of set $: the We Wit ag WM ICAE coor x is: memb 5 poe Seas jetrers. ian objet aah asxee ew bul SCA me denoted by sr of Se then We THE NS member o eat if object x is not ™ se A ie 5's j at am Let ees sed by either listing within braces ay. disse member of designate conditions that eVEtY elemen jy The elemel by deseribing s he set ( , ings are shown in t mest ( Sab pe yg set theory and their meaning? he tab "The various sy Symbol ‘ “belongs to” e “does not belongs to” e re “ig a subset of ” = “+g a proper subset of ” > “isa super -set of ” | “such that” . G; “union” “intersection”: “the null set” ‘Subset If every element of a set A is also an element of set B, then A is said to bea Sg ee Co as ACB and read as A is subset of B. For example A={1,3,5,7} and Bl then Ac Proper set Law __ If every element of a set A is an clem which is not in A, then A is said to bé lent of a set B and B contains at least ote 4 proper subset of B. We write this as Ac Bat Ais subset of B, For example A= . feet mple A=(1,3:5,7) and B=(3,5,9) then Ac B. x 4 spo , C are subsets of univers it wn below. in fi. ae are as shown below in figurec7 4)" > Men the vatiouso Geometric Modelling » 7.9 erations on sets using Venn- Exclusive union:- A AB Figure(7.4) Operations on sets Laws of Algebra of Sets- If A, B and C are any sets then, 1 Commutative ws- AUB=BUA and ANB=BOA 2 Associative laws AU(BUC)=(AUB)UC and AN(BNC)=(ANB)NC 4 Idempotent laws AUA=A_ and ANA=A 4 Distributive laws For Example AN(BUC)=(ANB)UANC) and AUBOC)=(ALBIOAVO AU(BAC)=(ALB)OALO)7.10 7 CADICAM /CAE beef) and C= (defe) then Tce fe S8) ={e, if A=(ab.de}; B=[ Fae fyalabdet) AU(BOC)= (a:b. de) le nO aid ey (Beef I= Ia bewed™ : 2 asbid,ehu ld e fra) = (bce d 8 “ss 5 An BUANO)=labiodeSIUa?, 1e,f.8)=labrdve,f) 5. De-Morgan’s laws- oy aacze=nue ae eee the complements of two sets. Tt also connect the union and inlersectOny ol ARB In (AUBY=A'OB' and (AaB) ' Beye : they inc’ 7.7 REPRESENTATION SCHEMES FOR SOLID MODELS < 7 : i i ities for creating, modifying and ig) odes 1 ‘All solid modelling systems provide facilities cs models of 3D solid objects, but there are a large number of different possible =a representing such models in a computer. Some systems supports a hybrid solutio are the various approaches- 3 eee : 5 RS appear : ‘Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) - solid primitives combined with Boolean: + Boundary Representation (B-Rep) - bounding face, edge, and vertices eS ° Pure Primitive Instancing - Parametric model a, + Spatial Occupancy Enumeration - model of fixed size spatial cells Fic + Cell Decomposition - model of variable spatial cells + Sweeping - translation, rotation, or arbitrary sweep pe 7.74 CSG - Solid Entities: : a “oat In the CSG approach the solid is described as a combination of elementar prin Tike cubes, spheres or extrusions. . These simpler objects are called primitives CO ce Practical for rapidly adapting display. Checking properties like if a point is ins oe aE checking the same property on the elementary solids, Geometric primitives are cs dimensi ‘ld a “mensional building blocks for all composite 3D objects. By joining or ree shapes, 3D. models can be constructed, except those objects with curved of wart : re These solid primitives are the BOX, C ee 'YLINDER, CONE, WI a figure given below), So a . : ¥ ”geyinude focal operations ik primitive solids would lead to C36 tree However, the strict application ¢ filleting. UNION in which two or more solids are joined G together. sds formed from the intersection of two or more solids, of the ordinary mathemati jeometric Modelling # 7.11 me extends CSG inspired nso ae spired the parametric systems available today which mix the e i ree am ‘ep representation. But parametric systems are far more powerful because data structure i i ‘The dat eee the complete object consists of a tree in which the leaf seis present the primitives, and the intemal nodes represent the Boolean operators for veoinig these, In such a scheme, the edges and faces ofthe objects are implied rather than peng explicitly im the data structre, ‘A composite solid model is one that is constructed from two or more solid objects, sahether they are primitives or ‘other solid objects. In order to create ‘a composite model, Boolean _pntions are used to join or cut the model into the desired shape, Boolean operations include ‘A second Boolean operation is SUBTRACT in which one solid is used to remove @ certain shape from another solid. The third Boolean operation is INTERSECT, in which anew ical Set Boolean operations to Tmnomalous objects such as the, one illustrated in Figure (7.5). solids in CSG modellers are modified in such @ Therefore, the required Boolean operations on Way that they produce ‘regular sets’. These om nodes represent it dangling of tthe Boolean applied in edges and vertices are avoided faces, edges and vertices if any. The das euachrepeerm mn Oe ofa binary tree in which leaf nodes esent the primitives and internal es In CSG modelling , Boolean operations are ‘egular sets and dangling of faces, ion for combining these. rch a way that they produce if they arises.742 w CADICAM CAE Figure a 5) CSG tree 7.7.2 Boundary Representation —Brep The following figure shows an example of object in body representation are converted into 3D model 5 r o said y Fin nusceuy wsGeometric Modelling 7.13 jp oid modeling, boundary representation is abbreviated as B-rep. It is a method for senting shapes using the limits where solids are defined and stored by their boundaries. A colli represented as a collection of connected surface elements, the boundary betwieen solid snfoor-sotid, The basic method was developed independently in the early 1970s by Ian Braid jx Cambridge. Boundary representation models are composed of two parts: topology and ganetry (consists of surfaces, curves and points). In geometry each face is bounded by edges aaieach edge is bounded by vertices. The topology and geometry arc interrelated and cannot be squtod entirely. Both must be compatible otherwise nonsense objects may result Felloving figure shows a pentagon which may produce a true object or a nonsense object (secting lines) depending on the position of vertices of the geometry ._ Gen 2D object = ~ Modified object Modified Nonsense object osogy is created by performing Euler operations and geometry is created by performing ‘dean calculations, For this please refer topic 7.9 Euler's theory. jMventages , Easy and efficient rendering (face plane) 3 Simple algorithm for solid volume computation 4, Point inside or out side of the solid Formal definition of the 3D object surfaceeee ee ee 7.14 # CADICAM/CAE + Disadvantages 1 roximation of the 3D object 2. Sarees problem (3D construction FEV) 3, Not concise representation 7.7.3 Cellular Decomposition 26 ae a s this type of solid modelling sc lecompose the tox sn a en patel and finally combing them to the generate yy 2 i Is that it occupies. The cells are not always noy ode. It represents.an object by a list of cells t identical and cell size is determined as per the intricate shapes that the model have. The: sma the areater is the computational effort and space is required hence fine cells are sea the Be afape and. coarser cols are selected for remaining Object ‘ Depending upon the similarity in shape and or size these are divided inp in spatial enumeration the same shape and size of the basic elements (for exami, are used to model a solid. itis exactly reverse of discritisation process in FEM, wher 2 domain is divided into number of finite elements. Ta octtee encoding, model is generated using. same shape cells but with dimensions, Such cells are fitted together so as to generate the desired model with les cells. The is relatively more accurate than spatial enumeration. | 7.74 Feature Based Modelling- a ‘The feature modeller contains not only a geometric and t ‘cal struct por eon . characteristics of a part c SEE ee Cee Shell ‘Various features used in 3D modellingGeometric Modelling w 7.15 eaure #8. One OF the latest al es to Convert 2p. dray i c jon of creating 2D shape and then a i wings into 3D_ models. It is ot peated With the help of 9p crosses Petts ©Perations to build a 3D model, 3D Sih tras, SEEDS, revolves, blends, fillets, coh a Profiles and dragging functions, such ble ume creation commands Toe ee. In of cmon sane Oo nas gran 1 sy ous ree , et rotruded or cut; the combination of ing Feature Operations are mostly yor "eam | Cae eindag igs [asm tongasbehitaplaee I'Bits section. Dirsetion of extrusion iw normal Create a feature by revolving j evolve © 8 its Section. The revolved section must have a R centerline 2D sketch is rotated about ihe rotation axis to get symmetric Object. In addition to 2D sketch here we need rotation axis, Greate a feature by sweeping a section al om ‘Ping a section along a trajectory. Here we need S 2D sketch and a path along which sketch is swept. aa Create a feature by blending multiple parallel sections. Here we have Specify various cross sections on different Parallel and offset sketch planes, @ | Extrude Revolve Blend or Loft 2D Sketch profile 5y combining above basic features, we can develop advance features such as ‘Sweep-Blend ‘hich is combination of Sweep and Blend feature. Thus to create 3D model using feature option we follow three steps Lit 2D profile on the selected sketch plane, j 2 oe te ge of 3 pe ee appropriate feature and apply feature ‘operation to convert 2D profile int pject. pees "thet ie Sr ote mia bates features to generate final shape object. ‘dvantages of feature based modeling 3 : : 'shing with features Bry urbe aang ae f ee icc * tert intelligent parametric geometry into a model withoot having “onstruction geometry. i__—————— - 7A6 ™ CADICAM /CAE “a model ns of © Associate a varity of information portion gesign requirements E © Creme fearuves with attributes UnidUe 10 Y Cy gd features 39 ‘AM Softans, a post Following are the most commonly a" a + cross section dragged alon, 1. Extrude (Protrusion) Feature: ca that have a.constan \d direction Use Extrude to create alee rofile and extrusion length an ae ion. Here gy linear path. This feature requires 2D pr ways the first solid feature crea, ase feature of datum planes Extrusion is al direction is normal to the sketch ne ed after ab can be the base feature or the firs sven in table belOw- jlable i ure are “The various options available in extrusion fea ion on one side only. (es extrusil wimmas [ORE [eter eas on baht 2 Select an existing plane. eee ae Datum, Make a planer reference for sketching section Direction Flip ‘Allows to choose a direction for extrusion Depth Blind Variable distance. 2 Side Blind Variable Distance on both sides. ‘Thru’ Next Up till next immediate surface. . Thru All ‘Through entire geometry. ' Thru Until Allows to pick the termination surface, UptoaPnv/Vix | Extrudes up to a selected point / vertex. Upto Surface __ | Extrudes up to a selected surface. 2 Up to Curve Extrudes up to a selected curve. Requirement of 2D sketch for Extended feature: i 1) 2D profi canbe open or closed ) Closed section may consists of one or more closed outsi i ied ea cs losed outside loops or nested loop (one outset 3) These loops should not intersect each other. 4 Open profile should not have more than one loop and all open ends should align to 3D object fees The circle is extruded to | The square is extruded formsthesolideylinder | ‘tofoms the solid. | ic oranBtlat Parallelepiped wi 408 is obtained by subtracting a circult object from rectangular parallelepiFeature Gi jeometric Modelling 7.17 ol 9 ies xis Bees are exeated by revving an 18 an arbitrary plan iss revolving closed wireframe produces a nd the geometr ie solid. To ct ; ‘i eae am eee cicero eee seat i ee Ce Sr ane ring A rete fea can sect ple 8 plane or symmetrically on both sides of “after creating a revolved section, g Se NOVUIGME ad ee ee | on ae RE lsd tw eee ata eee features’s angle of revolution. | eur reset angles, 90, 180, 270 and 360 revolution, of you can choose } 90) 180° 210" 360" Te various options available for this feature are given in table below- Attributes | One side Creates extrusion on one side only. Both sides Creates extrusion on both sides Section Plane Select an existing plane. j Make a planer reference for sketching section \ | | Make Datum [Direction | Flip “Allows to choose a direction for extrusion \ Depth | Variable Specify any angle of evolution less than 360 x i 90 Create the feature witha fixed angle of 90 deg: ‘ 180 Create the feature with a fixed angle of 180° \ UpTo Plane | Allows to pick the termination surface, Up to Surface Extrudes up toa selected surface. LJ upto curve | Bxtrudes up toa selected curve.—7~x_ gq 7.18 w CADICAM /CAE ‘equirements- . the a i ed feature Following > pier For sketching revolved TT pave a cemeli8® cane axis of revolution, © Therevolved section maketh ononly oe fit contetine sketched a the axis of ° The sone ee centerline in the skete tao, . Ifyou use mo o> ~The section must be closed fF and then sketching a seat, 3. Sweep Feature ‘i electing a trajectory ane lo aching OF SO°Ct sting a trajectory and then ske Asweep i oat by tied by sketching or selecting 22) ching, follow along it. Asw an eae to follow along it. fi rt object say Profile Swern Path (traject Tw ‘The various options for this feature is listed below- ci Trajectory | Sketch Tra. ‘Sketch a sweep trajectory using Sketcher mode. Select Traj. Select a chain of existing curves or edges as the sweep trajectay) { Trajectory _ | Open: zy | ‘Aawibutes’ | a) Merge Ends. _| Merge the ends of the sweep, if possible, into the adjacent si 4 Do not attach the sweep end to adjacent geometry. b) Free Ends, | . © Closed: For open sections, add top and bottom faces to close the LC a) Add Inn Fes solid | b) No Inn Fes Do not add top and bottom faces. Direction Flip Selects side for swept cuts. ‘Sweep with closed section. 4. Blend (Loft) Feature E. A blended feature consist X d Ls of a series of their edges with transitional s tes two planar sections that joins toee™ : ions : turfaces to form a continuous feature, vdGeometric Modelling # 7.19 ion‘ Parallel i siition. ine Rotational General AID Al blend sections Tie on parallel planes in one secon | ‘The blend sections are rot i Ree ated about the Y-axis, up toa The sections of a general blend can be rotated about and translated along the X, Y and Z axes Scaion | Regular See Project Sec ‘The feature uses the sketching plane | ‘The feature uses the projection of the section on the selected surface ‘Straight Creat a straight blend by connecting vertices of different subsections with straight lines. Edges of the sections are connected with ruled surfaces. Create a smooth blend by connecting vertices of different subsections with smooth curves. Edges of the sections are connected with spline surfaces. x 2D sections C2-circle2 Froypes of blends the straight blend and th ie smooth blend are shown in the table below ‘Smooth Blend Straight Blend Twist d | ye to change in start point7.20 w CADICAM /CAE By changing the starting P that twist between the section® subsection. You can place t option Start Point and select 5. Helical Sweeps! ‘A helical sweep is crea js defined by both the prof section origin of t coils). Sweeps ca” for the sweep trajectory: plane. In all other Fimensional sweeps. For such feature helical sweep by see?! "You create a helical sweep Dy SWE>P js defined by both the profil section origin of the heli oils). ‘The trajectory and the surface of the resulting geometry 1 feature (0 its 3% 2 ie feature to is axis of revolution) ‘and the pitch (the distance wu can create blen | plend subsections yet deg cin) of eet sei the ist POM shag ‘the defi i in xing Py of another SEB™EN By cng nes ea section along 2 helical trajectory. The, “of revolution (which defines the distanes t sof revolution) and the pith (the distance batt three-dimensional path with a three-dimensiong .* T entities must Tie on & two-dimensional g "i jonal sweeps are created in the same we applications as creating springs, you can also create an ay ~ ing a section along & helical trajectory: ing a section along ahelical trajectory, Tretia ie of the surface of revolution (which defines the distance fron, 2 aMolution are construction tools that do not apps Pitch options. Constant The pitch is constant Variable “The pitch is variable and defined by a graph. Cross section orientation Thru Axis The cross section lies in a plane that passes through the axis i of revolution. form To Trajectory | The cross section is ori is oriented normal t i surface of revolution) 0 theheleraa Direction, Right Handed The tr i - eee ajectory is defined using the right- hand rule. Vari i rious examples of helical sweep are shown in the table ‘The trajectory is defined using the left- hand rule. Circular cross section Rectangle cross spring és section spring chGeometri i 7.21 sooo ric Modelling 7 Chamfe modified. 45%d chamfers can only b perpendicular surfaces, d'd Creates a chamfer that is at a distance d_ from the edge along each surface. The distance is the only dimension to appear when modified, di*d2 Creates a chamfer at a distance dl from the selected edge along one surface anda distance @2 from the selected edge along the other surface. Both distances appear along their respective surfaces when modified. Angd Creates a chamfer t a distance d from the selected edge along one adjacent surface at a specified angle to the surface. 1. Shell ‘The Shell option removes a surface or surfaces from the solid then hollows out the inside ‘the solid, leaving a shell of a specified wall thickness. When we make use of shell, all the ‘atues that were added to the solid before you chose Shell are hollowed out, Therefore, the ‘rr of feature creation is very important when you use shell, ness, material will be removed, leaving the Sey gig emered a. postive value Fr the a a negative value, the shell thickness is 2djggkteSS “inside the part. However, if you en ‘Othe “outside of the part. 0 SS—————=———S——t yy 22 w CADICAM [CAE Rounds (Fillets) Feature “f Gaia aa around between surge & that is smoo! or a round OF 2 oe son to erate es se th rote tenween tv ance SU Use yo diffrent 9 of rounds—simple and ady jon can create WO texity of the reference geometry and ony 1 place of a middle surface. comp) re depends 0 (MET otiad by the SYSTEM Generally, alte yaaa Which type of round you oF ie the dtl FO geometry SUPP. ystemn generates NE default round © pe, cross section, and 50 On). Tween fer it encounters @ non-tangent edge. Round creates a fillet, ype of round by select g one cof the options: surfaces with a constant radius | Greate a round betweed two sets of 8 jable radii Create a round petween two Seis of surfaces with var Create a round between two surfaces by forcing one of the tangent edges to follow a curve: Greate a round by removing @ surface: the round is constrained Py the consumed surface. of rounds. Specify the ty ‘Constant Variable Thru Curve Full Round Following are three simple tyPes 4, Edge-Surtace rounds- Place a round By specifying a chain of edges and a surface 9 Sutface-Surtace rounds - Place a round by selecting two surfaces 5, Edge Pair rounds- Place a full round by specifying # pair of edges [Badge to surface round Surf-Surf round 7 Edge pair round pried 9. Hole Feature A The Hole comman ‘ 5 \d creates: straight-sided; user. many types of axial I, user-sketch ially revob “ A De Ca cines pe een we ole cdl hitter Wcsattnceretis ne ack standard fas! ‘dkenckneéx tend. teeniepoiraints, and can have different aah The user can choose whether to create Surfaces that via pole An extruded cut with a citcular Section « ole—A rovolved feature defined by a sketchesction, Se ete Bele y. etdlee crane anersot tepresent thread viet ct : Sous tale A Combination of sketched and extruded Beometry. It is based on industry: fastener tables. ” ‘A:solid body with a full length coaxial hole oS ae A solid body with a variable Jength coaxial hole, ‘ Draft Feature The Draft feature adds a draft angle to individual surfaces or to a series of selected planar softs. 78 EULER THEORY he Eular-Poinearé Theory gives a quantitative relationship among faces (F), edges titative iB 's (Hi) in solids. (E),vertices (V), holes ‘wre of nner loops inthe faces(H, number of through ‘ ila is given by- "tetas holes (closed loops), then Eular’s formula iss : \y B+ F-Hf=2(S- Hit7.24 v CADICAM (CAE For Example Polyhedra is a solid fi polygons whose edges representation of a simpl relationship among the mu Where V — number of vertices Some examples of polyhedrot are cach a-mel le polyhedron sat mber of vertices, f=2(S -Hth) y-E+F-Hf 1. volume. will have ¢ having four or more plane faces: It is bounded by ay, smber of an even number of polygons. The boy ‘sties Eulers formula, which. expresses an ining edges and faces of simple polyhedron by- If we int igur by- y-E+F=2 «, E-—number of edges; F - number of faces mn are shown below If object ha 4s hole, then Eular's formula Ts given yo The : sufficiens oe conditi Boyhedton is solid object ber of holes i f inthe faces; § — ‘ holes that pass tough objeng ne OF SePaEa parts of the ODE : ion is necessary a solid but Ti ition, Followi to guaray i ' intee that the object is i , V- E +F-Hf =2(S~ Hth) Ing additional constrai al constraints are tteeded to confirm that cedge must conn ject 2 vertices Seer ic Modeliin. 19 7.25 BIE ae par edge must be shared by exai ee tieast 3 edges must meet at mais pi ertex I + pos ‘must not interpenetrate ‘uss PROPERTIES ig Mi design engineering. analysi i analysis, (Once a geometric model is reagents, ot icra ny of an object is very important n sa system, it wil certai 1 ea of Inertia (MON), Soa anipeat of of pier opt" paced on this fc e volume informatic vols such as Mass (2 Kg uch as Mass (M), Centr £6 gaol) automaticaly. en I " il ave ass of an object can be easi I. 4 easily cal ge. Therefore if AV is elemental Soli aened by just multiplyin ope 1e (dx.dy.dz) and densty sre of material to its \ f iaterial is p then we sryeintegrate this equat ‘ -quation over the distributed mass , we : ISS , we get mass of the obj i yject which is given M, = fff an = o [if =p [fade = pv : vole veto saianesen Cb Pe diag oie imps EE ne ineycAM /CAE 7.26 # CAD! — tne weighted mean of the poiny rhus 2 Center of mass ject is defined #5 HE TS Taiso called the center gp) podY "pe conter of HSS OF cis the points Mie sitions and masses Of the panel abo" rt applied (0 #¢h POE, ncyion only of HE Pe, its center of mass dep, | The woah 27 of mass 68 ne uniform density: ada] seco centroid. The cof When an compose the ; systet he e centroid. js given by e the shape ,this iS Cit ran object is at C which is gi a 7 _Levthecener of i Be I pay oe ss. = volume —__—_ I ‘Cie aes M yy iven by- ‘Thus X, Y and Z co-ordinates of center of mass are given by- . Sec ; x.dx dy J [Jno ? IfJ-v ? [ffx e i. volume volume. Pro coe a = M M si ? Sly y.dV Pp ii z.d¥ = volume. Cz = — lume. cy = —t#— ana Cz M M a Ex 3. First Moment of Inertia ( MOI ) sy t MOI is nothing but the moments of the geometrical properties such as area, volumewi] rm respect to a given plane, Thus MOI is calculated with reference to plane which is the pra] Sq i an object and perpendicular distance from the given plane under consideration. We cankat) D ,, equations with reference to XY, YZ and XZ plaries, which are given below- Ve f MOI about XY plane- My= [ffean= e {Jfeav mass. volame MOI about YZ pl = . mem lhe MOI about XZ plane- M,.= m= she li 3. Second moment of Inertia (SMOT ) Second Moy ; changes no neta SMOD , (SI units 8 rotati distbtion at e ion rate. In other words,————————————~ ps t0Mhas distributed Continuously py) id principal Axes are given by — Slfean Ifo? +22y4m= [[fot+25av volume ut Te wot about X anise Fe = gent! .. on Fscond MOI about Y axis- a si 2 2 2 we (ff an [Ife +2 hn [fle ay a a Z I? dm = eam gqixd MOI about Z: axis 2 dim = |Nhy? +27)dm= p fffo 4x2)4V products of inertia (POI) gt ae products of inertia ( POL ) are calculated using following telations- ER = [fon p [ffoav . I=ty = [[fean—p [ffreav ve , y pzdm= p ||[yz pessir | pramme {fp le=lg = Ji fam p [ffrcav ho sie Gample 7.1: Calculate the mass Propertics of 10mm side cuboid object whose co-ordinate | ‘sen sat one ofthe corner. Assume the cube is made of a steel of density 0.000734 kg/ { s=.Confirm your results using any CAD package, 1 ‘Solution; | Daaity of material- 9 = 0.0007324 Kg / mm*3 ] Youne ofa cone = V = 13 = 103 = 100mm? 4 Z, q7.28 W CADICAM (CAE eee Ye iic eto oo (eee woe Si 190007324 x 1000 = 0.7324 ke Centroid (center of gravity) ders Center of gravity of cone is 8! Therefore, i era ew | [fee olume = 2 00 =e ye Vv et ig 10, 10 eles dx dy [ Jae dy dx j f50 aa 12 nega - 14 C= a enue a! v u 50 Ee 500 .dx j Eh Be = 500 Leh S000 71000 — SOE) = Sim Vv Me is 10, 10,0 [ya dy de a Jeg oto ae Similarly Cy = *—*4 v = Simm 10, 10,10 Jf [xara x and algo Ok 59a = 5mm Thus center of mass is at (xy,2) = (5,5,5) from the origin Moment of inertia ‘The mass moment of inertia about Ds x-axis is given by se =? [Ifo paleyde oj «|S ) aay offs 0 : 00 volume coo] acm Similarly Iyy = Izy =48.82kg / mm?afinertia (POT) Geometric Modelling # 7.29 role inertia (POL ) are calculated 6° i je 8 Felations. sat NNN cag ha ie sing followin, so 1010 Fe ieaiigesins wylzh?.drdy 1Oxy.dxdy = 2 0 elie ? ! es ~# J059* 12). < foe 10? /2)ay aa ! é 19 21 =P) [10% 10? 12). dy = p 000%" 3 hs \ 4020007324 100000 = 3146 jm? = 18.31kg / mm? =1,, =1831kg/ mn? aly Recent all professional CAD packages calculates various ma jue calculating Properties, we have set various options such ae i surement units and their accuracy (number of de sen of material and unit system for density 3S properties of 3D objects linear and angular cimals) , defining Co-ordinate system, Following figures shows the 3D model-(a CUBE. of steel) and the screenshot of mass spety calculated by ProEngineer CAD package, e Seeks eam texan oomrat Toe 3 bases Fane Toe Ene oF nen TED gy 8—_: oS 7.30 W CAD/CAM /CAE ‘The detailed mass properties of = 1,0000000¢+03 MM‘3 4 is ‘astee! object a° given belo VOLUME : 2 SURFACE AREA = 6,0000000¢+02 a ops DENSITY 7.32400006-04 TONNS = 7:32490006-01 TONNE aa cote PRTOOOS coOrOSE frame: ENTER OF GRAVITY with resP 3 KY IZ 5,9000000¢+00 5,0000000e+00 5.0000000e+00, MM (TONNE * MM*2) INERTIA with respect (© _PRTOOO4 coordinate frame: INERTIA TENSOR: e Ixx Ixy xz, 4,8826667e+01 <1 g310000e+01 -1,8310000¢+01. Iyxyy Tyz-1.8310000¢+01 4.8826667e+01 -1.8310000e+01 §310000¢#01 4.8826667e+01 tax Izy Iz -1.83 10000¢+01 h respect to _PRTO004 coordinate frame: (TONNE INERTIA at CENTER OF GRAVITY will MM“2) . INERTIA TENSOR: ex bxy Ixa 1.2206667e#01.0,0000000e+00 0.0000000¢+00 Iyx [yy ly2 0.0000000¢+00 1.2206667e+01 0.0000000e+00 : ux Lzy Iz 0.0000000e+00 0.0000000e+00. 1.2206667e+01 PRINCIPAL MOMENTS OF INERTIA: (TONNE * MM*2) Ll DB 1.2206667e+01 1.2206667e+01 1.2206667e+01 ROTATION MATRIX from _PRT0004 orientation to PRINCIPAL AXES: 1,00000 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000 1.00000 0.00000 ee ee 0.00000 0.00000 +—_-1,00000 ‘om _PRT0004 orientation to PRINCIPAL AXES (degrees): angles about x y z 0.000 0.000 0,000 RADII OF GYRATION with respect to PRINCIPAL AXES: aad RI R2 R3 4.0824829e+00 4.0824829e+00 4,0824829e+00 MM ” .2: Calculate the mass, center of mass , moment of inertia of the cone about the 2-28 base radius a = 10 = 10mm, h= 30mm, Ass i ‘mm’. Confirm your results using any eee is made of a steel of density P 0.000132 — vol oso sets pane of Centr centr ThereCE Nt OXL—L—L LL hl Geometric Modelling #7 7.31 (p= 00007324 Kg /mm3 y Hah _11.10%.30 oe Pre oe e nei =3141.Smm? we ap [lJ & a & = pv vouime =0.0007324 x 3141.5 = 2.3008 kg Catrid (center of gravity): ‘ Thecentroid of a cone is located on the line ‘atid of the base. Turfor, Center of gravity of cone is given by : « segment that connects the apex to the ho 2maz lh iyjea ff fearaee Ce = volun Joo ania eerie ahr gsi? 22 5mm - ee Pa eatueser fa Vi ene "obj 0 “eet is symmetric about 2a axii7.32 W CADICAM /CAE Moment of inertia ‘ iven by The mass moment of inertia about the z-axis i$ BF fram= fre y ; iven by ordinate system is B1¥« The element of volume in a-eylindrical Oy aie ds The domain of the cone in cylindrical coordinates is defined by O-S°z7°s-h a O55) ss —z aeee OCs 6" SUL # ‘Therefore, the mass moment of inertia about the z-axis can be written as exh O=24 "Re Ie=|Poav= | | [Pp ardo de ie 2=0 @=0 r=0 oF 4 Ss aes = 74% PdOdz 730 050 4h zh 4 wf Za 4 Tee thn ae

MATHEMATICAL REPR =) OF 2D ENTITIES ENTATION {INTRODUCTION For simple objects, we use frequently primary geometric 2D entities such as lines and vg. But for applications in the filed of automobile, aerospace and ship design, we use sicated curved shapes. A curve can be represented by arrays of coordinate data or by an i equston, The coordinate array method is impractical, as it requires. lerge memory linge and computations to transform the data are cumbersome. Also it ‘becomes very difficult nisi shapes of the existing objects. Analytic equations of curves provide information ste effect of data points on curve behaviour, continuity and curvature: or parametric. form. mathematically by, nonparametric explicit or implicit. In nonparametric explicit ‘equation, two separate functions of the Curves can be represented mperametrie equations can be either ‘oudinates y and z of a point on the curve are expressed as ‘coordinate x as the independent variable. sented as P= eye for each value of Jeisgiven by Y= mu +e. Thus a general 3D curve is repre’ p= 0s fo) 36) ) Fig80) isthe position vector on point P. Here x, there is only one value of y iit equation ofa lin "For example, the nonparametric expli8.2 7 CAD roam! CAE 1 POGY?) x Z Zz Fig. 8.1 general 3D curve i id Z are-exy it , the coordinates x, y an TS ae ae surves such as circle and multivai.<" | to represent closed ¢ C a Me g(%,y,z)= 0. These equations are solved s. For example the nonparametric implicit, function and this form is such as parabolas. f(%,Y dz. value all s of x and find roots of y an‘ es Mt exe a cirele with a center at the origin and radius R is given by ety =R? (8.1) Nonparametric representation of the curve for CAD software has following limitations Curves are often multi-valued i.e, for a given value of x there are many vals Ideally, a unique point on the curve would be defined by a single value of ays defining curve. 2. _ If the slope of a curve at a point is vertical, its value becomes infinity, this isd condition to deal with both computationally and programming wise. 3. Computations of coordinates are inconvenient and lengthy processes and al difficult in the viewpoint of the programmer. 4. If the curve is to be displayed as a series of points or straight-line segmétl, computations involved could be extensive. It is often necessary in CAD to evil orderly sequence of points on a geometric entity. . 5. The equation for the curve will depend upon the coordinate system used. Params eet ese difficulties paranetic representations of curves isthe bests! displaying on the sereeg, fe i” the general form and very suitable for comput aranetee y, In R3 (Care ln this, each point on the curve is represented as @ below: sian) space, 3D curve can be expressed in parametric fom Pa)=[X Z]=[xw) HY) 2g Susy a--- (8.2).te computation methods to solve complex A comparison of non-parametric and parametric representation for a circle in the first fant is shown. in figure(8.3a) and. figure(8.3b) respectively. ‘The non-parametric esentation of the unit circle in the first quadrant is given by- y= /1-x? with O ioe “Thus anys rSicsd Thence that it has the values 0 and 1 ree P2 ntl. ¥ other point on the line or its extensien N Heiress ain: | nal to the point location, m has a certain value of u which is ‘The unit vector = ie } : iE Where b= |P,= Pilla, 4) +, gy a, 22 | ust P2 Z_ Fig.8.4a Parametric équation of a line salar form x(x), y() and z(u) between P/ and P2 are — x (y) =x) + (—x)u, Osusl yw) prea ihiaibneg =a t = ws * sal C 4 niu 20 ie ee Pl and th = Private vector of the line is given by- P at. wae q Salar forin is: Ye Os00 ——————— 8.8 CAD) CAM/CAE sores its end points which i Suficien , end ; f its fe idth, li In CADICAM software, a oe sors on sh 28 i font, Wid ng My Beometic properties ofthe fie. Th an is suit to draw, display, and modify gh Af ayer etc. are also stored. This m™ nfo IP Intersection of Two lines a point PlXp¥e) then x and y values of both ling, 4 If two lines are intersecting Ate, ic at that point,, is given by- Vp =m XXp FO ear (tm, Bp =(c,-%) +0: xX_ +02 es (2-4) 4, (me =m 4) nero yp Sh at Ot eer (€,—2,) Cm, — Ma) 08 Yn (om, —a) (m —m,) _Or= Wy, ma) (7 Pe Yamx2*E Gn) (6) —%) Bere yy) = Thus m ple 8.2: } Geenine the solution Given- 2 AP Zz Fig.8.4b Intersection of a lines ‘And parame! If two lines LI and L2 are intersecting at point P, the parametric equations for thestl] 5) — <7 are given by For line L1- P(u) = P1+(P2-Pl)u, O Therefore the i © nonparametric representation of the unit circle a Y=VI=x? with O 1 ay) - sp: phy 28 Point on the conic and segment PM is perpendicular to the direct ¢:1. Fora parabola e=1 therefore SP = PM (fig.8.8b).Mat ceations of @ double right gre aa emai ps Position of the plang Gg through the vertex but y, pass ot cut ree 86 ing the cong is formed when acirle 2 «, the plane is perpendicular to the axi i cot passing through the vertex “Sf Cone Represent pe « jybelowe oe va lanai He “tion OF 20 Entities » 3, esng tous the axis = a Plt of intersecting ins lines’ AS “TeMt positions are shownin | Aeitele be Apoint lp ae on A pair of coincident lines(ie. a tine) Aparabola is formed when @ = ie. when the plane Q is parallel to a generator but not passing through the vertex z Anellipse is formed when % <9 < ie, when the plane Q cuts only one of the cones, but is neither perpendicular to the axis nor parallel ‘othe a generator (oblique) A parabola ae, Anellipse ~ ¥ Abyperbola is formed when 0<.0 0 Va-of+y +t +y? =2a (x= cP +y? =2a-J(xter ty a (x-0) +y? =4a? —4a[(x+ey ty (xe +y* 4ay(x+c)? +? =4ex+4a? e a(x? +2xe+c? +y) =0x? +2a°ex+a! ax? +2atxe tare? +a°y? sla n re i @ -c*)x? 4a? y? =a! —are' ee (a ~c)x? +a%y? =a? (a? ~c2) Let b?Mathe, ™Matical R, ; “Presentation of 2p Entities 7 8.17 This is the implicit for, M of the et MPse. @.19) uation of tangent at 4} ition, mw ° Point Pox y1) a reer, the Fara WD: t0 the etigge 2 from ;the gm Se 7+ POM tg ga a Brow polis = mx + dsatangent i = om ‘i Be tothe ellipse it and only Osan? =a'm? +5 a q jon of the normal at the poi; eo Point (x,, y,) to the ellipse oe e z ay 2 3,2 =a" 8 » Where x, #0, y, 29, ay i a | .steparmettic equation of a an ellipse can be writen as = aCos(y), for 0 b. Therefore major axis = 2. a = 10 and minor axis = 8 va? —b? _ J25-16 =e 3/5 a 5 ‘And the parametric equation ofa an ellipse can be written as- X=xe + aCos(u) =xc+5 Costu), fords us2n ¥=ye +b Sin(w) = ye + 4Sin(u) and z = zc Example 8.7:Generate an origin centered ellipse with semi major axis a= 4 and semi minor as using efficient algorithm and represent the ellipse graphically, "Given: -. ‘A 32 number of equispaces on the circumference (ie. 33 (n) number of points on the ellips) of ‘are used to calculate the parameter increment (50) between two consecutive points. Therefore OF | given by 60=22(n-1) 80 = 2x1(33-1) 60= 2/16 © Eccentricity © get initial values of x, and y, put @=0 % =a.Cos0, = (4) .Cos(0) 5 4 And ‘ jl J, =bSin6, . = (1) Sin(o) auatic; #1 Representation of 20 Entities 7 6.19 Sin50= Sinz /\6 Cos50 = Cosr/16 and = 0.981 x, = %1C0588 — (a/b). y Sing = 4) .981) -(4.9 0.195) =3,924 i yr =(6/a)-%,Sind8 + y. Coss * 0.25) .4.(0.195) -0(0.981) =0.195 Now to draw half ellipse we reflect vertically (Fy) above coordinates due to this only sign frcoordinate changes. 1-0-0; Fy=|0 1 0 ee Oe Ereults are shown below pave . Fig,8.10b Half Ellipse Similarly to draw whole ellipse we reflect half ellipse about x axis. ‘The na o shown8.20 ~ CAD/ CAM) CAE 1 Ellipse Example 8.8: Generate an ellipse with semi major axis a= 6 and semi minor axis b=, 45° to the horizontal with center at (3,4) by using efficient algorithm and represent quay. of ellipse graphically. Given - To solve this problem we perform following steps ai 1. Generate origin centered ellipse with a=6 and b=2 sss i 2 Rotate ellipse through 45° and then translate the ellipse 3 units in x and 4 msi direction direction. which is ‘A 33 number of points (n) on the circumference of ellipse are used to cael parameter increment (8) between two consecutive points. Therefore 60 is givenby 60 = 2x (n=l) = 60 = 22 (32) ; 60= 2/16 To get initial values of x,and y, put 0 =0 se x =aCos0, = ©).Cos(0) =6 = And y,=bSind,. = (2)Sin(0) =0 Calcite a and’, : : Me a a/b=6/2=3 es bla=2/6=1/3 Sin50 = Sinz 16 = 0.195 « ka ‘ Cos50 = Cosn/16 = 0.981 a 2 and x, = {C0868 —(a/6)-y,Sind8 = (6)(0.981) -().0.(0.199) “ F My 32 = (6/4). xSind0 + y\Cosd0 = (1/3) .6.(0.195) -0.(0.981) = 03? oo Results for an origin centred ellipse i n as shown in the following re ellipse inthe first quadrant are calculated aid én T‘ te eli 3 s pecs : a through as and then translate the ellipse 3 units in x and 4 units ny we multiply above coordinates by the following composite transformation matrix gaisgiven by: Tr=R. T cos 45 sin 45 0/1 0 0 507 0.707 0 0.707 0.707 0.707 0 alee een fina coordinates of points by using the relation: P’=P. Tr, ‘PY tothe first point- , ; 0.707 0.707 0 " []=[6 0 1} |-0.707 0.707 0| Mee = (7.242. 8.242 i]8.22. CADICAM/ CAE : P Fig.8.11b Transformed Quarter pay Srno | x? y’ of Ellipse | Le 1 7.24 | 8.24 5 0 2 6.89 8.44 8 3 6.38 8.46 + 4 5.74 8.31 6 5 e 8 5 6 4.18 7.53 aa i 3.32 6.93" 3 8 2.44 6.21 2 9 1.69 5.44 . 0 b) Parabola The ¢ The locus of a point, which is equidistant from a fixed point S and a fixed line D is parabola. The fixed point S is called focus and the fixed line d is the directrix of the pani Fig. 8.12 ParabolaPres 45™ 5, Take the mid-poii z a Of the meee OF 20 Entities 8.23 jereendicula the line OS ang yan ition, O i on i bola. Further since g pe - 2a, then 8 i8 (8 0) and Z ig 6g 0) and and D are fixed. 0% tet P (% ¥) Be any point on the fara es uation of the 1 k ren by the focus-directrix Property Dre abola. Draw i 1° origin 1¢ Seg SZ perpendicular Bin, line OS as the Xaxis and a line Ice Seg SZ is fixed. . directrix D is x Oftthe parabola.” °°& PM perpendicular to the pl gistance formula, ort an Ve=a¥ sorpr PM = V(r Cayr a aa ove two equations Y= Oa) ay +) = (x4 a? War tal ty? 4 aay 9? a ~~---(8.28) and oie =(x+ cosh side we get (ou) y rtisis the standard equation of a piform of parabola are: y? = -day, x’ =-4by ‘ @.0?andy=2a.8 wheret ¥=Q48)?=4a 8? =4a(a 6 ) 44x. Therefore point P(a 87, 2a @ ) denoted by ?(8) which lies on the parabola y? = fax “she parabola is open curve, the amount of parabola to be displaced must be limited by ¥2ninimum or maximum value for 8. If range of x coordinate is limited then, a = [fe ae =~=Z ES SED: ‘lycoordinate is limited then,” Bae = Ina Aes You =~ (8.30) *looving 0, ,@), parameter'in frst quadrant is generated and popes ie bsined by using reflection, rotation and translati 1 matrices. To minimize the ‘tine, following algorithm is adopted where parabola is generated incrementally in ‘Sto find only once, ‘ “tof parabola is calculated by using: xi=a 6? and yj=2a0; And i Nusa Bias? and yin = 28,9 z 0,60 +.4-0 =a(0, +50)? =a0, +246, 0; + 60 =