staff and skill sets. Furthermore, the model involves everyone in the
process , including the management and the workers while depending on the company’s
characteristics and circumstances (Matters and Evans, 1997).It is on this principle that the
analysis is considered suitable for the industry because of its ability to reveal functionalities
and exposure of structural IT requirements such IT capabilities appropriate for a relevant
industry . This is done bearing in mind of Hofstede’s (1984) cultural dimension of
uncertainty avoidance in order to survive and succeed in the highly competitive market, it is
this cultural change that must occur (McNair and Leibfried, 1992).

Regarding software projects failure, inadequate adaptations as well as IT problems known as

ccontent driven failure or the technology factor (Yeo, 2002), were responsible for a large
part. However, Sauer (1993) narrative emphasizes that interests and capabilities of the most
important stakeholders must be considered in order to avoid software project failure.
Furthermore, Sauer states that differential capacities can manifest themselves as failure, for
example the failed London ambulance project where users did not have the capacity to use
the system (1993).In support of Sauer’ assertion, Kappelman et al. (2008) argued that no
information Systems (IS) project fails due to technological factors, but rather due to people
and processes which manifests as technical issues. Similarly, Nelson (2007) revealed that
only 4 percent of the top ten failures listed technology as a factor compared with processes
and people.

4.2.2 Personnel Analysis

The failed projects reviewed were mostly huge and the failure factor were not just
management factors but also included technical factors (N. Cerpa and J. M. Verner,2009).
However, Kappelman et al., (2008) argued that no project fails due to technological factors,
but rather due to people and processes which manifest as technical factors. Similarly, Nelson
(2007) findings in his seminal works, stated that only 4 percent of the top ten project failures
listed technology as a factor compared with processes and people. Based on the assertions,
personnel analysis contributions to requirement elicitation is highly recommended especially
that software development, implementation and maintenance is people intensive task.
Therefore, only conceptual or focused analysis explains the required knowledge, Skills and
abilities (KSA) as important factors to yield quality performance within a short time, Brooks
(1987).

It is equally important during this activity to establish the level of scope for the system and
investigate in detail the needs and wants of the client, especially the users and also examine
the ways in which the system may support them in order to satisfy the project objectives.In
case of lack of skilled staff ,It is important to remember that requirements elicitation does not

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occur in a vacuum. It is strongly related to the context in which it is conducted and specific
characteristics of the project, organization, and environment where Groupware or Group
Systems could fill the gap Jackson (2000).

4.2.3 Risk Identification and Analysis

The process appears to be important due to its positive contribution to risk mitigation
particularly by exposing threats and opportunities. Just by entering the application domain
without investigating and examining in detail, this “real world”, is a risk factor enough to
cause project failure, Jackson (1995:1997). Among many risks exposed by this technique
includes constraints and avoidance of conflict that may raise due to multiple participation
(including none relevant) of stakeholders (Fuentes et al,.2010),lack of understanding of client
requirements and issues such as lack of cooperation between different teams, (Kuusinen et
al.2012),cognitive limitations Kappelman et al., (2008),such as the failed London ambulance
project where users did not have the capacity to use the system (Sauer, 1993), cultural
avoidance dimension Hofstede’s (1984) and semantic differences which may lead to rejection
of organization cultural change (McNair and Leibfried, 1992).If such potential risks of the
project are not identified in advance ,the project may not be delivered on time
,Grantetal.,(2006),within budget and expected quality. Based on the above, within the risk
management process, risk identification and analysis is considered by many authors as the
most crucial element of the entire process; since once the risk is identified as mentioned and
itemized above, it is possible to take measures for its management (Chapman and
Ward,2007).

Several examples of failed projects were largely contributed not just by management factors
but also included technical factors (N. Cerpa and J. M. Verner,2009). Consequentially,
Kappelman et al., (2008) stated that people and processes is what manifest as technical
factors. Hence, it is of particular importance for the client to adopt the traditional approach
which is more appropriate for projects with clear initial user requirements, clear risk
understanding and with very low level of uncertainty (Coram & Bohner, 2005; Bart CK,
1993). The traditional approach points out that risk identification and analysis of software
projects must be done with formal control and accuracy capture of information.

4.3 Objective 3 – Resource Requirements

4.3.1 Project Time Planning

Imperfect modeling and estimations are some of the common causes of time mismanagement
and eventual project failures. The inaccuracies can cause pressure and negative results such
as budget overrun characterized as “software Runways” meaning from original plans in cost
and delivery Ewusi-Mensah (2003, p.8). Common errors in time estimation results from IT
managers who are not given the opportunity to focus more on planning due to the pressure
from senior management, eventually, some of the projects start before they are clearly
defined (New Zealand Management, 2003) consequently leading to project failures.

Existing research indicates that shortening project duration is highly recommended for global
competition unlike prolonged projects which results into excessive accrual of costs. Further
recommendation is for organizations to continue searching for new ways to reduce project
duration through means such as activities overlapping (Jacobs & Herbig 1998) during project
development phase as is in this consulting work of B2B mobile application development for

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Company X. In order to shorten the project duration, this consulting bid adopted the
overlapping approach as can be observed from the Gantt Chart earlier on presented in this
report. The approach is viewed as a critical success factor for accelerating development as
reported regarding Israeli project managers who have been found to invest most of their
efforts in schedule planning to expedite development (Globerson & Zwikael, 2002).

Even though it is found to be very difficult to know exactly at the initial planning phase what
are all the activities that need to be carried out in order to complete the project, and what their
costs and time limits are ,Andersen,(1996),conscious analysis with reasonable modeling and
time estimation can prevent wrong modelling and estimations and imminent risks leading to
losses and project failure.

4.3.2 Life Cycle Cost Analysis

The ultimate objective of the model ,identifies the lowest cost of the project overtime and
provides a framework for finding the total cost of design, development and production
(Fabrycky and Blanchard,1991).This entails early process implementation in order to
influence the design changes of the project with the aim of enabling investment options to be
more effectively evaluated while considering the impact of all costs, rather than only initial
capital costs Woodward,(1997).

Applying LCCA in a project elicitation process proves to be a comprehensive and detailed

technique regarding assessing a company’s project life cycle due to the tendency of using
economic principles such as Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Rate (IRR) to
compare competing alternative investment strategies (Asiedu,1998).The use of these
economic principles allows for understanding of the future value of money in present day and
also how long it would take to return on what is invested, respectively. However, LCCA
attracts criticism largely from its reliance on complex reliability models which scholars have
argued that in order to perform an effective life cycle cost analysis, the life cycle cost analyst
must possess skills in many areas including finance, accounting, statistical analysis, logistics,
engineering etc. Bearing mind that there can never be a single professional, it should be a
corresponding team meaning that the organization will be susceptible to encounter
management problems arising from managing or organising high-level team of professionals
which is also expensive and time consuming.

This is of utmost importance for the client to take note that LCCA can only be successful, if
the attitude and thinking philosophy of the high-level management toward reliability are
considered a crucial factor Dhillon (2000).

Chapter 5 Conclusion Remarks

While this consulting bid report does not provide the main focus of study which is
requirement elicitation, a holistic approach was instead adopted in order to reveal the project
activities based on the main three critical paths elaborated on the Gantt Chart for guidance.
With requirement elicitation being a critical step in the elicitation process, it is important that
high level management apply appropriate methods and techniques recommended in this
report to perform the process successfully.

This report attempts to present meaningful insights based on theoretical guidelines as

supporting evidence. Furthermore, the report reveals different contextual situations for

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consideration during requirement elicitation process, development and implementation.
Having known that requirement elicitation is a complex social interaction process, this report
provides client a proper and contextual means to perform the process. It also empathizes on
relevant stakeholders to possess interpersonal skills to help build consensus between
heterogenous groups of stakeholders because the project is highly human intensive.

This report’s narrative is that, requirements elicitation is highly dependant on a large number
of factors including the type of system being developed, human knowledge, skills and
capabilities, the stage of the project, and the application domain in which the system will
reside etc. .It is of the utmost importance to ensure that management takes cognizance of
relative strengths and weaknesses of the available methods and the type of information
provided to the client because the reality is that in almost all projects ,a combination of
several different techniques will be necessary to achieve a successful outcome. In support of
using techniques in conjunction with each other, using Net Present Value (NPV) allows for
the understanding of the future cashflows in today’s value while Internal Rate of Return
(IRR) elaborates only on how long it would to realize that future value. Therefore, this report
strongly recommends that most of the approaches require a significant level of skill and
expertise from the analyst to use effectively such as in the case of Life Cycle Cost Analysis
which needs more than a single expert to handle statistical analysis, technical engineers,
Accountants etc.

This report ‘s emphasis on personnel analysis, viewed among others the challenge of
disagreement among stakeholders on suggested issues which includes the need for changes
because of opinions based on different experiences in carried out the process. It is on this
premise that communication should render an optimal customization of the collected
information. One other neglected factor, is the existing structural infrastructure which must
be upgraded and enforce human computer interaction, meaning that the software must be able
to help the user.

Finally, the report recommends that attention be paid to the uncertainty avoidance cultural
dimension during development and implementation process as the absence of it may lead to
the system being rejected. Most of the conclusion remarks, points to the people as the most
critical factor causing the project failure as stated Kappelman et al., (2008), “no project fails
due to technological factors, but rather due to people and processes which manifest as
technical factors”.

The consulting bid report for Company X provides the guideline and valuable
recommendations for decision making.

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Chapter 6. References

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Chapter 7. Appendices

7.1 A3 Map

Client Requirements / Objectives Ghantt Chart

To undertake a scoping study for Company X an SME providing food products to the catering trade willing to create
an app for its customers to use.

The study shall strengthen the project's potential to:

To ensure visibility to customers at all times

To create Direct Marketing Channel with customers
To provide value to customers
To build brand and recognition
To improve customer engargement
To cultivate customer loyalty(retention)
To gain competitive advantage

Deliverables

1 To understand the market trends , needs and its capabilities, stakeholder expecations ,security risks and competion
by looking at :-

Market Analysis Tools

Stakeholder analysis/mapping
Software evaluation(Industrial analysis)
Risk Analysis

2
To determine how mobile App.may enable the business competitive advantage by looking at : -

System based environmental Analysis

Personnel Analysis( Personal Skills )
Risk Identification & Analysis

3
To determine the business economic impact of the proposed mobile App.development by looking at :-
The Life Cycle Cost Analysis
Project Time Planning Contributions

1. Stakeholders contribution - Allowed clear understanding relevant and needed

stakeholder to avoid wastage ,abandonment & failure
Supporting Evidence
Objective based
Supporting Theory 2 Software Benchmarkin- Contribution allowed Client understanding of where they
are and whey the need to be -Eg. General Motors USA & Toyota
Is used to assess the market trend, needs,market size,market growth ,target market and
1 Market Analysis competition in order to make an informed decision as these are fumdamental elements to the
success of B2B application , Sadler et al (2005 ) 3 System Environment Analysis - Contribution - Enabled undetstanding of Skills
2 Stakeholder C.Pacheco & E.Tavor(2007)- Allows ealier identification and involvement of key stakeholders available in the environment both to operate & use. Security & maintaince
Analysis/Mapping and theirs interests which averts the risk of projects failure.
3 Pestel Model The model provides the trend of the industry,the factors which are uncontrollable and can 4 Personnel Analysis contribution- Enabled clear understaing that the project was
either be opportunities or threats,Bryars,(1991), Human Intensive & that both success & filure depended on them
4 Gap Analysis This model answeres the quesition of whether the right products or services are offered to
customers . This idea links up with the portifolio analysis, ABE (2008,P.89), 5
5 Cost Benefit Analysis This evaluates the overall impact of the project,it compares the total costs of the project with
its benefits,Depuit(1844)

Industry Information

1 For MCOMMERCE App Users:Its All about time & money https://www.emarketer.com/public_media/docs/eM
arketer_Mobile_Commerce_Roundup_2017.pdf

2 Digital Ad spending,Benchmarks by Industry 2018 https://www.emarketer.com/content/digital-ad-

spending-benchmarks-by-industry-2018

3 The size of the Ad Fraud problem in Digital Marketing is Varying https://www.emarketer.com/content/the-size-of-the-

ad-fraud-problem-in-digital-marketing-is-varying

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