THEORY OF MACHINES

PRACTICAL FILE

SUBMITTED BY:
NAME – Bhanupriya Sharma
ROLL No. – 04701042019
BRANCH – Mechanical & Automation
SEMESTER – 4th

SUBMITTED TO:
Prof. R. A. Khan
 INDEX

S.No Name

1 To study the inversion of 3R-P and 2R-2P mechanism

2 To plot the graph for cam-follower mechanism

3 To determine the natural frequency

4 To determine the frequency of damped vibrations

5 To study different types of gear-trains

6 To statically balance a given wheel

7 To verify Gyroscopic Law

 EXPERIMENT-1
AIM: TO STUDY THE INVERSIONS OF 3R-P AND 2R-2P MECHANISMS
APPARATUS USED: - Single slider crank mechanism & double slider crank mechanism.
THEORY: -
FOUR BAR MECHANISM: - A four bar link mechanism or linkage is the most
fundamental of the plane kinematics linkages. Basically it consists of four rigid
links which are connected in the form of a quadrilateral by four pin joints.

INVERSIONS OF SINGLE SLIDER–CRANK CHAIN:-

Different mechanisms obtained by fixing different links of a kinematics chain are
known as its inversions. A slider – crank chain has the following inversions:-
 First inversion (i.e.; Reciprocating engine andcompressor)
 Second inversion (i.e., Whitworth quick return mechanism and Rotaryengine)
 Third inversion (i.e., Oscillating cylinder engine and crank & slotted – levermechanism)
 Fourth inversion (Hand pump)

INVERSIONS OF DOUBLE-SLIDER CRANK-CHAIN:

A four-bar chain having two turning and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of
the same kind are adjacent is known as a double-slider-crank chain. The following
are its inversions:
 First inversion (i.e., Ellipticaltrammel)
 Second inversion (i.e., Scotch yoke)
 Third inversion (i.e., Actual Oldham’scoupling)

MECHANISMS:

Reciprocating engine mechanism: In the first inversion, the link 1 i.e., the cylinder
and the frame is kept fixed. The fig below shows a reciprocating engine.

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Slotted link 1 is fixed. When the crank 2 rotates about O, the
sliding piston 4 reciprocates in the slotted link 1. This
mechanism is used in steam engine, pumps, compressors, I.C.
engines, etc.

Crank and slotted lever mechanism: It is an application of

second inversion. The crank and slotted lever mechanism is
shown in figure below.

This mechanism is used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in

rotary engines.

In this mechanism link 3 is fixed. The slider (link 1) reciprocates

in oscillating slotted lever (link 4) and crank (link 2) rotates.
Link 5 connects link 4 to the ram (link 6). The ram with the
cutting tool reciprocates perpendicular to the fixed link 3. The
ram with the tool reverses its direction of motion when link 2 is
Perpendicular to link 4. Thus the cutting stroke is executed
during the rotation of the crank through angle α and the return
stroke is executed when the crank rotates through angle β or
360 – α. Therefore, when the crank rotates uniformly, we get,

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Whitworth quick return motion mechanism:

Third inversion is obtained by fixing the crank i.e. link 2. Whitworth

quick return mechanism is an application of third inversion.
Rotary engine mechanism or Gnome Engine:
Rotary engine mechanism or gnome engine is another
application of third inversion. It is a rotary cylinder V – type
internal combustion engine used as an aero – engine.

Double Slider Crank Chain: A four bar chain having two turning

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and two sliding pairs such that two pairs of the same kind are
adjacent is known as double slider crank chain.

Inversions of Double slider Crank chain: It consists of two

sliding pairs and two turning pairs. There are three important
inversions of double slider crank chain.

1) Elliptical trammel. 2) Scotch yoke mechanism. 3) Oldham’s

coupling.

Elliptical Trammel: This is an instrument for drawing ellipses.

Here the slotted link is fixed. The sliding block P and Q in
vertical and horizontal slots respectively. The end R generates
an ellipse with the displacement of sliders P and Q.

Scotch yoke mechanism: This mechanism is used to convert

rotary motion in to reciprocating motion. The inversion is
obtained by fixing either the link 1 or link 3. Link I is fixed. In
this mechanism when the link 2 rotates about B as centre,
the link 4 reciprocates. The fixed link 1 guides the frame.

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Oldham’s coupling: The third inversion of obtained by fixing
the link connecting the 2 blocks P & Q. If one block is turning
through an angle, the frame and the other block will also turn
through the same angle. It is shown in the figure below.

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 EXPERIMENT-2
AIM: To draw displacement diagram, velocity diagram & acceleration diagram
of cam follower

THEORY:
Types of Follower motion:
1) Simple HarmonicMotion
2) Uniform Velocity
3) Uniform Acceleration andRetardation
4) CycloidalMotion
1. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the
Follower Moves with Uniform Velocity:
The displacement, velocity and acceleration
diagrams when a knife-edged follower moves with
uniform velocity are shown in Fig.1

Fig.1 Fig.2

2. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when

the Follower Moves with Simple Harmonic Motion:
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when the
follower moves with simple harmonic
Motion are shown in above Fig.2

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3. Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when
the Follower Moves with Uniform Acceleration
andRetardation:
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams when
the follower moves with uniform acceleration and retardation
are shown in Fig.3

4 Displacement, Velocity and Acceleration Diagrams when the

Follower Moves with Cycloidal Motion:
The displacement, velocity and acceleration diagrams
when the follower moves with cycloidal motion are
shown in Fig.4

Fig.3 Fig.4

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 EXPERIMENT-3
AIM: To draw displacement diagram, velocity diagram & acceleration diagram
of cam follower

THEORY:
One end of open coil spring is fixed to the screw which engages with screwed
hand wheel. The screw can be adjusted vertically in any convenient position
and then clamped to upper beam by means of lock nuts. Lower end of the
spring is attached to the platform carrying the weights. The platform is guided
in the lower beam. The whole unit can be clamped at any horizontal position
by using the upper and lower clamping nuts. Thus the design of the system
incorporated vertical and lateral positioning of the unit to suit the
convenience.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fix one end of the helical spring to the upper screw.
2. Determine free length.
3. Put some weight to platform and note down the deflection.
4. Stretch the spring through some distance and release.
5. Count the time required for some say 10, 25, 50 oscillations.
6. Determine the actual period.
7. Repeat the procedure for different weights.
CONCLUSION:
1. Observation error
2. Damping error of air

1. What causes natural frequency?

A lighter mass or a stiffer spring increases natural frequency a heavier mass or
a softer spring decreases natural frequency.

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2. What determines natural frequency?
The natural frequency, as the name implies, is the frequency at which the
system resonates. In the example of the mass and beam, the natural frequency
is determined by two factors: the amount of mass, and the stiffness of the
beam, which acts as a spring.
3.What is the difference between natural frequency and resonant frequency?
Natural frequency is the frequency pocessed by any body which is natural and
is an basic property but Resonant frequency is the frequency at which it
matches the frequency of medium travelling in.

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 EXPERIMENT – 4
To determine the natural frequency of a natural spring mass system
THEORY:
One end of open coil spring is fixed to the screw which engages with screwed
hand wheel. The screw can be adjusted vertically in any convenient position
and then clamped to upper beam by means of lock nuts. Lower end of the

spring is attached to the platform carrying the weights. The platform is guided
in the lower beam.
The whole unit can be clamped at any horizontal position by using the upper
and lower clamping nuts. Thus the design of the system incorporated vertical
and lateral positioning of the unit to suit the convenience.
The spring mass dashpot system shown is released with velocity  from
position   at time .  Find . 
Once again, we follow the standard approach to solving problems like this
(i) Get a differential equation for s using F=ma
(ii) Solve the differential equation.
You may have forgotten what a dashpot (or
damper) does.  Suppose we apply a
force F to a dashpot, as shown in the
figure. We would observe that the dashpot
stretched at a rate proportional to the force

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One can buy dampers (the shock absorbers in your car contain dampers): a
damper generally consists of a plunger inside an oil filled cylinder, which
dissipates energy by churning the oil.  Thus, it is possible to make a spring-
mass-damper system that looks very much like the one in the picture.  More
generally, however, the spring mass system is used to represent a complex
mechanical system.  In this case, the damper represents the combined effects
of all the various mechanisms for dissipating energy in the system, including
friction, air resistance, deformation losses, and so on.
 
To proceed, we draw a free body diagram, showing the
forces exerted by the spring and damper on the mass.
 Newton’s law then states that

This is our equation of motion for s.

Now, we check our list of solutions to differential equations, and see that we
have a solution to:

We can get our equation into this form by setting

 As before,   is known as the natural frequency of the system.  We have
discovered a new parameter, which is called the damping coefficient.  It plays
a very important role, as we shall see below.
 Now, we can write down the solution for x:
 Over damped System 

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Where 
 

Critically Damped System  

Under damped System 

Where, 
This is known as the damped natural frequency of the system.
 
In all the preceding equations,

Are the values of x and its time derivative at time t=0.

 
These expressions are rather too complicated to visualize what the system is
doing for any given set of parameters.  Instead,   contains a Java Applet that
can be used to show animations along with graphs of the displacement.  You
can use the sliders to set the values of either m, k, and   (in this case the
program will calculate the values of   and   for you, and display the
results), or alternatively, you can set the values of   and   directly.  You can
also choose values for the initial conditions   and .  When you press `start,’

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the applet will animate the behaviour of the system, and will draw a graph of
the position of the mass as a function of time.  You can also choose to display
the phase plane, which shows the velocity of the mass as a function of its
position, if you wish.  You can stop the animation at any time, change the
parameters, and plot a new graph on top of the first to see what has changed. 
If you press `reset’, all your graphs will be cleared, and you can start again.
 
Try the following tests to familiarize yourself with the behaviour of the system
1.  Set the dashpot coefficient   to a low value, so that the damping
coefficient . Make sure the graph is set to display position versus
time, and press `start.’ You should see the system vibrate.  The
vibration looks very similar to the behaviour of the conservative
system we analysed in the preceding section, except that the
amplitude decays with time.  Note that the system vibrates at a
frequency very slightly lower than the natural frequency of the
system.
2.  Keeping the value of   fixed, vary the values of spring constant and
mass to see what happens to the frequency of vibration and also to
the rate of decay of vibration. 
3. Keep the values of k and m fixed, and vary .  You should see that, as
you increase , the vibration dies away more and more quickly. 
4. Now, set the damping coefficient (not the dashpot coefficient this
time) to .  For this value, the system no longer vibrates; instead,
the mass smoothly returns to its equilibrium position x=0.  If you
need to design a system that returns to its equilibrium position in the
shortest possible time, then it is customary to select system
parameters so that .  A system of this kind is said to be critically
damped.
5.   Set   to a value greater than 1.  Under these conditions, the
system decays more slowly towards its equilibrium configuration.
6.  Keeping   >1, experiment with the effects of changing the stiffness
of the spring and the value of the mass. 

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 7.  Finally, you might like to look at the behaviour of the system on its
phase plane.  In this course, we will not make much use of the phase
plane, but it is a powerful tool for visualizing the behaviour of
nonlinear systems.  By looking at the patterns traced by the system
on the phase plane, you can often work out what it is doing.  For
example, if the trajectory encircles the origin, then the system is
vibrating.  If the trajectory approaches the origin, the system is
decaying to its equilibrium configuration.  
We now know the effects of energy dissipation on a vibrating system.  One
important conclusion is that if the energy dissipation is low, the system will
vibrate.  Furthermore, the frequency of vibration is very close to that of an
undammed system. Consequently, if you want to predict the frequency of
vibration of a system, you can simplify the calculation by neglecting damping.

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 EXPERIMENT – 5
To study various types of gear trains- simple, compound reverted, epicyclical and differential.
Apparatus: Arrangement of Gear train system.
THEORY:
GEAR TRAIN: - A gear train is a combination of gears used to transmit motion
from one shaft to another. It becomes necessary when it is required to obtain
large speed reduction within a small space. The following are the main types of
gear trains:
(i) Simple gear train
(ii) Compound gear train
(iii) Reverted gear train
(iv) Planetary gear train

SIMPLE GEAR TRAIN: - A series of gears, capable of receiving and transmitting

motion from one gear to another is called a simple gear train. In it, all the gear
axes remain fixed relative to the frame and each gear is on a separate shaft.
Train Value=Number of teeth on driving gear/Number of teeth on driven gear

COMPOUND GEAR TRAIN: - When a series of gears are connected in such a

way that two or more gears rotate about an axis with the same angular
velocity, it is known as compound gear train. In this type some of the
intermediate shafts.
Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number
of teeth on driven gear

REVERTED GEAR TRAIN: - If the axes of the first and last wheels of a compound
gear coincide; it is called a reverted gear train. Such an arrangement is used in
clocks and in simple lathes where ‘back gear’ is used to give a slow seed to the
chuck.
Train Value = Product of Number of teeth on driving gear / Product of Number
of teeth on driven gear

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PLANETARY OR EPICYCLIC GEAR TRAIN: - When there exists a relative motion
of axis in gear train, it is called a planetary or an epicyclical gear train (or simply
epicyclical gear or train).Thus in an epicyclical train, the axis of at least one of
the gears also moves relative to the frame.
Consider two gear wheels S and P, the axis of which are connected by an arm
a. if the arm ‘a’ is fixed, the wheels S and P constitute a simple train. However,
if the wheel s is fixed so that the arm can rotate about the axis of S, the wheel
P would also move around S. therefore, it is an epicyclical train.

DIFFERENTIALGEAR: - When a vehicle takes a turn, the outer wheels must

travel farther than the inner wheels. In automobiles, the front wheels can
rotate freely on their axis and thus can adapt themselves to the conditions.
Both rear wheels are driven by the engine through gearing. Therefore, some
sort of automatic device is necessary so that the two rear wheels are driven at
slightly different speeds. This is accomplished by fitting a differential gear on
the rear axle.

OBSERVATION&CONCLUSION:-
1. Comparison between simple, compound, reverted, epicyclical and
differential, Gear train.
2. To calculate the train value.
3. To calculate the speed of any gear.

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VIVA-QUESTIONS:-

Q1. Define gear trains with classification, advantages & disadvantages.

Answer: A Gear train is a combination of Gears which is used when we have to
obtain large velocity reduction (or vice versa) in a limited space
Gear trains are used in almost all machines which are dealing with the
mechanical power. Some of the places where gear trains are used are engines,
lathes, clocks, gear box and Differential of automobiles etc.
There are 4 types of gear Train
1. Simple gear train
Characteristics of simple gear train
 Gears are in the form of series
 Axes of gears remains fixed
 Each gear is mounted on different shaft

Simple Gear Train Diagram

 Advantages of simple gear train
1. It is simple in gear arrangement
2. Simply using intermediate gear opposite rotational direction can
be achieved.
 Disadvantages of simple gear train
1. Large gear ratio is required for large speed reduction.
2. More space required compare to compound gear train.
2. Compound gear train

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Characteristics of compound gear train:
1. All the characteristics are same as simple gear train except that more
than two gears can also be mounted on a single shaft

Compound Gear Train Diagram

Advantages:
 They are useful to cover large distances
 More efficient as it decreases the amount of friction therefore less
energy is lost
Disadvantages
 the belt can cause slippage
Reverted gear train
Characteristics of reverted gear train
 All the characteristics of the reverted gear train are same as compound
gear train except that the axis of shafts on which first and last gear is
mounted coincides

Reverted gear train diagram

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  Advantages of reverted gear train
1. Small gear ratio is required for large speed reduction.
2. It can obtain higher and lower velocity ratio.
3. Less space required compare to simple gear train.
4. It is possible to achieve input and output shaft axis in a line or
coaxial.
4. Planetary or epicyclical gear train
Characteristics of planetary or epicyclical gear train
 As the name suggests, it is a type of gear train in which at least axis of
one of the participating gear’s shafts rotates with respect to other’s
Advantages of epicyclical gear train
 Compared to conventional gearboxes has smaller dimensions
 Easier to sort through the constant rounds of shot
 greater durability than conventicler bikes in gear
 easy to achieve high transmission ratio due to the size
 they have higher gear ratios
Disadvantages of epicyclical gear train
 more expensive than conventional production of gearboxes
 more complex than conventional transmission

Q2.Write the application of using gear trains?

Answer:
APPLICATIONS:-
a. Gear trains are used in automobiles.
b. Reverted gear trains are used in clock and simple lathe
c. Epicyclical gears are used in transmission, computing devices.
d. Gears are used in different machinery.

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Q.3 Define train value.
Answer: Train value: The value of a gear train is defined as:

Q3. Define differential gear train with applications.

Answer:
A differential is a gear train with three shafts that has the property that the
rotational speed of one shaft is the average of the speeds of the others, or a
fixed multiple of that average.
APPLICATIONS
A differential gear train can be used to allow a difference between two input
axles. Mills often used such gears to apply torque in the required axis.
Differentials are also used in this way in watch making to link two separate
regulating systems with the aim of averaging out errors.

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 EXPERIMENT – 6
AIM: To statically balance a given wheel
THEORY:
A shaft with masses mounted on it can be both statically and dynamically
balanced. If it is statically balanced, it will stay in any angular position without
rotating. If it is dynamically balanced, it can be rotated at any speed without
vibration. It will be shown that if a shaft is dynamically balanced it is
automatically in static balance, but the reverse is not necessarily true.
Static balancing
Figure (1) shows a simple situation where two masses are mounted on a shaft.
If the shaft is to be statically balanced, the moment due to weight of mass (1)
tending to rotate the shaft clockwise must equal that of mass (2) trying to turn
the shaft in the opposite direction. Hence for static balance,

The same principle holds if there are more than two masses mounted on the
shaft, as shown in figure (2).
For static balance,

Figure 1: Simple two mass system

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 Figure 2: Three mass system

In general, values of W, r and a have to be chosen such that the shaft is in

balance. However, in this experiment the product Wr can be measured directly
for each mass and only the angular positions have to be determined for static
balance.
If the angular positions of two of the masses are fixed, the position of the third
can be found either by trigonometry or by drawing. The latter technique uses
the idea that moments can be represented by vectors as shown in figure (3).
The moment vector has a length proportional to the product Wr and is drawn
parallel to the direction of the weight from the center of rotation.

Figure 3: Moment triangle for static balance of three mass system

For static balance the triangle of moment must close and the direction of the
unknown moment is chosen accordingly. If there are more than three masses,
the moment figure is a closed polygon as shown in figure (4). The order in

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which the vectors are drawn does not matter, as indicated by the two
examples on the figures.

Figure 4: Moment polygon for static balance of four mass system

If on drawing the closing vector, its direction is opposite to the assumed
position of that mass, the position of the mass must be reversed for balance.
For example, mass (4) shown in figure (4) must be placed in the position shown
dotted to agree with the direction of vector .

Viva Voice Questions:

1. Write the importance of balancing?

If the moving parts of a machine are not balanced completely up then the
inertia forces are set which may cause excessive noise, vibration, wear and
balancing of tear of the system. So, machine is necessary.

2. Define Static Balancing

The net dynamic force acting on the shaft is equal to zero

It deals only with balancing of dynamic forces.

3. What are the effects of hammer blow and swaying couple?

• The effect of hammer blow is to cause the variation in pressure between the
wheel and the rail, such that vehicle vibrates vigorously.

• The effect of swaying couple is to make the leading wheels sway from side to
side.

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4. Whether grinding wheels are balanced or not? If so, why?

Yes, the grinding wheels are properly balanced by inserting some low-density
materials.
If not, the required surface finish won’t be attained and the vibration will cause
much noise.

EXPERIMENT – 7
To verify gyroscopic law C = I x W x Wp where C is applied couple and Wp is
precession.

THEORY:
One end of open coil spring is fixed to the screw which engages with screwed
hand wheel. The screw can be adjusted vertically in any convenient
GENERALTERMS :
1. AXIS OF SPIN: If a body is revolving about an axis, the latter is known as
axis of spin (Refer Fig.1, where OX is the axis of spin).
2. PRECESSION: Precession means the rotation about the third axis OZ
(Refer Fig. 1) that is perpendicular to both the axis of spin OX and that of
couple OY.
3. AXIS OF PRECESSION: The third axis OZ is perpendicular to both the axis
of spin OX and that of couple OY is known as axis of precession.
4. GYROSCOPIC EFFECT: To a body revolving (or spinning) about an axis say
OX, (Refer Fig.1) if a couple represented by a vector OY perpendicular to
OX is applied, then the body tries to process about an axis OZ which is
perpendicular both to OX and OY. Thus, the couple is mutually
perpendicular.The above combined effect is known as processional or
gyroscopic effect.
5. GYROSCOPE: It is a body while spinning about an axis is free to rotate in
other directions under the action of external forces.

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 Fig. 1- OX – Axis of spin, OY – Axis of Couple, OZ – Axis of Precession

NOMENCLATURE :
dθ Angle of precession
dt Time required for this precessions sec
g Acceleration due to gravity m/sec2
I Moment of inertia of disc kg m /sec2
L Distance of weight for the center of disc m
N Revolution of Disc spin RPM
r Radius of disc m
Tthe Theoretical Gyroscopic couple kg-m
Tact Actual Gyroscopic couple kg-m
M Weight of rotor disc kg
m Weight on pan kg
W Angular velocity of disc rad/sec
Wp Angular velocity of precession of yoke about vertical axis rad/sec

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 FIG2

GYROSCOPIC COUPLE OF A PLANE DISC:

Let a disc of weight ‘M’ having a moment of inertia I be spinning at an angular
velocity w about axis OX in anticlockwise direction viewing from front (Refer
Fig.2). Therefore, the angular momentum of disc is Iw. Applying right–hand
screw rule the sense of vector representing the angular momentum of disc
which is also a vector quantity will be in the direction OX as shown.

Fig. 3

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A couple whose axis is OY perpendicular to OX and is in the plane Z, is now
applied to prices the axis OX.
Let axis OX turn through a small angular displacement from OX to OX’ in time
dt. The couple applied produces a change in the direction of angular velocity,
the magnitude & the magnitude remaining constant. This change is due to the
velocity of precession. Therefore, ‘OX’ represents the angular momentum after
time dt.
Change of angular momentum = OX’ – OX = XX’

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The direction of the couple applied on the body is clockwise when looking in
the direction XX’ and in the limit this is perpendicular to the axis of w and of
wp.
The reaction couple exerted by the body on its frame is equal in magnitude to
that of C, but opposite in direction.
DESCRIPTION:
The set up consists of heavy disc mounted on a horizontal shaft, rotated by a
variable speed motor. The rotor shaft is coupled to a motor mounted on a
trunion frame having bearings in a yoke frame, which is free to rotate about
vertical axis. A weight pan on other side of disc balances the weight of motor.
Rotor disc can be move about three axis. Weight can be applied at a particular
distance from the center of rotor to calculate the applied torque. The
gyroscopic couple can be determined with the help of moment of inertia,
angular speed of disc and angular speed of precession.

RESULT – Gyroscopic law has been verified.

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Questions related to this experiment
Q1. What is gyroscopic effect?
Gyroscopic effect is ability (tendency) of the rotating body to maintain a steady
direction of its axis of rotation. The gyroscopes are rotating with respect to the
axis of symmetry at high speed.
Q2. What are the uses of gyroscope?
Gyroscopes are used in compasses and automatic pilots on ships and aircraft,
in the steering mechanisms of torpedoes, and in the inertial guidance systems
installed in space launch vehicles, ballistic missiles, and orbiting satellites.
Q3. What is meant by gyroscopic couple?
The turning moment which opposes any change of the inclination of the axis of
rotation of a gyroscope is known as gyroscopic couple.
Q4. A disc is a spinning with an angular velocity ω rad/s about the axis of
spin. The expression for the couple applied to the disc causing precession will
be?
Couple C = I X ω X ωp

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Thank you

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