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    NK Chougule 1

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    Barbie Joo
    This is Part 1 of the PDF, our teacher only provided us with the book in parts

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    Advantages, Disadvantages of | Future Of CAD/CAM Engineer LCADICAM Related Career Paths Typical CADICAM Laboratory ist of Renowned CADICAMICAE software's 1.1. INTRODUCTION q Computer Science is concerned with the storage, manipulation and presentation of information. It is the study of computers and their uses. It may include the physical components (hardware) and programming languages (software). A computer is an electronic device that accepts input data, manipulates the data and produces the output. CAD can be defined as the use of computer systems to assist in the creation, modification, analysis, or optimisation of a design. The CAD hardware generally includes the ‘computer, one or more graphical display terminals, keyboard and other equipment. The CAD software consists of the computer programs to implement computer graphics on the system plus application programs to facilitate engineering function of the user. Examples include Stress- Strain Analysis, dynamics response, heat transfer calculation etc. Thus CAD is the subset process of design, which is outcome of Geometric modelling, Computer graphics, Design concepts and analysis. The various activities involved in the CAD are mass properties, Finite Element Analysis (FEM), dimensioning, surface finish, tolerancing, assembly modelling, generation of shaded images, drafting and documentation. CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) refers to computer software used to develop Computer Numerical Control (CNC) part programs for machining and other processing applications. CAM is subset of manufacturing process, which is, integrated outeome of CAD, Computer Aided Engineering (CAE), Automation and manufacturing concepts. The various activities involved in CAM are Computer Aided Process Planning (APP), Numerical Control (NC) programming; Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMM) verifications, inspection, material handling through Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) and Robots, Automated assembling, packaging and Automated Storage and Retrieval System (ASRS). 4. Manufacturing service department design 10. 3. Based on above information Design department design 2 # CAD/CAM/ CAE ‘The various disciplines of C. 1.1) ‘AD and CAM are as shown below ( ‘Computer Graphics ‘Automation Geometric Modelling, ‘Computer H/W & Networking & Networking Fig. 4.4 1.2. TRADITIONAL PRODUCT CYCLE i 5 Figure (Fig. 1.2) shows conventional product cycle where all manufacturing activities are dore manually. In this customer is start and end state of the product cycle and the main objective of ti cycle is to satisfy three quality objectives- best quality , economic and make available in time. Following are the various stages through which raw material is converted into finished product, 7,5, 1. Initially customers needs are arises which are captured by market department. ae 2 R& D department will ereate the concept of product and overall outline of product is Prepared. } each and every component, ”, | subassembly and assembly. Various reports such as assembly, detail drawings, manufacturing drawings ete. are generated which are forwarded to the Manufacturing service department. n processes and prepares process sheets. Depending upon the resourees available in the organisation Make or Buy decision is taken. Jig fixture design is done in consultation with Tool room department; Vendors selection is also done and remaining components are get done from Production department, Purchase department procures products from concerned vendors. Goods inward Department (GID) inspect the incoming components from vendors suppliers or any other sources, Production department manufacture all the components as per the design specifications and production schedule. Quality control department check the ‘g00ds. If there is any deviation feedback BSSaessss PER ISERIES BF Quality of produced components and incoming is given and appropriate actions are taken. ¥ of components is done and also various application lunctioning at actual work. Finally end products are packed properly and dispatched to the customer. Customer tests the product and gives the valuable feedback to th iSatiaronich will be very helpful for further product quality enhan; 1¢ organisation which wil : cement. Thus thi is contin repeated, that is why itis called product cycle, is cycle is continuously Introduction to CADICAM W 1.3 Ses [neces nap Pa Cerne) Bey |Manufacturing| Serer erp vA Tea oom se 0 eee Sats 8c. [ Naa Packing Tateg | — [rasa |=) Feedback Fig. 1.2 Traditional Product Cycle The various functions of each department are summarised below- Marketing Department- Reduce, Nocket survey Y Recognize customer needs GEepeNMEEY Forecasting Period wise-weeldy , monthly, quarterly , product wise, region wise etd. ae Gay Competitors Survey ing | “ Customer order information pending ‘fixture | R&D one and | % Product concept ¥ Competitors product comparison ¥ Reverse engineering, ¥ Previous product comparison artment | Y Prototyping ~~ | Design ations | ¥ Design, release process- Modelling, assembly, drafting, analysis ¥ Optimisation, sensitive analysis iming | ¥ New Product development Y Product specification and manual preparation Y BOM generation _ | Manufacturing services (production planning and control) Y Processes Design will | “ Design tools, Jigs , fixtures asly | Y Capacity planning fn Make or Buy decision SHO, 2 44 # CAD/CAM/ CAE New resources procurement-man, Machines ¥- Coordination between- Production, QC, Maintenan Y Time study, method study Production Y Prepare production plan day wise, weekly or monthly ¥ Assignment- Man, Machine-shift wise ¥- Inprocess inspection . ¥ Involve in new design process-DFM Quality Control Y Calibration of gauges, measuring tools Y Metallurgical testing, Y Goods Inward Department (GID) Y¥ SQC tools Y Machine Alignment tests Tool Room Y Jig.fixture design and manufacturing. Y Gauge maintenance Purchase ¥ Procurement., Vendor rating etc. Sales Y Aftersales services ¥ Sales analysis- productwi Y Sales comparison with competitors 4.3 CADICAM PRODUCT CYCLE It is a computer age. In each and every field of day-to-day life, computerise conventional practices to reduce repetitive tasks, complete in short span of tim: avoid manual errors and also complete the task economically. Obviously. manufactur, organisations have not remained an exception. In consideration of the conventional produt cycle discussed above, itis need of time to automate the whole product eycle by implementai ‘of computer systems. __In the figure (Fig.1.3) oval shaped dotted regions represent the various computerise applications in the different departments of the product cycle. These are explained below — 1.3.1 Rapid Prototyping (RPT) Before starting actual production to evaluate our design, prepared. This canbe ~~ done iby Virtual Prototyping. In RPT Layer by layer fabrication from CAD is done which is fast 132 Design For Everything (DFMA) DFMA software is com (DFA) and Design For Manufe ce, Tool room, assembly. , period, region, customer type. people have started prototyping design model i a ‘cation of three-dimensional physical modes raetoee and inexpensive alternative for producing prototypes at! product by allows the ¢ ‘vith the eo: 1) Supp 2) Prod 3) Impr 4) Cutt Boo bination of two complementary tools: Design For Assembl} ‘acture (DFM). DFA software is used to reduce the complexity of Introduction to CADICAM 1.5 ist of producing new design and to compare it product by consolidating parts in to elegant and multifunctional designs _DFM software then allows the design engineer to quickly judge the with the cost of producing the original design, DFMA is used for: ‘Supply chain cost management. ) 2) Product simplification and improved quality. 3) _ Improved communication between design, manufacturing, purchasing and management. Cutting manufacturing costs. Boothryod Dewhurst Inc. USA has developed DFMA_ software for traditional ‘manufacturing processes. Purchase Manufacturing J Services “ERP. Financial Accounting | HRD Packing Testing Fig. 1.3 CAD/CAM Product Cycle CAE i fication, analysis, and optimise, 1 4.6 CAD /CAM : ded Design (CAD) : 7 1.33 Computer Aided ei cin the creation, modi eas eN. iy modelling Drating apa Use of compu modules of CAD are Far M4, Desault System’s CATIA ys ace, a design, The various CAD a van as Msouesk’s Inventor are some o = ic ineering (CAE) : esc sek 1.34 Computer Aided Engi analyse CAD geometry allows desi ene Beit a uy Use of computer stems fo analvs2. CAO rsa, The structural thermal, Muid fy SO} how the product will behave, allowine. rf ware’s such as FLUENT, a“ rofessi ° analysis (CFD) are done using P ABAQUS, LSDyna, Algor, Nastran etc a ided Process Planning (CA\ 2 “I ghee s such as cutting parameters, machine tool capability, toy — Gp Constacomectsing one ine software generates process plans automatically Ge aay a pe Ba, e ersbenmgs eee py pane ‘and production lead-time, greater process plans consistency, Improves cost estimating fi procedures, improved production scheduling and capacity utilization. 4 13.6 Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM) Once 3D model is available, it can be used as input to CAM. In CAM we use compute, systems to plan, manage, and control manufacturing operations. The CAM software is equipped with sophisticated very intelligent CNC, DNC machine tools. MasterCAM, ProManufactur, UGCAM, DelCAM are some of the CAM software's used by Indian industries.Recently Dr. ‘S.S.Pande of IIT Mumbai has developed first web enabled CAM software. 13.7 Computer Aided Quality Control (CAQC) Raw material inspection, in process inspection and final inspection is possible to carry out by use of computer-interfaced equi of ty we of compa equipments, Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM) is one ofthe equipment for inspection. In spite of this we can also use various St : Saas iS SQC software’s to ensure 13.8 Programmable Logic Control (PLC) Programmable logic controllers are the most widel ic devices i 4 a ly used electronic devices in the control of pares and assembly: Process in most automated factories due to its telity ea a, hs 's 2 user-friendly, microprocessor-based, specialized computer carrying out os pee fi rat bes and levels of complexity in industrial applications, Bofors the tere. a facturing Processes had to be controlled using hardware devices such as aoe tn av a ae advances in microelectronics have made a . Along wit s Hil is cae ee ig 'LC we use software's like SCADA (Supervisory FANUC, Cinumeric, Alean brandl the SCADA software use? wie eee are some of the PLC manufacturers: Tatouch is one of Introduction to CADIGAM 1.7 upon instruction by an operator. This system was originally designed to reduce the walking that accounted for 70% of manual retrieval time. Storage bins (or pallets) are stacked in rows of frames in a storage facility. An operator selects a bin to be retrieved to a workstation, and upon the operator's instruction the robotic > Ai ty crane mechanism will maneuvelr to the correct aisle of stacked bins, then to the row and dp. | column of a particular one. The crane will retrieve the bin from the shelf to the operator at the ANgy | workstation. Afterwards, the robot can return the bin to its location in the frames. S'] 1.3.10 Enterprise Recourse Planning (ERP) 7 It is a business strategy and set: of industry-domain-specific applications that build bility customer and shareholder communities value network system by enabling and optimising mating Al enterprise and inter-enterprise collaborative operational and financial processes .ERP can be d pial described as enterprise wide integrated information system that helps in monitoring and 25timee8% | planning of business activities Ivis a set of application software that integrates information from ting | finance , manufacturing distribution and other business, functions and facilitates decision making. It aims at creating a common database across organization that is used by different 2omp, departments within business organization. ERP software is known to provide a number of quip benefits to the organizations The generic architecture of ERP package from the point of view of acy the business process model consists of functions such as customer order processing and ntly pp execution, customer service functions, financial applications materials applications ,human resource applications, information reporting applications SAP, BANN, ORACLE are the renowned ERP software's. 1.3.11 Customer Relationship Management (CRM) It involves Mass customisation, “Products” to “Services” , Warranties etc. CRM is IT enabled solution which helps the organization in managing the relationship with the customers snot just the buying and selling transactions. CRM is software solution that is used to. collect - information and use the same within the organization in order to improve interaction with the customers. It has two modules namely- yntrol | % Interface module that makes use of technology tools such as intemet, telephone or + and conventional “Walk in” customer interactions or “front end” software. 5 out Y Usage module that allows different functions or departments within the organization to > the make use of data so collected. ‘ has | Customer database can be used to keep the track of customer details, for example the birth date le z) information of customers is used to send them birthday wishes. Sales database can be used to ‘01 generate various reports based on product, region, customer and other sales information. Using internet CRM allows the customers and channel partners to log on to their website and place orders, view the status of their orders and look at their payment positions, 1.3.12 Supply Chain Management(SCM) This consists of— : 4 Y Distribution Network Management ¥ Warehouse Management of =e e__ - Rees 4 CAE 4.8 w CAD/CAM! oe ive Planning, Forecasting company, et it Y~— Collaborative Planning, ished product of the or. distributor who gt f Uaften When customer buys @ Finis © yholesaler Ais requires the raw materials, w MY ie retal any, the Fete SES a at estoy th of custom iy requiremer ets the product uct th sourcing p customer. Retailer 2 ng the produc «vendor: anu facturing it from other : tasks unde amanufactures | Fgndr wh in tum purchases OP" ternal business) processes in PLN are supplied by a vendor is only confine t0 ef as extemal Business proces In ERP the entire focus A oe uses on internal ASV” sods and services to q, and devel organisation, but in SCM organisation Oo dors who, SUPPLY erienied (onholesalers, dealers, distributors ete) pares workflow H the customer, i is company. ae at rier Timea ieee EN omit across dit In order to provide Righ’ Por’ as well as Vendors. . Thus mubed « uc access toinvolve both channel partners as Well VENT business entities involved i solutions a synchronized set of integrated resource system: UGS. D! making products available tothe customer. in SCM allows customers, ly chain to share the informati vendors, channel partners and othe, Dassault Exchange of information i jon through a appropriate acor, 1.4. AC business entities involved in supp! i ‘Aavants toa common database managed at a central location. a oi Oracle’s Siebel CRM is one of mostly used CRM software. ma 1313. Product Lifecycle Management (PLM) eae It is a strategic business approach that integrates people, process and information to ° ‘manage product information through out the life of product. It has a set of business applications a that helps in collaborative design, product data management and sharing of the product 3. F information’s across the enterprise. The product data will be required at various phases y including produet concept, design, sourcing, manufacturing, transportation, storage, promotion, sales, support, maintenance, retirement, and even recycling. PLM has its roots in mechanical design, files generated by their product design syst capabilities allowed them to store files, relationships between parts and assemblies, 4 ja- management (PDM) 5: technologies emerged inthe 6. ti ery stage of the produey yen enterprise platform 7, eed Up operations, Th aes reek tous . he Scope of information being i STesults, test Specifications, stings (BOMs), Of the ing i _ ia single at about their a= ‘On environment 4.4 ADVANTAGES: DISADVANTAGES OF CAD/CAM SYSTEM Advantages 1. _ Easier creation and correction of drawings- Once we create 3D model , any type of view 2. Better visualisation of drawings- For the same object CAD system allow different types Introduction to GADICAM ¥ 1.9 that ties together all product-related information and processes across a company's value chain of customers, employees, partners and suppliers. All clements of product data (customer requirements, technical specifications, design definitions, production schedules, analysis results, sourcing plans, and quality inspections) are incorporated and tied to the critical processes aiid tasks undertaken by internal and external teams. PLM stands alone among enterprise applications in its ability to integrate product design and development information and processes across the wide range of intra-company and fextended-enterprise systems. Equally important, PLM provides the necessary processes and workflow for successfully managing products throughout the complete innovation lifecycle and across dispersed locations, both within the company and throughout the value chain. UGS PLM is one of the market leader in product lifecycle management (PLM), providing, solutions to leading global manufacturers . Teamcenter is the most popular PLM solution from UGS. DELMIA, ENOVIA and SMARTEAM are the industry known’ PLM solutions from Dassault Systems. Windchill from PTC is an industry known PLM solution. can generated very quickly and efficiently. ‘of projection views.. Due to provision of rendering and shading effects, realistic appearance of 3D objects can be obtained. Parametric Approach- Due to parametric approach lot of time is saved in doing repetitive work. ‘Automation of repeated tasks- Most frequently used designs and drawing symbols such as. gears, nut-bolts, washers, screws ete. can be stored in the library and can be recalled whenever required. Increased accuracy- Using computer, the excellent and error free drawings can be produced very easily. Bi-directional associativity - Any change in the drawing is reflected in the 3D model/ assembly and vice versa. ; Improved filing -system- Drawings can’ be more conveniently. filed, retrieved and transmitted on disks. Data exchange format- Now a days numerious softwares are available for CAD/CAM applications. Every software has its own standard with the increase in number of CAD/CAM ystems there is a desire for increased mobility of data both internally within a company and externally to and from other companies. Thus to integrate various activities in the organization data must be exchanged and this can be only possible by introducing translator amongst various CAD/CAM softwares. For this, we use’ this standard file format is known as neutral file format. Some of the standard formats are IGES, DXF, STL, STEP etc. : Multitask application- Once 3D model is prepared, it can be used for numerous downstreams applications of CAD which includes Computer aided Manufacturing (CAM), Finité element analysis (FEA), Computer aided process planning (CAPP), Computer aided quality’ control (CAQC), Robot programming, MRP system, simulations etc. ‘ 4.40 7 CAD/ CAM/ CAE fil at aly ai pe ae cs i es ySis Whi Quick design analysis- It is possible to make various typ ich Bate properties, tolerance stacking, collision between parts etc 4 Disadvantages J, Equipment is expensive. 2, Need to train staff. 4.8. FUTURE OF CAD/CAM ENGINEER lt CAD operators are in demand in virtually every ae a et Oa aie “4 ackground in Mechanical Engineering, for example, would fin y 1 organ ie is involved in either desig or Then acti activities. The operator would a geometric models, prepares subassembly and assembly of machine components. From. geometric models he would generates various types of drawings. All modifications, sey,’ y and 3DPresentation models would also be created in CAD and plotted for the office ay, client. The CAM operator works with’ the production engineer to develop a process pi, plan to manufacture a part. The operator then utilizes CAM software to generate ay ¥ instructions to the computer controlled manufacturing machines. The operator takes cay. process plan is adhered to when generating the instructions. The CAM operator and prodys, engineer select the machine(s) and cutting tool(s) to be used in production. What Mig ¥ CAD/CAM Operator Know? A CAD/CAM operator should be able to read and write well, v basic knowledge of college level algebra, trigonometry, manual drafting practices, the Winig y operating system, 2D and 3D CAD, manual shop practices, production processes, man, a) b) °) rc) programming of computer controlled production machines as. well’ as using CNC sofivar, “, program such machines is recommended. The optimum path to becoming a CAD/CAM operator is to seek the best availa % training. The following career paths can also pursued by persons interested in the field: CADICAM technology: ¥ Opportunities exist with the O.E.M - The (Original Equipment Manufact be Mahindra & Mahindra, Godrej, TATA, Bai iaaeaertmscet exist at different levels for design and developi stress is always on Design, Analysis, Research and develo c pment of the. product, whishi almost always done by the O.E.M. Besides this, certain Manufacturing is aa done ~ the O.E.M. so as to utilize their capacit i i pacity. Most of the time, C - offloaded to vendors as per the specifications. The ea sreation of the design models of the complete pi models are then passed on to the vendors for further work. v 1.6 CADICAM Related Career Paths : ‘A 4 v v v jaj, Ashok Leyland, etc... Here openings call % ment to manufacturing. However, mt ¥ v v v Manpower required here is mainly!" /, roduct and. assemblies. These és Introduction to CAD/CAM W 1.14 4) Tool rooms, which undertake complete design to manufacture of Moulds of components, from the digital component model given to them. b) Mold designers who design the molds from digital data input of the component, and associate with CNC Machine shops for the machining work. ©) _ CNC Machine Shops which take in the CNC programs given by the Mold makers or Consultants and give a machined output. d) CAD/CAM Consultants who offer a ‘one point solution by associating with other companies for services such as Digitizing, CAD modelling, CNC Machining, Prototyping. They undertake projects on Mold design / Reverse Engineering, Rapid prototyping etc. Opportunities can exist with large Companies such as Infosys, Pentafour, Satyam, Onward Technologies, LTITL, TCS and several others, which are into CADICAM consultancy services. These companies take up design and development projects from companies abroad Engineering-Part and assembly modelling, drafting, analysis, optimisation, sensitive analysis etc. Product Life cycle management (PLM) Animation CADICAM software development CAD/CAM hardware development CAD/CAM software maintenance and troubleshooting CAD/CAM consulting services CAD/CAM instruction services CAD/CAM marketing and sales CAD/CAM training and consultancy Simulation technology Robotics Digital art and advertising 4 » Internet development and consulting, Architectural designer Rehabilitation technology Cutting tool designer ¥ — Medical imaging systems Y Digital gaming and amusement systems 17 Typical CAD/CAM Laboratory ; __ The CAD/CAM laboratory should offer an ideal solution to teach Computer Aided. Design (CAD) & Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAM), Computer Aided Engineering (CAE) Ttshould also include Computer Numerical Control taining facility at an introductory level. _The laboratory should include dual purpose one or two CNC machines working as CNC tthe/mitt and CNC milWlathe or vice versa on each student workstation and be networked to fovide direct hands-on machining facilities with further possibilities of 10 or higher students ee ——™ dey 2400s 5 < Be A ee 2D GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS Introduction 2D Geometric transformations 4.3. | Homogeneous co-ordinates representation 44 | Other important transformations 43 49 4.12 Inverse 2D Transformations ee ‘Composite transformations 426 4.26 Examples of Composite Transformations 8 | Applications of Geometric Transformations in Engineering Design Solved Examples 4.33 437 4.4 INTRODUCTION Computer Graphics is tl “computer based models. It is a part of Computer effects, Software, which can programme Computer Graphics isthe science, technology, art and It is increasingly dominated by he pictorial synthesis of real or imaginary objects from their Science about the relationship between: Computer Graphics them to occur, and the " resources required. More broadly, artifacts of affecting visual perception by compute! Mntéractive Computer Graphies in which users act upon and through dynamic displays. Computer graphics deals with: - « Geometric modelling is of 2D and 3D objects. Creating mathematical. Model: images given these models. © Rendering - Producing dependent behaviour of objects : $ Animation - Defining/representing time- : i such as ~ 42 CADI CAM! CAI ee ; & data structures for Geometry; ow days used in val Computer Graphics is m ' ; Contains Geo ims i : ? : ms : Se ae platforms for acometrc COMPU vs Computer Engineering - Plat lectromechanical Engineering Physics - Modelling physical real HCI (Human Computer Interaction ‘The visual arts - Especially movie mal Fow of the applications related to manufac! Computer-Aided Design (CAD) eee Computer Graphics has transformed engineering inthe form of CAD : i Earlier drawings were prepared by draftsman, which was time consuming, canoes ¢f Produs errors and of repetitive nature work, but with CAD the product can be lesigned and tes within the computer, which, drastically reduces the time and efforts. CAD is used in al areas) ms&® engineering, from car design to electronics ‘ Every CAD drawing is a vector graphic composed of objects that the designer cal 2) manipulate at will. Both individual objects and collections of objects can be tested: the design! ~ Interaction hardware; lity, natural animation; Bye ) and Psychology - user perception ete.s king, advertising, and computer games, turing engineering are described below- can apply known inputs to an electronic circuit, For example, to see if it produces the required output, of a wing section could be put under stress in a 'virtual’ wind tunnel by the computer. So as long as the models of behaviour of objects like wing struts and electronic components are accurate then the testing precludes the production of physical mock-ups. When such physical objects are required, the computer ea} @) rive a machine to create a model fo testing, a process which is both quick and totally accurate, Because of the intense computational requirements of CAD it j i i high-end, dedicated workstations using fast processors and NOPRo oe isa Visualisation . 4 Visualisation is the process of rendering data as ' understanding. The idea isnot new maps ae visualisations of tensin iespeiant ea brining graphs and charts have been used to represent both empirial date anc cones at functions. Although visualisation is used in nearly all fields of human orate computers may be used to process and display data i's fair o say that the rec peo We the greatest extent in the commercial and scientific worlds. Schnique is.used to Business Graphics “ This term covers charts and gtaphs that represent economic statist 2 generally used by managers in both in the public and private sedan wns Te visualisation is used in analysis, to extract meaning from data, and for presenta usiness data to an audience. The use of images in economies considerably predates the or © xP but of course computers enable the production of many kinds of highly effective are! A8®, charts from raw data in seconds; as a resulta thriving market in presentation software 4c /outul Scientific Visualisation mes. In the world of science there are vast volumes of data generated by modem technoig.: (suchas meteorological stlits that visualisation isnot just @ means of presenting qe eS but is very often essential in order to extract meaning and information. Visualisation is a a e ans: t e viewed s i ions. Vi See ee tort such as complex mathematical functions. Viewing, fains’ and * , ih Merce heen and ‘valleys’ can enable the mathematician to discern mee hot be apparent using traditional data analysis, ces Processing (IP) i ir ; it essing oO) is the processing of one raster image (bitmap) by a computer to produce & a pes TO amines enPosed of pixels, each of which has a digital value, they are ‘ in Pua ‘ion simply through arithmetic operations on the pixel values. As a tt Pixel in a greyscale image by 2 would double the intensity of that ge. 1 ance a captured real-world image to extract i i f he viewer. Just afew of the many image enhancements that can be applied mote eimsigare Smoothing - This tends to average out pixel values, has the effect of ‘turning down the contrast! and removing image ‘noise’ _ Edge Detection - Sharp changes in pixel values in a small area can be emphasised so as to bring out previously unnoticed boundaties in the image. Correlation - Different areas in the image are compared to find similarities, which may indicate the presence of similar objects. False Colour - Many captured images, and particularly those from satellites, are in grey seale. Differences in grey level are harder for us to perceive than colour changes, so arbitrarily allotting a different colour to each level can make the image easier to understand. Pattern Recognition - An image, or more usually parts of it, can be compared with stored images to find similarities. This is the basis of OCR (Optical Character Recognition) and ‘Computer Vision. 2D GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS Fundamental to all computer graphics system is the ability to simulate both movement id manipulations of objects in the planes. These processes are described in terms of tions, rotations, scaling, reflection (flip), shearing etc. Our objective is to describe these erations in mathematical form suitable for computer processing and show how they are used hieve the object manipulations and motions. Object movements can be described by — Moving object relative to a stationary co-ordinate system — : j This type of viewpoint is called Geometric Transformation. For example to animate flying oplane, we require aeroplane as object and sky as background. This simulation involves motion of aeroplane against sky background. In geometric transformation, we can simulate by moving aeroplane while keeping the sky background fixed. Moving Co-ordinate system by Holding the objectstationary~ = ‘ This type of viewpoint is called Co-ordinate Transformation in which co-ordinate system moved relative to the object. For example, we can simulate aeroplane by keeping aeroplane d while moving background i.e. sky. 44° CADICAMICAE ae chapter we willbe studying only geometrie transformations. ly, we will study the general procedures for applying asi transformation viz taslton ration and sealing vansfrmation © repestion dd ae two-dimensional objects and we represent in matrix form, which has following advantaga'| Oe Matrix multiplication is done very quickly and efficiently which increases spe, is efficiency of computer programming. ; | po b. Any graphic wpe consists of large number of points, which oy aad ling, triangle arcs. For these multipoint oe es Seat pel omg organisation of the data and more efficient proce sees ‘ c cae techniques also enable the combination of various coneatenations 1. We gp ~ multiple sequential manipulations in single matrix. ’ 4.2.1 Translation (Move) Aine seam Examp ‘Moving drawing or an object across the screen parallel to its initial position is cay girecti« ~ translation, Every point on it moves by an equal given distance in a given direction. Thy sorutio ‘accomplished by adding to the co-ordinates of each comer point the distance through whic) “drawing is to be moved. + ‘Consider a 2-D point P, having co-ordinates x,y. To translate this point by a di in x direction and ty in y direction, a translation matrix T is added to the original matrix, ‘new point P” has x’and y’ co-ordinates. The translation distance pair (tx, ty) is called L vector. Figure (4.1a) shows the original position of a point P and its new position P’ translation about origin. $ iw 4 ,; Fig. (44a) Translation of a point P New i , Position of point P, P-Original position and T- Mathematically P’ = Pp + 7 Fig. (4.1b) Translation of an object Translation matrix then, ; Be Ext hy vies ge in matrix form, bute! 2 & y]=— viele 5] ®notmally the operation ised inCAN «.... Figure (4.1b) shows translation of triangle abo 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4.5 ut moved, all points in it are to be origin. Whe ir ject i created as lines connecting the ae es rapes, the fet uaee ae noaly ares translation of any object is este Points and surfaces are defined bythe ans Roost, points by other geometric entities tke lee en is ad ionoft triangle is given by- - Ax Ay) [A Ay Be By' |= | Be By |+ [xe yy] CY cy) [ce cy ple 4.1 Translate a triangle with coordinates A jirection and 2 units in y direction. (2,5), B (2,9) and C (8,5) by 8 units in x olution- Given- t=2and ty=2 and \ Ax Ay) [2 5 Bx By|=|2 9 ‘ Cx Cy} [8 5 : ‘Ax Ay'| [4x Ay Pe Bx By |=|Be By [+l 9] GeO} [Orr : s Ae Aye]? > py By'|=\2 9|+B 21 Cea alert bed ~ de ta MO Fal aa al mee Meo te a ask GO ge ley ei (a a as ae 5 Thus new coordinates of translated triang Je are A’(10,7), B'(10,11) and €°(16.7). new we 48 # CAD) CAM/. CAE 4.2.2 Rotation a i its posit entation. In 2D rotation object jy Rotatin; ,bject changes its position and orientation. tion objec About origin byran angle. For positive angles rotation is counter clockwise direction Geena whereas for negative angle object is rotated in clockwise direction (CW). Decuo From Fig (4.2) Consider a point P (xy) is to be rotated pone by ange ‘counter clockwise direction to a new position P'(c1y'). Here's is the istance of Point, origin and @ is initial angular position of the point from horizontal. From below figure 4.22 x=rcos and y=rsin g rcos( $+ 8) 5 = rcos cos O-rsin $sin O=xcos O-ysin@ = (4.1) x=r cose ” Fig.(4.2a) Rotation of a point P. Fig.(4.2b) Rotation of an Object Similarly y’ = r sin( + 0) rsin gcos O+rcos ¢ sin@ =ycos + xsinO x = xsinO+ ycos 8 aa (4.2) 4 Equation (1) and (2) can be written in matrix form as below — ‘ P’=P.R where R is the rotation matrix. 4 le y]=[x lee csr sin f =| Seneca -sin@ cosé | re (4.2b) shows rotati pject (tri ae | Bor ti tation of an object (triangle) about origin. 4 \ jangle ABC rotation transformation is — “al AX Ax) [Ax Ax Bx' By, =| Bx By | 0088 sind] iby 2-D Geometric Transformations “4.7 lotate a poi Be 4.2 Rotate a point P(10,5) counter clockwise by 30° and find rotation matrix and resultant point. ution~ x A resultant point P’ is given by -P?=P.R where Ris the rotation matrix With @ =30 ne cos@ sin? Sg cos30 sin30| _ 0.866 0.5 -sin@ cos@| |—sin30 cos30} |-0.5 0.866 1s coordinates of P” is given by- cos? sin@ aly Pisces a 5 0.866 0.5 fe w= [0) 3] a ea : fe y= [o.16 933] cer effecti sformation of an object where ing ii st Jar and the most effective tran: i a ec ce o ie it in) of any portion of object or get distant view (zoom out) \d the original object. Thus this transformation applied to change the scale of an object. To hieve scaling, the original co-ordinates of an object are multiplied uniformly by the sealing -directi \d Sy along y-direction. A scaling factor greater than one indicates Pcie eam me hai ‘one indicates a compression of length. Figure (4.3) shows ling transformation of triangle about origin. Fig. 4.3 Scaling of an Object A Mathematically, ¥ x’ = x. Sxand y’=y. Sy ‘Scaling transformation for point A is given by — ot A=A.S oo le wet al =[§ For triangle ABC scaling transformation is ~ Ax’ Ax'| | Ax Ay Bx’ By'|=| Bx By {t a a o'| la Go|} lo & Example 4.3 - Scale the rectangle A(-1,-1), B(I,- x6 direction about origin le ALD B(le DCCL) nd DED by? unl Solution- For Rectangle ABCD scaling transformation is — a Ax Ay'| [Ax Ay 3 Bx’ By'| | Bx By| [se 0 ct! oy] | o& lf 5 Dx' Dy'| [Dx Dy 2-D Geometric Transformations Ax’ Ay) [-1 -1 a2°62) 2 0] _|2 -2 x = OD Yo] 2ixit2: 2d 4.3 | HOMOGENEOUS CO-ORDINATE REPRESENTATION: When two or more image manipulations of the same object are carried out in a cettin sequence, their cumulative effect is the result of the successive transformations. The basic transformations are translation, rotation and scaling and they can be expressed in the general ‘matrix form as given below- P’ =P.Mi + M2 rly hb] ‘Where M1 is Identity matrix and M2 is Translation vector. cos? sind] [0 P=P. + Pease ‘Where M1 {s rotational matrix and M2 = 0) [F stl Where M1 is Scaling matrix and M2 =0. For Translation- " For Sealing. 410 # GAD. CAM/ CAE In order to combine sequence of transformations 7 addition associated ai the iranstation terms in matrix M2 a i ei a transformation, we have to represent the matrix MI as 3 x 3 mattis Ubtead of ; introducing an additional dummy co-ordinate W. Thus all 2D points ae rebresenig ue eat numbers (xy, 1) instead of two, This co-ordinate system is called nomen mee system. By using homogeneous co-ordinate system, we can express all WANE mation gt in matrix multiplication form. The homogeneous coordinate is rep yy) Xn, Yw, 11) we have to elimina, . | Where x=Xw/W andy=Yw At W = 1, x =Xw and y =Yw. Therefore, each 2D position can ‘be represen, homogeneous coordinate as (x,y, ) Thus in homogeneous representation, dimensional. space i.e. 2D point (x,y) represente represented by (x,y,2,1). an n-dimensional space is mapped ing d by (xy,1) and 3D point Goya) g Table 4.1 Homogeneous representation for three basic transformations. For at 110.0 ‘ranslation Beer fe y d= » I}xfo 1 0 we yp 1 cos? sind 0 pretties: fv y i=[x y 1] x|-sin@ cose 0 = Px, 0 Wigton: ‘a Seal Sx 0.0 i : fe y = » xlo spo 4 Pi=PxS. : 001 Examples of 2D Homogeneous Transformation: : 4 Example 4.4 -A triangle ABC with vertices (30,20) B (90,20) C ( 30,80) is to be anticlockwise direction by 30° angle. Give 3 x 3 i rP eee ae x3 homogeneous coordinate matrix and fi Solution - oe 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4:11 equation for the transformation is as follows P’=PXxXR The 3 x 3 homogeneous coordinate matrix R is given by- Cos? Sind 0 Cos30 Sin30 0 R=|-Sin@ Cos@ 0|=|-Sin30 Cos30 0 0 Onan 0 onal 1 0.866 0.5 0 R=|-0.5 0.866 0 0 Dre el For triangle ABC Ax' Ay’ 1 Ax Ay 1 Cos@ Sind 0 Br’ By’ 1|=|Bx By 1|x|-Sin@ Cos? 0 ce cy 1) ce Cy 1 0 OPA ‘Ax’ Ay! 1] [30 20 1] [0.866 0.5.0 Bx’ By’ 1 20 1\x| -0.5 0.866. 0 Ce cy’ 1} [30 80 1 0 0 it ‘Ax’: Ay' 1 15.98 32.32 -nOilecne Gi ootrioneh Pip Bx’ By! 1\=| 67.94 62.32 0 . cx Oy A = 14.02, 84.28 1 ice the new co-ordinates are A" [15.98 , 32.32] } B? (67.94 , 6232] av ah C [-14.02 8428] n ple 4.5 - Give 3 x 3 homogeneous coordinate matrix for each of following translations. a) Translate an object to right by 4 units sie b) Translate an object to left by 5 units : c) Translate an object to right by 2 units and down by 3 units. 4) Translate an object to left by 4 units and 6 units down . : 1-0-0 ous coordinate matrix for translation is T=|0 1 0 i we y 1 o i 10 ol ject to right by 4 units: Here a= 4 and 40 “Thus T=|0 1 40 0 0 1 Poe sand y= 9 Thus , ne its - Here q 442 pono soaMl ene ays nit py Teansatoan oi" "9 0 | % a jing, abo! ae sformatic ie 1s and down by 3 units. a sre an oon tight bY 2 URNS \ ¢). Trans Se Here r= 2 and aN : Tal0, te) Be Sie i its down 4) Translate an object to let by 4 units and 6 unit ; Here re=-4 and sy=-6. Thus T 00) se T=|0 1.0 peas cae )Flipa INS HER IMPORTANT TRANSFORMATIO! , + 44 oT transformations are basic transformations, which ae PRES Translation, rotation and Scalin ona more frequently while manipulating the beth position and orientations. In certain applications, 4 >. “other transformations such as flip (reflection), shear, and twist are also required to use. 44,4 Reflection (Flip) Transformation: Reflection or Flip is a transformation that produces mirror image of an object feldit axis of reflection. Its very useful in drawing symmetric drawings. If object is singly symm (symmetric about any one axis) only one half portion of drawing is created or if it is dit symmetric (symmetric about both axis) only quarter portion of drawing is created anda remaining portions of object is completed by using flip transformation. This activity savst— of time and efforts for the user. Flipping of an object can: be done about x-axis, y-axis,0#"° waits Neilso ope ip onion ieee ay Pe coont Herken Axis (Fx): cee ae in the following session. Px, fea Batter Fig.(4.4a)_x-flip of a point P. Fig.(4.4b) x-F} ject 19.(4.4b)_x-Flip of an Obj ct ee aa Geometric Transformations 7 4.13 Figure (4.4a), shows the original position of a point P and its new position P’ after about x-axis and figure (4.4b) shows reflection of triangle about x-axis. In this formation, x co-ordinate remains same and y co-ordinate is negative i.e. x"=x and y"=-y. ‘Thus 2 D homogeneous matrix for x-Flip is given by — LOE NG: Fe =|0 -1 0| and P'=P-Fr 001 1 0 0 by =f y ix}o -1 0 oo 1 be noted that there are no variables in the transformation matrix, only sign of co-ordinate |Flip about Vertical Axis ( Fy) : Figure (4.5a) shows the original position of a point P and its new position P” after ping about y-axis and figure (4.5b) shows reflection of triangle about x-axis. In this ion, y co-ordinate remains same and x co-ordinate changes to negative ie-y’ = y Cc c ae x” A » B Fig.(4.5a) y-flip of a point P 2D homogeneous matrix for y-Flip is given by Soto eee [fe ytleb » tx} 0 1, OF a. Ox r Fic ate ake GAMIQR ¢) Flip about Origin (Fo): prey") Fig.4.6a) o-flip of a point P Flip about origin is combination of a fi q ee i joure (4.68) shows the original position of a po! r Sas SY P” after flipping about y-axis. In this transformation, both i ee oliates are opposite to original values ie. x” =-x._ and y This flip is refer Figure (4.66) shows reflection of triangle about origin. 7 firstly about x axis and then about, a point P and its new position o “1 2D homogeneous matrix for o-Flip is given by [x’ y' I=[z y ij} 0 0 4d) Flip about Arbitrary Axis (Fa) Figure(4.7a) shows the original position of point P and its new position P” after fl arbitrary axis (about line OA) and figure (4.7b) shows reflection of triangle about line transformation is very useful while modelling objects, which have more than two pe symmetry, such as hexagonal shape. This reflection is also referred as a-flip or mirror. Let OA is the arbitrary line passing through origin and making angle @ with x-axis. From figure (4.7 a) distance PQ is given by- PQ=ED=EC-DC = y cos 8 -x sin P(x.y) = (4.3) Before F19(4.70) ati ofa point p o 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4.15 zontal component of PQ is- FQ = PQ, Sin @ and fical component of PQ is PF = PQ. cos 0 (44) p? and P are offset equally from line OA, P°Q = PQ, also PF = GP” and FQ= QG From equation (4.3) and (4.4), we have x’ =OC +FQ+0G = OC +2 FO =x +2, PQsin 0 =x +2(y cos O-x sin, sin 8 x’ =x cos (20) + y sin(2 8) y’ =CP -PF-GP’ =CP-2PF =y+2, PQ. cos @ =y -2.(y cos 0 -x Sin). cos 8 y’ =xsin2Q-y cos 28) ,2 D homogeneous matrix for a-Flip is given by — Cos(20) Sin(2@) 0 « [x y' =k » 1]| sina) -Cos(20) 0 0 0 1 This is the general equation for above all types of flip transformations. If we put © = 0 reflection about X-axis and for @ = 90 there is y-flip. ple 4.6- A triangle ABC with vertices A(3,2) B ( 9,2) C (3,8) is to be reflected. Give 3 x3 ygeneous coordinate matrix for each of following reflections and also find the new position the vertices. a) Reflect about x-axis _b)Reflect about y-axis. c) Reflect about origin d)Reflect about a line y = x i) Reflect about x-axis Here 2 D homogeneous matrix for x-Flip (Fx) is given by ~ 15050) Fx=|0 -1 0 0.0.00 Bx’. By' 1]=| Be By 1 ‘av Ay 1) fax Ay 1) [1 0 0 Cy Ap. [ce Cyt Ce a iE 1 ap / CAM / CA 32) 4.16 7 C) ay! Ay’ 1 Daas py al=|9 F Bx -8 ao ue the sign of y coordinates are Chay wwe reflect objest about Thus when or ates remains coon eect abot 7258 : iia RO 4D homogeneous matrix for y-Flip (Fy) is given by Here Therefore P'= Px Fy ae ty 1) (3-2 1 [-1 0 0 BY By 1J=|9 2 1\x}0 1 0 ce o> (38! 1p 10 0 4 ‘Av Ay’ 1] [-3 21 Be! By 1) =)—-9) 2 Al ce cy 1] [-3 8 1 is when we reflect object about Y axis, the sign of x coordinates * are ‘coordinates remains unchanged ©) Reflect about origin Hea te Here2.D homogeneous matrix for O-Flip (Fo) is given by — 0 -10 Os c05 4 Therefore P'= Px Fo 2 Sear Tee ag By By l= |9 2 ald -1/0 eC. 13, BV MG Oa BET AP IMT gti 4 I es Pe tse aM Boneh 4 Ths at 4 4 wha ne Refer ot beet about origin, He Reflect about a line y =x ere a line Y = Dhomo, X passes Af Heeots matin fora Pip eg is get inlined a 45° Feat both the sign of x and y coordinates are cha 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4.17 (Cos(20) —Sin(20) 0] [Cos(90) sin(90) 0 OL AG) Sin(20) —Cos(26) 0|=| Sin(90) -Cos(90) 0\=|1 0 0 o o 1 0 0 1) (OPOM erefore P'= Px Fa ‘Ax’ Ay" Bx’ By! cr Cy ‘Ax! Ay’ Bx By’ Ce Gy 1 183 when we reflect object about a line Y= X, x and y coordinates are interchanged. ‘Shear (Twist) Transformation: : Shear or twist transformation is another common manipulation which refers to as Tilt in Paintbrush. In shear transformation shape of object is slanted. Two common shearing ations are used ~ one shifts x co-ordinate values and other shifts y co-ordinate values. 7 oo enn # one oor = 0° y P(x) 0 5 10 Fig.(4.8a) Before Shear In x shearing only x value changes without changing y value which causes vertical le when a thick piece of rubber is pressed and moved ways at the top without allowing the bottom to slip., then the rectangular shape of the ends rs into a parallelogram with the two vertical sides inclined as shown in. figure 4.8). If the point P(x,y) is sheared horizontally by a factor Sh, then position of P’(x’,y;) with pect to origin is given by- x=x+Shey and J” = Thus by representing above equations in matrix form we get X-shear - 4.48 ~ CAD GAM/ CAE 1 0 0 fey ek » ix] 94, 1 0 Be ego i x shear ¥ nsformatis fy aj=[e ¥ ix XS i y value changes without changing * value which causes aX _ shear wit ample if the same is done with rubber block pressin take up an inclined position as in fig (4.80) "4 ‘Sh, then position of. Pi In y shearing, only lines to tilt up or down. For vertical surface, the horizontal surface will If the point P(x) is sheared horizontally by a factor respect to origin is given by- y=y+Sh,.x° and x’ =x trix form we get X-shear— ‘Thus by representing above equations in mat 1 Sh, 0 meer Sh, 1 10.2) CC ky iJ=[fk y ik}o 1 0 a) SI 0 0 1 * Da fe y d= y Ixys 4s ion. 1 Sh, 0 oe Where Sh-Y is Y-shear transformation matrix, YS=|0 1 0 ss y 0 0 aD al ‘ 10] . 1 : ay sz | i../ | i ° 5 1 10 Xo 3 x 10 Fig. (4.8c) Sheared along y axis sn position of P's") with res ontally by a facto { palate Pect to origin is gi Sh, and verti fy slr y ax 8 EXE M3 oe ae 1 sh, 0 AYS=|$h, 1 0 Ono | b) 2-D Geometric Transformations #7 4.19 ear We C ee po and Renee ed Syren ne woege 1 00 a cshear with yref. Line =| sp. ee 4 ~Sh,+Yref 0 1 ee SHG shear with X ref. Line = 1 x 0 -Sh,- Xref 1 ple 4.7- Apply shearing transformation to a rectangle ABCD with vertices A(0,0) (0,2) C ( 2,2) and D(2,0) as given below and find the new position of the vertices. 4) Shear by factor 0.5 in x- direction _ p) Shear by factor 0.5 in x and y direction c) Shear parameter value of 0.5 relative to the line Yref=-1 d) Shear parameter value of 0.5 relative to the line Yref=-1 lution- a) Shear by factor 0.5 in x- direction (Fig.4.9a) 1404, 0. XS =|'Sh, 1 0 0:01 Av AY Mas Ae UZ and Bx By 1] _|Br By I) ls g Ge OF | I Ce Gye Dx! Dy' 1] [Dx Dy 1 Av AY 1 [0.9] Fey 9 Be By’ 1]_|0 21) 195 1 9 Cx Cy al age Alea, Dx Dy’ 1| [2 01 Av’ Ay ft] fo 01 Bx’ By 1|_|1 21 ce o' 1) (3 21 Dx! Dy' 1} [2 01 r by factor 0.5in x and y direction (Fig.4.9b) 1 1 Sh, +0 xyS=|Sh, 1 0 0s ORL Figure 4.9.4 Figure 4.9 b ©) Shear parameter value of 0.5 relative to the line Yref=-1 (Fig49C) Shx = 0.5 and Yref = -1 1 00 X-shear with y ref. Line = Sh, 10 ol Sh, Yref RQee 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4.21 Shear parameter value of 0.5 relative to the line Xref=-1 (Fig.4.94) Dg Steg ae ‘Y-shear with X ref. Line =|0 1 0 ; 0 -Sh,-Xref 1 ‘Ax’ Ay' 1] [ax Ay 1 Bx By' 1) _| Bx By 1.) ie u Ce Ol |e oy 1 0 Sh, +Xref 4 Dx’ Dy' 1] |Dx Dy eh fax’ Ay’ 1] fo Fe c Bx! ole 3 ge etl 2 a a ; Dx' Dy! 1} {2 ‘Ax Ay I] [0 05 1 By By’ 1|_|0 251 Ce of 1) [2 351 4Ipe py 1] [2-151 Figure 4.9 d Figure4.9¢ INVERSE TRANSFORMATIONS = ‘When we apply any an to Bae itis required to undo the applied transform This can be achieved by inverse transformation. d : ‘The inverse of matrix is another matri such that when 2 matrix are multiplied getidentty matrix I, And T.T'=T". T =1 s ‘elements for the inverse matrix T' can be calculated from the elements of Tasb b ej! =[ CI". det My]/ det T P(qy) we get new point P’(x’y) ae we get again original 1 is the element in the i* row and j® column of T!. isthe (n-1) by (n-1) sub matrix obtained by deleting j* row and i column oft obtain an inverse matrix if and only if the determinant of the matrix is not Inverse transformation for Translation ie translation matrix is given by — 100 st T=|0 19 7 xy 1 = of Tis given by — . 4 yet 4 I y Te eo det T ve “ eu! =[(1y ay a £ ee ed) Lo (ty ts =0 2 = CW Ox 1aty es = CY. Oxo 1 en” = C1. Ox. x0) =9 Bib eek ehh Rx0)=9 i aay oe one «individual transformat; 426 "CAD! ‘ANSFORMA bine the various # ual wanermaig 2 ey combii ca 4.6 COMPOST mes necesse required rns. TH a pein : Many ties PEGE co achieve. operations § ch as fori han the axe ah i cen ete an, FOF OAT og ation SHO line: 4 ms site trans! for origin) Sn wae : ,. J sensation can be achieved Dy ce oF step by Step oF Direct Method a b. Matrix Concatenation Method ; jethod a) Step by Step oF Direct M ‘ ee aoe method , the equations for x” 2 y Py astomaton : tinea n trarisformed values are taken a i ee ae ee produce @ sequence ‘of transformations sug. to i f x and y after, ling we calculate new values of x " Se hese translated co-ordinates are my ich gives cumulative effect of abo finally the rotate L i f pan ions, This sequential transformation is NOt efficient as it takes a lot of time fa) calculation of intermediate co-ordinate values. ) Matrix Concatenation Method In matrix concatenation method, the various relevant transformation matrices multiplied in a sequence to obtain final cumulative composite transformation. Here all transformations are combined into one transformation so that the final co-ordinate positions! obtained directly ftom initial co-ordinates, which reduce a lot of time and complications. The following examples explain the difference between above both methods. 4.7 EXAMPLES OF COMPOSITE TRANSFORMATION: Example 4.8 Rotation of a Point about Arbitrary Poi Pesfat» Fedo Hockwde40"-toiat i t elon rotation of triangle ABC with A(4,3), Bll Solution ‘The transformation gi i ansfor given earlier for rotation i ; tion is aby igi i Sein i cs arate taba ay abe ae aa point A(4,3) as nov To rotate an obj i an object about point A, we have to carry out followi: — Translate the point A to the origin is at (x0, ter if Ne 0), Fi Rotate it about origin by angle 0 in counter clock Baas) wi Finally tran: ‘ ise directj " ly translate back to point A (Inverse translation) Se Figure(4.9c) igure(4.9d) 2-D Geometric Transformations ¥ 4.27 Fig,(4.9a). The overall transformation matrix for a rotation of object by'6 counter clockwise about an arbitrary point Ais given by — Trost = T. R.T! Translation matrix to move point A to origin is given as Fig.(4.9b). TRANSLATION Ax=-4 and Ay=-3 0 1 1 0 =4 Hoo =3 Cos30 Sin30 R=|—Sin30 Cos30 0 0 0 1 Fig.(4.9c). ROTATION 0.866 05 0 -0.5 0,866 0 Fig.(4.9c). 4.9b) ae the origin: ae ae ) ce! GO Route it about origin by angle 0 in counter clock wise direction. Figure(4.9e) Bx By’ 1|x|-Sin30 Cos30 0 oe A 1 O°. ght o+ ae 1] [0.866 0.5 0 Bx By” A= 1]x}-0.5 0.866 0 ay a 1 o i ‘Ac Ay" WO 40 1 Be" By" 1-523 1 Gr Gf SLIEo e461 Finally translate back to point A (Inverse translation) Figure(4.94) Ax* Ay* 1) far ay 1] 71 00 By* 1}-| Be" By" ifx]0 1 0 Cy A [Ce Gy 1 | ee by 1 ay* 1) fo 0 1 3 Bx" ce ON" 1 oe ay" I Ax" A ee ‘Ax’ Ay' 1] [ Cos30 Sin30 0 Pyrat or Agel By* 1 o* 0 0 1 2-D Geometric Transformations 7 4.29 ip. Matrix Concatenation Method — Trane eR AT PEP. Tresuu Here tx= 4, ty=3 and 6 = 30° 1 0. 0] [Cos30 sin30._0 ‘ems =| 0 1 O|x|-Sin30 Cos30 0)x ike 1 0 0 0 0 0.866, 0.5 0 Oo 1 O}x|)-0.5 0.866 O}x <4, =3.1 0 0 1 0.866 0.5 0 -0.5 0.866 0 -— 4.964 -4.590 1 ‘Ax* Ay* 1] [Ax Ay 1 Bx*, By* 1|-|Bx By 1|x Trea cet cyt tf lee G1 Act Aye 43 EL BROST 05.0 Brt By* 1[-[10 3. 1|xj-0.5. 0.87 0 cet Gye 1] 42 7 1p 1203-16 1 : ‘Act Ay* 1] [1.016 3.02 =1,984 Bx* By* 1|=| 6.236 6202 3.236 Cx* Cy* 1] [6.236 6.02 3.236 ple 4.9 Scaling about Arbitrary Point: Find the co-ordinates of triangle ABC with 4(3.3), B(9,3) and C(3,7) when it is scaled by 2 and Sy=2 about a point P(5,4). : ion scale an object about point P(fig 4-102), We have to carry out following steps- * Translate the point P to the origin is at (0,y0). Figure(4.10b) * Scale it about origin by scaling factors Sx and Sy. Figure(4.10c) + Finally translate back to point P (Inverse translation) Figure(4,10d) i To solve composite transformations problems, matrix concatenations method is very i calculations. ‘Therefore hereafter we will solve compogite jx concatenation method only. transformation natrih for above cuetepomesetven™scdrc7 © belowe Tresu =T. 8.7! bere lege. Oils (2 70 0) (180/50) Trea = | 0° 1 0/x/0 2 o|x]o 10 -5 -4 i] [o 0 1) [5°41 ee on Fig4.10b T-Translation When object i Fig.4.10c S- SCALING eT 6 Fig4.t0d Tr=TST* 12 40 agi Ve ee 24 6 4 2 ae ae 0 24 6 BR “ant Ay? AY [303 TP P20 Bet By* 1f-|9 3 1) x|13 2 0 ct ot 1 3 71) [1 107 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4.31 ‘Ax* Ay* 1] [43 22 1 Bx* By* 1/=149 34 1) Cx* cy* 1] [95 30 1 ple 4.10 Reflection about any Arbitrary Axis Find the co-ordinates of a figure bounded by (2,8), (8,8) and (8,12) when reflected along whose y-intercept is 4 and is inclined at 30° with X-axis. ition ‘When object is to be reflected about any arbitrary axis (other than co-ordinate axes) as wn in Figure (4.1 1a), we have to carry out five steps : , Translate the y intercept of reflection axis or line (L) to the origin ~ T Figure (4.11) . Rotate the reflection line L such that it coincides with x-axis (clockwise rotation) - R Figure (4.11c) . Reflect the object about x-axis -x-flip Figure (4.11). 4. Rotate the line L back to original angle with X-axis (counter clock wise) -R™ Figure (4.11e) |. Translate the reflection line L along Y-axis back to the original position -T" Figure(4.11f). s transformation matrix for above operation is given in sequence as below- Treuti = TR. MAR" 7! 1 0 0) [cos30 sin30 0] [1 0 0] [cos30 —sin30 0 100 resuit=| 0 1 0} x}—sin30 cos30 0|x }O.—-1 0)x|sin30 cos30 0|x|0 10 -tir ty 1 0 oO 1)-j00 1 0 0 1 xy ll, 0 0]f0866 “0.5 O]f1 0 0]f0866 -05 O]f1 0 0 1 0]|/-05 0.866 o|/0 -1 0|| 05 0.866 O||0 1 0 -4 1|{ 0 0 Oe Oe 0. 0 oma 866 05 Ojf1 0 0]/0866 -05 0 > 0.866 0||0 -1 0]| 05 0866 0 -3.46 1}/0 0 1]] 0 ain -05 0][0.866 -05 0 05 0.866 0 -0.866 0|| 05 0.866 0|=|-0.866 -05 0 346 iff 0 0 1) | 346 600° 1 } 4.32 8 CAD CaM CAE D w 2 a Figure (4.11a) Figure (4.11b) Figure (4.11¢) Figure (4.11) ‘Ax* Ay* * By® + ot g GEOMETRIC Geometric tr. plications such 2 Gptications involv . Ke “sllowing examp: Rees “aced on a down’ : Figure (4.11) Figure (4.111) At Ay* 1) [2 8 If 05 0.866 0) [-2.468 lar* By* 1-|8 8 1||-0.866 -05 0|=| 0.532 cet Cyt 1] (8 12 Aff 346 6.001) |-2.932 0268 49h -69P id. 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4.33 Ax Ay U) (43) 22 Bx* By* 1)=|49 34 1 * Cyl) [95301 GEOMETRIC TRANSFORMATIONS IN ENGINEERING DESIGN Geometric transformations and mappings are useful in many design and engineering plications such as animation, kinematic mechanisms, robot mechanism etc. All the above ications involve various transformations which includes rotational, translation of various ts while maintaining geometric constraints at the joints that connect these elements. ming examples shows the use of geometric transformation in engineering applications ‘A square ABCD of 5 units side as shown in figure , with the origin at lower left comer don a downward slope of 2:1. Move the object 10 units down the slope coordinates of square in UCS are A(0,0), BGS,0), C(5,5) and D(5,0). he slope of inclined plane is 2:1 therefore sine and cosine values are| —0.447 and '= 0,894 respectively. To handle such problems, initially we apply all the concantenated manipulations sult) in the UCS and then transform results to origional axes (WCS) by rotating it clockwise through angle @. Thus we get concatenated transformations matrix for the rotated axes as- Pl= PXT yy ¥R™ cos(9) -sin(@) 0 Pi= PxT aay | Sin(@) 005(0) 0 ; ype O Ok 4.34 ¥ CAD/.CAM/ CAE where Tray may be the combinations ofall transform or shear), In this example only translation is involved there ; On Of e (it 210:20) 195.0). 00023) s,. 7, Oats 0} =420)° 10. ‘steps involve Ta a t& py -1| [10 01 transformations (translate, rot, J fore, tx =10 ang | co) —sin(@) 0} [0.894 0.447 ‘ sin(@) cos(@) 0|=|0.447 0.894 bt 0 [is pee PAB Oxneal = Pie PxT eau, XR™ Ps ae Ay 1) [ax Ay Ir) 9 97 [0.894 -0.447 0) Be By 1) Be By Ng 1 0fx]0.447 0.894 0 ee ee ae 0 ee Dy' 1] [Dx Dy 1 ; fea oor 1 0.0] 0.894) 0.4m BB MIS 8 Jha 1 olx{osa7 0.804 of Ge Gr|5|3) SM Nara de a Dx’ Dy 1} [0 51 : 4 1] [00 ta, naar g) [894 447 7a eae seed eee Re 15 : OATS 5 1 eqs cas 1) [38 322 Dy’ 1{ [0 5 1 A Circular disc of diameter 50 is rolling down on do ae rest as shown below. Develo . ywnward slope of 2:1 p set of transformati i ae there is no slip. ions required to produce animation 2-D Geometric Transformations w 4.35 On the circle in UCS are A(0,-25), At rest position, the coord; 5,0), C(0,25) D(25,0) and Genonen : Bieps involved in solving this problem are as bel elow- Find the transformed coordinates of points A.B. Points lying Calculat wrdi 50ii See cmetes Of points A,B.C, and D in WCS with incremental angle Sa Briefly to handle such problems, i % lems, we .) in the UCS and then transform fae © apply all the concantenated manipulations Bea wioughangic 6; Its to. origional axes (WCS) by rotating it clockwise is we get concatened transformations matrix for the rotated axes as Po Pe SORT cos) —sin@) 0 P'= PXT esau | Sin(O) cos(O) 0 0 0 1 Tye ‘May be the combinations of translate, rotate transformations. In the given problem, the disc has to rotate as well as translate therefore Toesay = RT cos(da) -sin(da) O71 0 0 ~ Tenn =| Sin(6ar) cos(daz) 0/0 1 0 0 0 ijxe y 1 en the disc completes one revolution (Sa = 360), the distance travelled along x axis by dise en by- te = m-d =3.1415*50 =157.08 and ty 0 cos(Sx) —sin(da) OJ1 0 0] [eosG60) -sin(36o) Of 1 0 0 =] since) cos(daz) 0] 0 1 0[=|sinG60) cost360) 0} 0 1 0 0 0. lf yl 0 0 1187.08 0 1 A epoca caliat eat ON 0 OL On tee 14/157.08 0 1) 157.08 ot therefore sine and cosine values _ 00 The slope of inclined plane is 21 0.447 = 0.89: vi ind. tively. Put the values of cos@ and sin ie d oe = 0.894 respect 4.36 W CADI CAM) CAE cos(@) —sin(@) R* =| sin() cos(o) 0 0 Fs PX Er Re Ax’ Ay) 1) [Ax ay Bx’ By 1]_| Bx By Ce cy’ 1] | ce Dx Dy' 1} |Dx Dy Ax Ay' 1) [-25 0 Bx By’ 1|_| 0 -25 Gea Gy ll (e| 2570 DxeDyt oli|.[2s0) > 25 L Example 4.11 A unit the type of Trans Pe i Ver 0.894 0.447 g : 0.447 0.894 9 ; 0 ot ; 118.1 —59.04 }) this probleme 0 0.894 -0.447 0 0|=|0.447 0.894 0 1 0 0 H higar 0 | tix] 0 1 0|x ; 157.08 0 1 1 0.894 -0.447 0 ! x|0.447 0.894 O}= ; 140.4 -70.21 1 129.2 -92.56 j| Let the homog: 162.8 —81.39 | 151.6 -—47.86 | Let us assume that disc is rotating through incremental angle da = 30 in each sg. Therefore the coordinates of points on the disk for intermediate incremental angles “Here teand . between 0 and 360° are given by- ee! The distance travelled by the disc at each incremental angle is given in the tablebab 30 0.52 13.09 (-2.065,15) (-9.2,-19.61) (25.47,-26.7) (32.56,7.918 60 1.05 | 26.18 | .(21.95,13.3) | (1.6-13.15) | (24. 86,-36.7) | (48.44,108 Forve 90 1.57 39.27 (46.31,04.8) (12.8,-6.36) (23.91,-39.9) (87.45,2885 120 2.09 62.38 (67.73,-09.6) (33.00,-2.48) (25.89,-37.3) (60.56 44) 150 2.61 65.45 (83.48,-27.8) (87.00,-4.29) (33.55,-30.7) (60.00.54, Forv) 180 3.14 78.54 (92.57,-46.3) (81.4,-12.75) (47.87,-23.9) (69,04, 5188 210 | 366 | 91.63 | (95.6,61.8) | (102.827, 2) | ©8.17,-20.1) | (61.0854 240 | 418 | 104.72 | (98.05,-71.8) (118.6,45.4) | (92.19-21.8) | (68.6402) = @ wat 79) _| (127,663.88) | (116.5,-30.3) | 299-4) For caaraloe = (96.19.72.1) | (1306.79.34) | (1379-449) | aoa? 98 | (103.8,-65.8) | (130,289.32) (153.7,-62.9) | (127.2395) 6.28 | 157.08 | 1118.1,-69.04) (129,262.66) | (162,881.39) 8 2-D Geometric Transformations # 4.37 SOLVED EXAMPLES example 4.11 A unit square undergoes unary transformations. Li i i . Listed below are its vertices. Identify he type of Transformation and compute the parameters associated with transformation Original coordinates _| ‘Transformed coordinates his problem can be solved using row format of representation et the homogeneous transformed matrix is — all al2 0 T=|a21) 422.0 & eo ere tx and fy are equal to zero as original and transfurmed coordinates of vertex A is same. Therefore P’= P. T Pe wea ee eet iterates : ae Ocal 2A 8. Lp A omet a all al2 0 ForvertexA [0 0 1]=[0 0 1] fad] 222 0} —~(4.5) { 0

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