---LABORATORY MANUAL

MECHANISMS OF MACHINES LAB

(ME2409)
 Department of Mechanical Engineering
Maulana Azad National Institute of Technology Bhopal

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

SNO Name of Experiments Page

No
1 To find the speed at which jump phenomenon occurs in the
 Cam Follower System

2 Verification of Gyroscopic couple formula

3 To obtain the Static and Dynamic Balancing on the

experimental apparatus

4 To determine the whiling speed of shaft

5 To study epicylic gear trains and find relation between

output torque and holding torque.
6 To study the effect of coriollis component of acceleration
and find relation between actual and theoretical coriollis
component of acceleration.
7 To study the governors and to obtain controlling force
curve of Watt, Porter, Proell and spring controlled
governors
8 Study of Four bar mechanism with different Inversions.
9 Study of different Clutches
10 Study of Brakes and Dynamometers

Experiment 1

Aim:

To find the speed at which jump phenomenon occurs in the “Cam Follower
System”.

Description:
The cam can be seen as a device that rotates from circular to reciprocating (or
sometimes oscillating) motion. A common example is the camshaft of an
automobile, which takes the rotary motion of the engine and translates it into the
reciprocating motion necessary to operate the intake and exhaust valves of the
cylinders. A cam is a rotating or sliding piece in a mechanical linkage used
especially in transforming rotary motion into linear motion or vice-versa. It is
often a part of a rotating wheel (e.g. an eccentric wheel) or shaft (e.g. a cylinder
with an irregular shape) that strikes a lever at one or more points on its circular
path. The cam can be a simple tooth, as is used to deliver pulses of power to a
steam hammer, for example, or an eccentric disc or other shape that produces a
smooth reciprocating (back and forth) motion in the follower, which is a lever
making contact with the cam.

Cam Analysis Apparatus:

Apparatus is a motorized unit consisting of a camshaft driven by a variable speed

motor. The shaft runs in a double bearing. The free end of the camshaft has a
facility to mount the cam easily.

The follower is properly guided in gunmetal bushes and the type of follower can
be changed according to the cam under test. Graduated circular protractor is
fitted co-axial with the shaft. And a Dial Gauge fitted on the follower shaft is used
to note the follower displacement for the angle of cam rotation. A spring is used
to provide controlling force to the follower system. Weights on the follower shaft
can be adjusted as per the requirement. An arrangement is provided to regulate
the speed. The apparatus is very useful for testing the cam performance for jump
phenomenon during operation. On this apparatus the effect of change of inertia
forces on jump action of cam-follower during operation can be observed. It is
useful for testing various cam & follower pairs. Three cams and three followers
will be supplied with the apparatus. These are already hardened to reduce the
wear.

Figure. Cam analysis apparatus.

Theory:

Classification of cams- They are classified according to:

1. Shape

2. Follower movement

3. Manner of constraint of follower.

According to shape: -
Wedge and flat cams: - A wedge cam has a wedge in general which has
translational motion .The follower can either translate or oscillate. A spring is
used
to maintain contact between the cam and follower. Instead of wedge a flat plate
with a groove is also used.

Radial or Disc cam: - A cam in which the follower moves radially from the center
of rotation of the cam is known as radial or disc cam. It is used due to simplicity
and compactness.

Spiral cam: - A spiral cam is a face cam in which a groove is cut in form of spiral.
The spiral grooves consist of teeth, which mesh with a pin gear follower. The
velocity of the follower is proportional to the radial distance of groove from axis
of cam.
Cylindrical cam: - In this cam a cylinder, which has a circumferential contour, cut
in the surface rotate about it’s axis. These cams are also known as barrel or drum
cams.

Conjugate cam: - Conjugate cams is a double disc cam, two discs being keyed
together and are in constant touch with two rollers of the follower.

Globoidal cam: - A Globoidal cam can have two types of surfaces, convex or
concave. A circumferential contour is cut on the surface of the rotation of cam to
impart motion to the follower that has an oscillatory motion.

Spherical cam:- In this the follower oscillates about an axis perpendicular to the
axis of rotation of the cam.
On the basis of follower movement

Dwell-Rise-Dwell-Return-Dwell (D-R-D-R-D): After a certain dwell period the

follower rises (or returns) to another dwell period. This is the most frequent
cam motion. D-R-D portion of the cam cycle will be followed by a Dwell- Return-
Dwell motion which is analyzed in a similar manner with D-R-R-D

Dwell-Rise-Return (D-R-R): After a certain dwell period the follower rises and
returns to the original motion
Rise-Return (R-R): There is no dwell period. For high speed applications one can
in most cases instead of using cams one can use a slider-crank or any other
mechanism with lower kinematic pairs

Types of cam follower:

On the basis of shape:

(A) The knife edge follower:

This is the simplest type, is not often used due to the rapid rate of wear. When it
is adopted, it is usually for reciprocating motion, running in slides and there is
considerable side thrust, this being a component of the thrust from the cam.

(B) The roller follower:

This eliminates the problem of rapid wear since the sliding effect is largely
replaced by a roller action. Some sliding will still take place due to the varying
peripheral speed of the cam profile, due to the changing radius of the point of
contact. Note also that the radial position of the contact between the cam and
the roller, relative to the follower center, will change according to whether a rise
or fall motion is taken place: this fact has to be considered when constructing the
cam profile. Again, with the roller follower, considerable side thrusts are present,
a disadvantage when dealing with reciprocating motions. This side thrust will be
increased when using small rollers.

(C) Flat or Mushroom Follower. These have the advantage that the only side
thrust is that due to friction between the contact surfaces of cam and follower.
The relative motion is one of sliding but it may be possible to reduce this by
offsetting the axis of the follower as shown in the diagram. This results in the
follower revolving under the influence of the cam.

(D) Flat faced Follower. These are really an example of the mushroom follower
and are used where space is limited. The most obvious example being
automobile engines.

Specifications:

1. CAMS: eccentric, tangent and circular are cam one each.

2. Followers: Flat faced, mushroom and roller followers one each.

3. Push rod assembly with spring and dead weight.

4. Variable speed motors to drive the cams.

5. Angular scale and dial gauge one each.

Experiment Procedure:

1. Fit the required cam over the camshaft and required follower to the push rod.

2. Set angel scale at required position.

3. Adjust the weight seat and dial gauge.

4. Rotate the cam by hand and note down the dial gauge reading at every 30
degree interval.

5. Remove the dial gauge switch on the power supply slowly increase the motor
speed.

6. At particular speed a striking sound is heard. This speed is called jump speed
because at the speed follower does not follow the exact path guided by the can
contour. Note down the speed use of this cam follower system is on this speed
is useless because desired follower motion is not obtained.

7. Repeat the procedure for different dead weight and spring tension
configuration at different cam follower considerations.

Observation Table:

S.No Cam Angle Follower

displacement(mm)

Jump speed: rpm

Dead weight: N

Spring tension:
Precautions:

1. Fix the key and bold for cam tightening properly.

2. While starting the motor insure that the dial gauge has been removed.
Tighten the weight loaded by the check nut.
 EXPERIMENT 2

AIM: To verify the formula for Gyroscopic couple.

GYROSCOPE EFFECT:

A gyroscope is a device for measuring or maintaining orientation, based on

the principles of angular momentum. Mechanically, a gyroscope is a
spinning wheel or disc in which the axle is free to assume any orientation.
Although this orientation does not remain fixed, it changes in response to an
external torque much less and in a different direction than it would with the
large angular momentum associated with the disc's high rate of spin and
moment of inertia. The device's orientation remains nearly fixed, regardless
of the mounting platform's motion, because mounting the device in a
gimbals minimizes external torque.

Fig. Gyroscope

Applications of gyroscopes include inertial navigation systems

where magnetic compasses would not work (as in the Hubble
 telescope) or would not be precise enough (as in ICBMs), or for the
stabilization of flying vehicles like radio-controlled helicopters or
unmanned aerial vehicles. Due to their precision, gyroscopes are
also used in gyrotheodolites to maintain direction in tunnel mining.
GROSCOPIC COUPLE OF PLANE DISC:

Let:

 The line OP in the diagram rotates around O

 Its inclination relative to OX is 

Then if after a short period of time the line has moved to lie along , then the
angle is the Angular Displacement of the line.
Angular Displacement
In order to completely specify angular displacement by a vector, the
vector must fix:-

 The direction of the axis of rotation in space.

 The sense of the angular displacement, i.e., whether
clockwise or anti- clockwise.
 The magnitude of the angular displacement.

In order to fix the vector, it can be drawn at right angles to the plane in
which the angular displacement takes place; say along the axis of rotation,
and its length will be (to a convenient scale) the magnitude of the
displacement.

The conventional way of representing the sense of the vector is to use

the right- hand screw rule, i.e.

The arrow head points along the vector in the same direction as a
right handed screw would move relative to a fixed nut.

Using the above convention, the angular displacement shown in the

diagram would be represented by a vector perpendicular to the plane of
the screen and the arrow head would point away from the screen.
Angular Velocity

Angular Velocity is defined as the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to
time. As angular velocity has both magnitude and direction, it is a vector quantity, and may
be represented in the same way as angular displacement.

 If the direction of the angular displacement vector is constant, i.e.,

the plane of the angular displacement does not change its direction,
then the angular velocity is merely the change in magnitude of the
angular displacement with respect to time.

Angular Acceleration
Angular Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of angular velocity with respect

to time. It is a Vector quantity. The direction of the acceleration vector is not necessarily the
same as the displacement and velocity vectors.
 Assume that at a given instant a disc is spinning with an angular velocity of  in
a plane at right angles to the screen, yo yo and that after a short interval of t its
speed has increased to .

Then applying the right-hand rule:

 The angular velocities at the two instants are represented by the
vectors oa and ob and the change of angular velocity in a time of t is
represented by the Vector ab. This can be resolved into two
components ac and cb which are respectively parallel and
perpendicular to oa.

Hence
 The component parallel to oa is given by T = d/dt
 The component perpendicular to oa is given by
C = d/dt= p

Where:

 p is the rate of change of direction of the vector oa .

 T is the rate of change of the magnitude of velocity  of the disc.
  C is the rate at which the  direction of and therefore the plane
of the rotation of the disc, is changing.
 The total angular acceleration of the disc is the vector sum of T and C.

Two particular cases should be noted:

 If the plane of rotation of the disc is constant in direction,

then p is zero and the component of acceleration C is
zero.
 If the angular acceleration of the disc is constant in
magnitude but the plane of rotation changes direction at the
rate p radians per second, then the angular acceleration of
the disc is given by:

C = d/dt= p

 The direction of this acceleration vector is at right angles

to the angular velocity vector and lies in the plane of
motion of the velocity vector.

Gyroscopic Couple
If a uniform disc of polar moment of inertia  is rotated about its axis with an
angular velocity  , its Angular Momentum is  a vector and can be
represented in diagram (c) by the line up which is drawn in the direction of the axis
of rotation. The sense of the rotation is clockwise when looking in the direction of
the arrow.
 If now the axis of rotation is processing with a uniform angular
velocity p about an axis perpendicular to that of , then after a time
dt the axis of rotation will have turned through an angle d= p dt
and the momentum vector will be oq

The gyroscopic couple= rate of change angular momentum

T= d/dt =p

 The direction of the couple acting on the gyroscope is that of a

clockwise rotation when looking in the direction.

Observations:
S.NO Angle Weight Time(s) RPM rad/s) p(rad/s) Ip Tj

Mass of rotor: kg

Diameter of disc: cm

Radius of disc: cm
Length of load from disc: cm

Mass moment of inertia of disc:

Mean p =

Mean Tj= Error: %

Rule number 1:

1. Thespinning body exert a torque couple in such a direction which tends to

make the excess of spin conside with that of the precession.
2. Tostudy the rule of gyroscope in behaviour following procedure may be
adopted.

3. Balance the initial horizontal position of the rotor.

4. Startthe rotor by increasing the voltage with the day dimmer and
weight it attains constant speed.
5. Process the yoke free number to about vertical axis by applying
necessary for us by hand do the same.

6. It
will be observed that the router frames wings about the horizontal axis
motor side is seen coming up word and the weight and size going
downward.
7. Rotatethe vertical you axis in anticlockwise direction scene from above
and observed that the motor frame sing in the opposite sense.

Rule number 2:
1. The spinning body processes in the such a way as to make the excess
austin consite with that of a couple of light through 90 degree turn axis
2. Balancer position on the horizontal frame.
 3. Start the motor by increasing the voltage with the auto transformer and
wait till the disc attains constant speed.

4. Put weight in the weight box and start the stopwatch to note the time.

5. The vertical yoke processes about axis as per rule number 2.

6. Speedmay be measured by the taco meter provided by control panel enter

the observation in the table
CONCLUSION:
It is found that the equation T= =p is verified

Experiment 3
Aim: To obtain the Static and Dynamic Balancing on the experimental apparatus

Experiment 4
Aim: To determine the whiling speed of shaft
 Experiment 5
Aim: To study epicylic gear trains and find relation between output torque and
holding torque.

ABBREVIATIONS :

Sr No. Symbol Description Unit

1. T1 Tension in tight side Kg

2. T2 Tension in slack side Kg

 3. T3 Holding spring Balance Kg

4. P Motor Power Watt

5. N1 Input Speed Rpm

6. N2 Output Speed Rpm

7. Tm Motor Input Torque Kg – m

8. TH Holding Torque Kg – m

9. TO/P Output torque Kg – m

OBJECTIVE:-
The apparatus has been designed to enable students to measure the various parameters
related to the Epicyclic gear – trains.
The purpose of test machine is to study the following.

 Study of Epicyclic gear – trains.

 To find relation between output torque and the motor and holding toque.

INTRODUCTION :-
Any combination of gear wheels by means of which motion is transmitted from one
shaft to another shaft is called a gear train. In case of Epicyclic gear - trains the axes of
the shafts on which the gears are mounted may move relative to a fixed axis.
Internal Type (Experimentation model) input and output shaft are coaxial.
DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE:

 It consists of a SUN gear mounted on input shaft (IS) of the motor.

 Two planet gears on both side meshed with SUN gear and which also

meshes with the internal teeth of the annular gear. Two planet gears

are mounted on the pins, which are fitted into both ends of the arm.

 The output shaft is connected to the arm on which a drum is fixed.

 The input speed (near the motor) and the output speed (after the gear train) is

measured using RPM sensor.

 The drum is connected to the output shaft and a rope is hanged on it to apply

load.

 The load is applied using spring balance and the weight gauge.

 The holding torque load can be measured on the spring balance connected to

the gear assembly.

 The loads on the holding torque side and the drum side can be increased

using pulley mounted to the required position.

SPECIFICATIONS:
SR
NAME PHOTOGRAPHS SPECIFICATIONS QTY.
NO.

Make : KAVITSU
AUTOMATION
Type : planetary gear
1 Gear box box. 01
Model : l/80/KA-02/4.85
Sr.o. ; 21203581
Ratio : 4.85:1

Make : BAUMER
Model no. :
2 Proxy sensor IGYX12P17B3/S14L 02
Use :sensing rpm of
motor and gear box.

Make : TACHOMETRIC
CONTROLS
Sr. No. :8528.12.20.210
3 MOTOR Power : 1.0 HP 01
Speed : 1500 RPM
I/P Supply : 180 VAC
Current rating : 5.2 A
Use : rotational motion

Make : skf
Model no. : UCP 209 01
ID : 45 mm
Location : near gear box.
4 BEARING Make : skf
Model no. : UCP 203
ID : 17 mm 02
Location : before brake
drum.
 PULLEY/
5 BRAKE Diameter : 240 mm 01
DRUM

Make : SALTER
Type : dial type
WEIGHT Range : 0-10 kg
6 BALANCE Model : 235 6m 01
(tight side) Min : 50 gm
Use : tight side wt.
measurement.

Make : SALTER
SPRING Range : 0-10 kg
7 BALANCE Model : super samsun 01
Min : 50 gm
(slag side) Use : slag side wt.
measurement.

Make : SALTER
SPRING Range : 0-10 kg
8 BALANCE Model : super samsun 01
Min : 50 gm
(holding force) Use : holding force
measurement.

9 ROPE Diameter : 20 mm 01
Length : 500 mm

Make : EEE
CONTROL I/P Voltage : 240 VAC
10 PANEL I/P current : 5A 01
Button: Start, speed
 control.
Fuse : 5 A
RS232 connectivity : yes

Make : MECO Display :

11 VOLTAGE led type Color : red 01
INDICATOR Use: motor voltage

Make : MECO Display :

12 CURRENT led type Color : red 01
INDICATOR Use: motor current

INITIAL START UP PROCEDURE:

1. Ensure that the rope is well connected to both the weighting guage properly.

2. With no load on the brake drum adjust the dial reading to zero using the

knob provided accordingly.

3. Also adjust zero of spring balance connected to slag side and holding force

when no load is applied on the brake drum and gear box respectively.

4. Adjust the holding force spring balance using pulley in such a way that the

center line marked on the holding plate connected to gear box coincides with

the pointer.

5. Now push the start button on the control panel to ON position.(ensure that

the speed control knob is at zero before starting control panel)

 6. Ensure that the RPM sensors are well tightened and glowing light only when

sensing to the bolt (the sensor should not faul with the bolt)

7. Now the machine ready for taking experiment.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

STEP PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS

NO. DESCRIPTION
01. Ensure that machine is ready according to the intial startup procedure.

Switch ON the mains

02.
supply to the control panel.

Now push the start button

03. on the control panel to ON
position.

Adjust the N1 RPM of

Input Shaft to some fixed
value using the speed
04.
control knob On the
display screen
S1-Input
speed S2-
 Output speed

Apply Load at tight side

using pulley connected to
the weight gauge and note
05. down reading as T1 .

Now note down the spring

balance reading seen at the
06. slag side of the rope as
T2 .

Apply holding torque just

07. to hold the drum.
This must be done
carefully.
 Adjust the holding torque
08. at center.

Before adjustment after adjustment

Apply the load T1 slowly

in increasing order as like
09. 1Kg, 2Kg,…..6Kg.

10. Note down the T1, T2, T3, P, N1 & N2 IN observation table.

PRECAUTIONS:

 Before switching the start button, ensure that motor speed control knob
is at zero position
 Keep the mains ‘OFF’ when the trial is complete.
 Increase the speed gradually.
 While closing the test bring the dimmer to zero position and then
switch 'OFF' the motor.

OBSERVATIONS:-
 1) Motor efficiency = 0.8
2) Radius of Gear
box = 0.12 mtr.

3) radius of Brake 0.13 mtr. (Brake drum radius (120 mm)+ rope radius (10 mm)
Drum Pulley =

OBSERVATION TABLE:-

Spring Holding
Sr. Wt. balance Input Output Motor motor Motor
balance Torque
No. reading speed speed voltage Current Power
reading Balance
N1 ( P= V x I
T1 T2 T3 N2 ( RPM) (V) (A)
RPM) (watts)
1
2
3

Motor
TORQUE (kgm)
Input Output Power
speed speed INPUT OUTPUT
Sr. No. HOLDING TORQUE
P= V x I TORQUE TORQUE
(watts)
N1 N2 Th Th
Tin Tout
( RPM) ( RPM) experimental theoretical

1
2
3

CALCULATIONS:-
A) Motor Power in Watts =( motor voltage x motor current ) watts

B) Input Torque Tin =(motor power in watts)/(2X3.14XN) kg.mtr

C) Output Torque Tout =(T1 - T2) X (Pully radius) kg.mtr

D) Experimental Holding Torque Th

Holding Torque Balance(T3) X Radius of Gear Box= kg.mtr

E) Theoretical holding torque Th = output Torque - Input Torque

CONCLUSION:-
Comparison of theoretical and experimental results for torque shows error. It means that efficiency of
experimental set up that we have used is not 100 %. There are some frictional losses and mechanical
losses occur. Various parameters affect the torque results like motor efficiency, frictional losses
occurring between belt and rope drum, spring stiffness used for measurement.

MACHINE TROUBLE SHOOTING:

START-UP
SR.NO. FAULT INVESTIGATION
SEQUENCE

Switching of AC
1. Check AC ON/OFF switch.
1. Switch to AC ON/OFF ON/OFF is not
2. Check MCB is switched on.
performed.

1. Check AC ON/OFF switch.

2. Check that the start button is pressed.
MOTOR ON/OFF
2. MOTOR not ON 4. check condition and wiring of the
switch is ON
ON/OFF switch.
5. check velocity control knob is not at zero.

1. check if proxy sensor is well connected

Input and output speed
3. Motor is on and light is flashing on and off when the
not varing
motor is rotating.
 TOM-06 EPICYCLIC GEAR
EQUIPMENT 23-01-
TRAIN & HOLDING TORQUE DATE :
NAME : 2021
APPARATUS

RESULT SHEET
OBSERVATION :-
1) Motor efficiency = 0.8
2) Radius of Gear
box = 0.12 mtr.
3) radius of Brake 0.13 mtr. (Brake drum radius (120 mm)+ rope radius (10 mm)
Drum Pulley =
OBSERVATION TABLE :-

Spring Holdin
Wt. balanc g
Input Output Motor motor Motor
Sr. No. balance e Torque
speed speed voltage Current Power
reading readin Balanc
g e
N1 P= V x I
T1 T2 T3 N2 ( RPM) (V) (A)
( RPM) (watts)
167.80
1 2 0.75 0.75 1180 235 131.1 1.28 8
2 4 2 1.5 1062 220 124 1.48 183.52
197.23
3 6 3 2.25 1003 205 117.4 1.68 2

CALCULATION :-
A) Motor Power in
Watts :( motor voltage x motor current )
= (131.1 X 1.28) = 167.808 watts

B) Input Torque Tin (motor power in

= watts)/(2X3.14XN) kg.mtr
(167.808 ) / ( 2 x 3.14 x 1180 ) = 0.023 kg.mtr

C) Output Torque To/P = (T1 - T2) X (Pully radius)= kg.mtr

= (2-0.75) X (0.13) = 0.163 kg.mtr

D) Experimental Holding Torque TH = Holding Torque Balance X Radius of Gear Box= kg.mtr
= 0.75 X 0.12 = 0.09 kg.mtr

E)Theoretical holding torque Th

= output Torque - Input Torque
= 0.163 - 0.023 = 0.140 kg.mtr

Motor
TORQUE (kgm)
Power
Input Output
speed speed INPUT
OUTPUT
Sr. No. TORQU HOLDING TORQUE
TORQUE
P= V x I E
(watts) Th
N1 N2 Th
Tin Tout experimenta
( RPM) ( RPM) l theoretical
1 1180 235 167.808 0.023 0.163 0.09 0.140
2 1062 220 183.52 0.028 0.260 0.18 0.232
 3 1003 205 197.232 0.031 0.390 0.29 0.36

conclusion :
Comparison of analytical and experimental results for torque
shows error.It means that efficiency of
experimental set up that we have used is not 100 %.There
are some frictional losses and mechanical losses occurs.
Various parameters affect the torque results like motor
efficiency, frictional losses occurring between belt and rope
drum, spring stiffness used for measurement.
 Experiment 6
Aim: To study the effect of coriollis component of acceleration and find relation
between actual and theoretical coriollis component of acceleration.

ABBREVIATIONS

SR NO. SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNIT

1 N Motor Speed RPM

2 ω Angular Velocity Rad/sec

3 F1 Spring Balance Readings for actual force Kg

4 F2 Spring Balance Readings for frictional force kg

5 T Torque Kg - m

6 Q Flow rate of water LPH

7 V Velocity Of water m /sec

8 a Cross Sectional area of tube m2

 9  Corollie’s Component m / sec2

10 g Acceleration due to gravity m / sec2

11  Density of water Kg/m3

12 L Length of pipe m

OBJECTIVE:-
The apparatus has been designed to enable students to measure the various parameters
comprising the Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration.
The purpose of test machine is to study the following.

 Study of Coriollis component of acceleration.

 To find relation between actual and theoretical Coriollis component of

acceleration.

INTRODUCTION :-

To maintain this acceleration long enough for measurements to be taken the

conventional slider mechanism is replaced by two streams of water flowing radially

outwards from an inverted ‘T’ shaped tube, which is rotated about its vertical axis so

that the water in passing along the tube is subjected to a Coriolli’s Component of

Acceleration.

DESCRIPTION OF MACHINE :-

 The Apparatus is shown in fig. Two MS tubes, projecting radially from a

central Perspex header tube, are rotated by a Permanent Magnet Direct

 Current swinging field motor, mounted vertically in a bearing housing.

 A spring balance attached to a fixed swinging field motor with a fixed

armed length measures the torque supplied by the motor.
 The speed of rotation of the motor is measured by an Electronic RPM
Proximity sensor along with motor speed control unit.
 Water from the pump flows to the header tube through the control valve.
 The water flow rate is shown on the rotameter.
 The water leaving the radial tubes returns to the pump via drain valve.
 The splash tank and all the accessories are mounted on a fabricated steel
frame.

THEORY :-
A B’
r’
B r” r + r B


Fig.3 (a) Fig. 3 (b)

b’ b
r’s
r’

μ
 a
a ωr
ω(r + r) 
ω
 Fig. 3 (c) 0

Consider the motion of the slider B on the crank OA. Let OA rotate with constant
angular velocity rad/sec., and slider B have a velocity V radially outwards relative to
the crank center O. The velocity diagram for the slider in two positions separated by
angular displacement , See fig. 3(a) & 3 (b)
On the same diagram  represents the resultant change of velocity of the slider. This velocity has two
components  and  in the radial and tangential directions respectively.
Tangential Components =  = S + S
= Vsin  + ( w ( r + r) )

= V  + r---------------------------------(1)

Rate of change of tangential velocity = V t +  r /t

= V + V = 2V--------------------(2)

Equation (2) represents the Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration. This acceleration is

made up of two components, one due to the increase of the radius and the other from
the changing direction of the crank.

HYDRAULIC ANALOGY:

ω r’

r r

Consider dia. of short column of the fluid of length r at distance r from the axis of
rotation of the tube, as shown in Fig.

Then if the velocity of the fluid relative to the tube is V and the angular velocity of the
tube is , the Coriolli’s component of acceleration of the column is 2V in a direction
perpendicular to, and in the plane of rotation of the tube.
The torque T applied by the tube to produce this acceleration is then

T = ----- 2Vr-----------(3)
g

Where,  is the weight of the short column of fluid. If ‘’ is the specific
weight of the fluid and ‘ a’ is the cross-section area of the tube outlet, then
  =  a r-------------------------(4)

Substituting eqn 4 in eqn 3


 T = 2Vr------a r
g

And the complete torque applied to a column of length “L” is given by

T = 0ʃL 2.V.. .a. r.r

---
g

T = (V )------a L2
g

 -------
T = Ca --- a L2 Ca=2V from eqn 2
2g

Or Coriolli’s Component of acceleration

2g T
Ca = -------------

Where,  a L2
 g = 9.81 m / sec2
T = Torque measured at the motor in (Kg – m)

= Radius of rotation x(spring balance reading with Water – spring balance

reading without water)

ω = Angular velocity = 2  N / 60 ( rad / sec) a

= Cross sectional area of tube in (m2)
L = Length of tube in (m)
ELECTRICAL SPECIFICATIONS:
SR
NAME PHOTOGRAPHS SPECIFICATIONS QTY.
NO.

Make : EEE
I/P Voltage : 240 VAC
CONTROL I/P current : 5A
1 01
PANEL Button: mains, Start, speed
control.
Fuse : 5 A

Make : SCIENTIFIC
DEVICES
2 ROTAMETER
Model no.: SDE33F12 01
Range : 0-2500 LPH
Connection : 1” BSP (F)
Use : flow rate of water

Make : KIRLOSKAR
BROTHERS LTD.
Sr. No. : D21YX066795
Model : jalraj ultra
3 PUMP Power : 0.5 HP 01
Head : 6 to 26 mtr.
Speed : 2700 RPM
I/P Supply : 220 VAC
Use : water pumping
 Make : TACHOMETRIC
CONTROLS
Sr. No. :8544.12.20.211
4 MOTOR Power : 0.5 HP 01
Speed : 1500 RPM
I/P Supply : 220 VAC
Current rating : 2.6 A
Use : rotational motion

BALL VALVE
5 Make: starina series 02
Size : 1”
Use : bypass and drain

6 01
BELT Type : v-shaped belt
Model no. : A900
LP/A34

SPRING
7 BALANCE Make : SALTER 01
Range : 50g-10 kg

8 PULLEY 02
Driver pulley dia : 3”
Driven pulley dia : 6”
9 PROXIMITY Make : BAUMER 01
SENSOR Model no. :
IGYX12P17B3/S14L

10 BEARING 01
Make : NTN
Model no. : YET 203

INITIAL START UP PROCEDURE :

STEP PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS

NO. DESCRIPTION

Fill the splash tank with

01. clean water from the open
slot in the centre of the
acrylic cover.
 02. Make sure that the silicon
tube is inside the header tube.

Tube outside tube inside

Header tube header tube

03. Ensure that flow control and

drain valve are fully open.

Open position of valves

Now connect the spring

04. balance to the motor using
connecting hooks. Ensure
that the spring balance
reading is on the upper side.

Now adjust the spring

balance zero position by
rotating the knob of spring
05. balance. While adjusting
zero ensure that the motor
and spring balance are
perpendicular to each other.
 Once the perpendicularity
06. and zero reading is achieved
tight the adjustable knob.

NOW THE MACHINE IS READY FOR TAKING EXPERIMENTS.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE :-

STEP PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPHS

NO. DESCRIPTION
01. Ensure that machine is ready according to the intial startup procedure.

Switch the MAINS to

02.
ON position.

Now push the start

03. button on the control
panel to ON position.

After switching the

main switch, with the
04. help of drive increase
the speed of Motor
up to some certain
speed (say 200 rpm).
 Take the readings on
the
05. a.Spring balance for
initial torque.
b.R.P.M. Indicator
for speed
of the shaft. Spring balance

Now start the water

06. pump using the toggle
switch located at the
back of the control
panel.

With the help of flow

control valve adjust
07. water level constant
(any level) in the
vertical header tube so
that water does not
overflow through
central glass tube.
08. Now adjust the speed
to its Previous
value(200 rpm)

Take the readings on

the
a.Spring balance for
final torque.
09. b.Rotameter for L.P.H.
c.R.P.M. Indicator
for speed of the Spring balance rotameter
shaft.

speed

Now switch off the

10. water pump and by
drive adjust
 Repeat the procedure by varying the speed of shaft and take the readings.
11.

PRECAUTIONS:

 Before switching the start button, ensure that the pump toggle switch is
in OFF position.
 Also ensure that the flow control valve and the drain valve are
fully open before starting pump.
 Ensure that the motor speed control knob is at zero position.
 Keep the mains ‘OFF’ when the trial is complete.
 Increase the speed gradually.
 While closing the test bring the dimmer to zero position and then
switch 'OFF' the motor.
OBSERVATIONS:-
• Length of rotating 266 mm 0.266 mtr
arms =
• Outer diameter of tube (do) = 10 mm 0.01 mtr
• Cross section area of tube (A) 0.000078 mtr^2
5
• Distance of spring balance = 80 mm 0.08 mtr
From center of motor
(X)
∏ = 3.14
Density of water = 1000 Kg/
m^3
Length of pipe = 335 mm 0.335 mtr
acceleration due to 9.81 mtr/sec^2
gravity=
Where, Speed ratio between
pipe&motor =2
 OBSERVATION TABLE:-
Speed Spring balance reading Water flow
Sr.no
(RPM) (kg) (LPH)
Initial (F1) Final (F2)

CALCULATIONS:-
SAMPLE READING

Theoretical corollie’s component of acceleration in m / sec2

 V = Velocity of Water in m
/ sec V = Q / A
Where,

Q = Flow rate of Water in LPH

A = Cross Sectional area of tube = ( / 4) x d2 m2

ω = Angular velocity in rad/ sec

ω =2  N/60

 = Corollie’s Component (Theoretical) in m / sec2

=2xVxω

Experimental corollie’s component of acceleration in m /sec2

Force = Final force – initial force in kg

F = F2 – F1

T = Torque to Accelerate the water in Kg – m

T = (F2 – F1) x X

Actual Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration in m / sec2

2g T
=
 x a x L2
Where,

 = Density of water = 1000 Kg/m3

L = Length of pipe = 0.335 m
a = Pipe Cross Section area = 4.7 x 10-5 m2
g = 9.81 m / sec2

RESULT:-
These two values were found to agree reasonably well and particularly at low
angular velocities. Sources of error may arise from inaccuracies in the
measurements of the water flow rate and the motor torque.

MACHINE TROUBLE SHOOTING:

START-UP
SR.NO. FAULT INVESTIGATION
SEQUENCE

Switching of AC
1. Check AC ON/OFF switch.
1. Switch to AC ON/OFF ON/OFF is not
2. Check main FUSE is ok.
performed.

1.Check AC ON/OFF switch.

3. Check that the start button is pressed.
MOTOR ON/OFF
2. MOTOR not ON 4. check condition and wiring of the
switch is ON
ON/OFF switch.
5. check velocity control knob is not at zero.
 1.check if proxy sensor is well connected
Cycle count/motor speed
3. Motor is on and light is flashing on and off when the
not seen
motor is rotating.

1. ensure the pump toggle switch is in ON

Water not pumping in position.
4. Pump on
the splash tank. 2. check that the flow control valve and
drain are not fully closed.

EQUIPMENT
TOM-06 CORIOLLI’S COMPONENT OF ACCELERATION DATE : 23-01-2021
NAME :

RESULT SHEET
CORIOLLI’S COMPONENT OF ACCELERATION
OBSERVATION :

• Length of rotating tubes = 266 mm 0.266 mtr

• Outer diameter of tube (d) = 10 mm 0.01 mtr
• Cross section area of tube (A) 0.0000785 mtr^2
• Distance of spring balance = 80 mm 0.08 mtr
From center of motor (X)
∏ = 3.14
Density of water (ƍ) = 1000 Kg/m^3
Length of pipe(L) = 335 mm 0.335 mtr
acceleration due to gravity= 9.81 mtr/sec^2
Where, Speed ratio between pipe&motor =2
OBSERVATION TABLE :

Spring Balance
Angular
Readings in kg Torque Flow rate of Velocity
Speed Velocity Coriollies Cmponents of
In water Of water in
In r.p.m. In Final acceleration in m/sec^2
Initial Kg - m In LPH m /sec
Rad/sec force
force (F1)
(F2)
N ω F1 F2 T Q V Theo. Experimental
300 31.4 0.6 2 0.112 1500 5.308 333.33 249.44
 175 18.31667 0.5 1.2 0.056 1250 4.423 162.04 124.72
148 15.49067 0.5 1 0.04 1000 3.539 109.63 89.08
116 12.14133 0.35 0.6 0.02 900 3.185 77.33 44.54

CALCULATIONS:-
SAMPLE READING:
Calculations for Theoretical Corollie’s component of acceleration

•Velocity of Water (V) in m / sec

V= Q / (A x 3600 x1000) = 1500/(0.785 x 10˄-4 x3600 x 1000)
V= 5.307856 mtr/sec^2 Where,
Q = Flow rate of Water in LPH
A = Cross Sectional area of tube = (∏ / 4) x d^2 m^2

•Angular velocity (w)in rad / sec

ω = (2 x∏x N)/60
ω= 31.4 m / sec

• Corollie’s Component (Theoretical) (v)in m / sec2

v= 2xVxω
v= 333.3333 m / sec^2

Calculations for Actual Corollie’s component of acceleration

Force = Actual force – Frictional force in kg
F = F2 – F1
F= 1.4 Kg

•Torque to Accelerate the water(T) in Kg – m

T = ((F2 - F1)x X ) = (2-1) x 0.08
0.112 kg-m

•Actual Coriolli’s Component of Acceleration in m / sec2

V = 2gT 2 x 9.81 x 0.112

= 1000 x 0.0000785 x
ρ x a x L² (0.335)²

V = 249.4352 mtr/sec^2(Act.)

Experiment 7
Aim: To study the governors and to obtain controlling force curve of Watt,
Porter, Proell and spring controlled governors

ABBREVIATIONS USED :

SR NO. SYMBOL DESCRIPTION UNIT

01 L Length of each link mtr

02 Lv Length of vertical in Hartnell mtr

03 Lh Length of the horizontal in Hartnell mtr

04 h0 Initial height of governor mtr

05 r0 Initial radius of rotation mtr

06 Wb Weight of each ball Kg

 07 Ws Weight of sleeve Kg

Distance between pivot & center of

08 a mtr
sleeve

09 X Sleeve Displacement mtr

10 N Speed of Rotation rpm

11 r Radius of rotation mtr

12  Angular velocity rad / sec

13 FC Centrifugal Force kg

14  Angle of inclination of the arm degree

OBJECTIVE :-
To study different types of governors & to determine the centrifugal force for
various loads on each governor.
INTRODUCTION :-
The function of a governor is to regulate the mean speed of an engine, when there are

variations in loads e.g. when load on an engine increase or decrease, obviously its

speed will, respectively decrease or increase to the extent of variation of load. This

variation of speed has to be controlled by the governor, within small limits of mean

speed. This necessitates that when the load increase and consequently the speed

decreases, the supply of fuel to the engine has to be increased accordingly to

compensate for the loss of the speed, so as to bring back the speed to the mean speed.

Conversely, when the load decreases and speed increases, the supply of fuel has to be

reduced.
The function of the governor is to maintain the speed of an engine within specific

limit whenever there is a variation of load. The governor should have its mechanism

working in such a way, that the supply of fuel is automatically regulated according to

the load requirement for maintaining approximately a constant speed. This is

achieved by the principle of centrifugal force. The centrifugal type governors are

based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the rotating balls by an equal and

opposite radial force, known as the controlling force.

Governors are broadly classified as:

a) Centrifugal Governors.

b) Inertia Governors.

The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal force on the

rotating balls by an equal and opposite radial force, known as controlling force.

In Inertia governors the position of the balls are affected by the forces set by an

angular acceleration or deceleration of the given spindle in addition to centrifugal

forces on the balls.

EXPERIMENTATION :
 Determination of characteristics of sleeve position against controlling
force and speed.
 Plotting of characteristic of radius of rotation against force.
 Obtaining the graph of governor speed V/s sleeve displacement.
 Obtaining the governor characteristics i.e. the graph of controlling force
v/s radius of the ball center.
DESCRIPTION OF UNIT :
 The drive unit consists of a small electric motor connected through 'Timer'

belt to drive shaft.

  Motor and main shaft are mounted on a rigid M.S. Base plate in vertical

fashion.

 The spindle is supported in ball bearings. The optional governor mechanism

can be mounted on spindle.

 Precise speed control is afforded by the speed control unit and counter hole

over the spindle shaft and the speed is directly indicated on control unit

screen.

 A graduated scale is fixed to the sleeve and guided in vertical direction.

 The apparatus is designed to exhibit the characteristics of the spring-loaded

governor and dead weight governor.

 The center sleeve of the porter and Proell governors incorporates a weight

sleeve to which weights may be added.

 The Hartnell Governor provided means of varying spring rate and initial

compression level and mass of rotating weight. This enables the Hartnell

Governor, to be operated as a stable or unstable governor.

EXPERIMENTAL THEORY :
1. PORTER GOVERNOR :

In case of porter governor, a central heavy load is attached to the sleeve.

The central load and sleeve moves up & down the spindle. This additional down

word force increase the speed of revolution required to enable the balls to rise to
 any predetermine level.

Fig. no. 1 Porter governor

The optional governor mechanism can be mounted on spindle. The speed control unit
controls the precise speed and speed of the shaft is measured with the help of RPM
Sensor.

2. PROELL GOVERNOR :

Proell governor is similar to the porter governor having a heavy central

load at sleeve. But it differs from porter governor in the arrangement of balls.

The balls are carried on the extension of the lower arms instead of at the

junction of upper and lower arms. The center sleeve of the Porter and Proell

governors incorporates a weight sleeve to which weights can be added.

 Fig. no. 2 Proell governor

In the Proell Governor, with the use of flyweights (Forming full ball) the
governor becomes highly sensitive. Under these conditions large sleeve
displacement is observed for very small change in speed. In order to make it
suitable, it is necessary to carry out the experiments by using half ball flyweight
on each side.

3. HARTNELL GOVERNOR :
 A Hartnell governor is a spring loaded governor as shown in figure. It

consists of two bell crank levers pivoted at the points O, O to the frame. The

frame is attached to the governor spindle and therefore rotates with it.

Fig. no. 3 Hartnell governor

Each lever carries a ball at the end of the vertical arm and a roller at the

end of the horizontal arm. A helical spring in compression provides equal

downward forces on the two rollers through a collar on the sleeve.

SPECIFICATIONS:-
SR NO. NAME PHOTOGRAPH SPECIFICATIONS QTY.
Make : EEE
Control Display,
01 01
Panel (mains, start & speed
control) Knob.

Power Make: POLYCAB

02 01
Cable Length: 1mtr.
 Make: BAUMER
Model:
Proximity IGYX12P17B3/S14L
03 01
Sensor M – 12, PNP/NO,
Max load – 300 mA,
10 – 30VDC.
Make :
TACHOMETRIC
CONTROLS
PMDC motor,
04 Motor 01
Model-TM-90, 1/4th
HP, 1500rpm,
0 – 180 VDC,1.25A
Sr.No. : 8575.12.20.209

Graduated
05 RANGE : 0-80 mm 01
Scale

06 Glass Fuse - 630 mA & 2A 02

07 Weight set Weight : 0.5 Kg 04

Porter Governor 01

08 Governor

Proell Governor 01
 Hartnell Governor 01
ɸ =2mm, L=145mm 01

09 Springs
ɸ =3mm, L=145mm 01
ɸ =4mm, L=145mm 01

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE :-
The governor mechanism under test is fitted with the chosen rotating
weights and spring, where applicable and inserted into the drive unit. The
following procedure may then be followed for Proell & Porter governors:
STEP
PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPH
NO.

Arrange the set up as a porter or Proell

governor. This can be done By placing the
01. long & short sleeve on the vertical spindle
of the governor.

Coincide the link with the bracket on the

02. aluminum sleeve and fix it with the help of
screw driver provided.
 To add the desired weight, Lift the governor
03.
in upward direction.

04. Slide the desired weight through the sleeve

and put the governor to its initial position.

After arranging the desired governor, put

05. given spacers & tighten the knob at the top
as shown in figure.

Give supply to control unit & switch ON

06. the unit by pressing the MAINS.
 Push the Start button as the display gives
07. the command to press START.

Increase the governor speed slowly, until

the center sleeve rises off the lower stop &
reaches the desired level on the graduated
08. scale.
(Do not increase the speed rapidly as the
pointer may hit the stopper on the scale.)

Note the various displacements from the

09. graduated scale and respective speed of
governor from the display of control unit.

Repeat the procedure from step no. 3 to 9 by varying the load (weight). The
10.
result may be plotted as curves of speed against sleeve position.

The following procedure may then be followed for Hartnell governors:

STEP
PROCEDURE PHOTOGRAPH
NO.

Arrange the set up for Hartnell governor.

This can be done By removing the long &
01. short sleeve on the vertical spindle of the
governor.

Insert the lower spring guide and then

02.
desired spring in the sleeve.

03. Now, to apply compressive load tighten

the spring stopper.

04. Fix the Hartnell unit by the spacer and

knob provided.
05. Give supply to control unit & switch ON
the unit by pressing the MAINS.

06. Push the Start button as the display gives

the command to press START.

Increase the governor speed slowly, until

the center sleeve rises off the lower stop &
reaches the desired level on the graduated
07. scale.
(Do not increase the speed rapidly as the
pointer may hit the stopper on the scale.)

Note the various displacements from the

08. graduated scale and respective speed of
governor from the display of control unit.

Repeat the procedure from step no. 2 to 9 for different springs. The result may
09.
be plotted as curves of speed against sleeve position.
PRECAUTIONS:
 Keep the mains ‘OFF’ when the trial is complete.
 Increase the speed gradually.
 Take the sleeve displacement reading when the pointer remains steady.
 See that at higher speed the load on sleeve does not hit the upper sleeve of
the governor.
 While closing the test bring the dimmer to zero position and then switch
'OFF' the motor.

EXPERIMENT NO. 1 - PORTER GOVERNOR

OBSERVATION:

DESCRIPTION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT

Length of each link L mtr
Initial height of governor h0 mtr
Initial radius of rotation r0 mtr
Weight of each ball Wb kg
Weight of sleeve Ws kg
Distance between pivot & center of sleeve a mtr

Go on increasing the speed gradually and take the readings of speed of rotation 'N'
and corresponding sleeve displacement 'X', radius of rotation 'r,' at any position.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. N (rpm) X (mm) W (Kg)
1
2
3
4
5

Where,
X = Sleeve Displacement in mm
N = Speed of Governor in RPM
 = Angular velocity in rad / sec
 FC =Centrifugal Force in kg.
W = weight of each ball in Kg
r = Radius of rotation in mm

CALCULATIONS:

 h = Height of the Governor in meter

h = ho - x/2

  = Angle of inclination of the arm (or upper link) to the

vertical Cos  = h / L = (ho - x/2) / L

 r = Radius of Rotation in
meter
r = 50 + L Sin  or 

  = Angular Velocity in rad /sec

 = (2  N) /60

 Fc = Centrifugal force in Kg
Fc= (Wb) 2 x r

GRAPHS:

 Force V/s radius of

rotation.
 Speed V/s sleeve
displacement
 EXPERIMENT NO. 2 – PORELL GOVERNOR
OBSERVATION:

DESCRIPTION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT

Length of each link L mtr
Initial height of governor h0 mtr
Initial radius of rotation r0 mtr
Weight of each ball Wb kg
Weight of sleeve Ws kg
Distance between pivot & center of sleeve a mtr
Go on increasing the speed gradually and take the readings of speed of
rotation 'N' and corresponding sleeve displacement 'X' complete the following
table draws the following graphs.
 Speed Vs sleeve displacement ‘X’.
 Then for any displacement 'X' of the sleeve it is possible to find 'r' and
'N'. Force 'F' be found by knowing 'r' and 'N'
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sr. No. N (rpm) X (mm) W (Kg)

1
2
3

Where,
x = Sleeve Displacement in mm
N = Speed of Governor in RPM
 = Angular velocity in rad / sec
FC = Centrifugal Force in kg.
W = Weight of each ball in Kg
r = Radius of rotation in mm

CALCULATIONS:

 h = Height of the Governor in meter

h = ho - x/2

  = Angle of inclination of the arm (or upper link) to the

vertical Cos  = h / L = (ho - x/2) / L
  r = Radius of Rotation in meter
r = 50 + L Sin  or 

  = Angular Velocity in rad /sec

 = (2  N) /60

 Fc = Centrifugal force in Kg
Fc= (Wb) 2 x r

GRAPH :
Force V/s radius of rotation.

Speed V/s sleeve displacement

EXPERIMENT NO. 3 - HARTNELL GOVERNOR

OBSERVATIONS:
DESCRIPTION SYMBOL VALUE UNIT
Length of vertical Lv mtr
Length of the horizontal Lh mtr
Initial radius of rotation r0 mtr
Weight of each ball Wb kg
Free height of spring hs mtr
 Weight of sleeve W kg
Measure initial compression of the spring. Go on increasing the
speed gradually and take the readings of speed of rotation ‘N’ and
corresponding sleeve displacement 'x' radius of rotation r at any position could
be found as follows:
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. No. N (rpm) X (mm) W (Kg)
1
2
3
4
5

Where,
x = Sleeve Displacement in mm
N = Speed of Governor in RPM
 = Angular velocity in rad / sec
FC = Centrifugal Force in kg.
W = Weight of each ball in Kg
r = Radius of rotation in mm

CALCULATIONS:-

 r = Radius of Rotation in
meter r = ro + x (a) / (b).

  = Angular Velocity in rad /sec

 = (2  N) /60

 Fc = Centrifugal force in Kg
Fc= (Wb) 2 x r

GRAPHS :
 Force V/s radius of rotation.
 Speed V/s sleeve displacement
 MACHINE TROUBLE SHOOTING:

START-UP
SR.NO. FAULT INVESTIGATION
SEQUENCE

Switching of AC
1. Check AC ON/OFF switch.
1. Switch to AC ON/OFF ON/OFF is not
2. Check main FUSE is ok.
performed.

1.Check AC ON/OFF switch.

3. Check that the start button is pressed.
MOTOR ON/OFF
2. MOTOR not ON 4. check condition and wiring of the
switch is ON
ON/OFF switch.
5. check velocity control knob is not at zero.

1.check if proxy sensor is well connected

Cycle count/motor speed
3. Motor is on and light is flashing on and off when the
not seen
motor is rotating.

EQUIPMEN UNIVERSAL GOVERNOR

DATE : 23-01-2021
T NAME : APPARATUS

RESULT SHEET

PORTER GOVERNOR

OBSERVATIONS:

1) Length of each link L= 125 mm 0.125 mtr

2) Initial height of governor for h0 = 62 mm 0.062 mtr
Wa=0.5 kg

Initial height of governor for h0 = 37 mm 0.037 mtr

Wa=1 kg

3) Initial radius of rotation r0 = 137.5 mm 0.1375 mtr

4) Weight of each ball Wb = 0.7 Kg

5) Weight of sleeve Ws = 0.5 Kg

6) distance between pivot

& center of sleeve
a= 50 mm 0.05 mtr

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

initial height of governor (h0) = 0.062 mtr

Sr. N X Wa
No. (RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 185 0.062
2 175 0.048
0.5
3 166 0.033
4 152 0.011

initial height of governor (h0) = 0.037 mtr

Sr. N X Wa
No. (RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 185 0.037
2 165 0.027
1
3 155 0.011
4 150 0.002

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS :-

N
Sr. No. X (mtr) Wa (Kg)
(RPM)
2 175 0.048 0.5

1)Weightof each ball,Wb

0.7
= 0.7 Kg
2) Height of the
Governor,h = h0 - X/2

0.062-(0.048/2) 0.038 mtr

3) Angle of inclination, α
= cos α = h/L = (h0 - X/2)/L

cos α = h/L = (0.038/0.125) 72.29 °

4) Radius of rotation, r a + L sin

= α

0.050 +( 0.125× Sin 72.29) 0.1691 mtr

5) Angular velocity, ω
= (2 × π × N) / 60

(2 × 3.14 × 175)/60 18.32 rad/sec

6) Centrifugal force, Fc
= (Wb) × ω² × r

0.7× 18.32^2× 0.1691 39.71 kg

RESULT :-

Height
Weight Angle of Radius
of Angular Centrifug
Sr. speed of each inclinatio of
Governo velocity al force
No. ball n rotation
r
N Wb h α r ω Fc
(RPM
) Kg mtr ° mtr rad/sec Kg
1 185 0.031 75.63 0.1711 19.36 44.91
2 175 0.038 72.29 0.1691 18.32 39.71
0.7
3 166 0.046 68.65 0.1664 17.37 35.17
4 152 0.057 63.12 0.1615 15.91 28.61
5 185 0.019 81.48 0.1736 19.36 45.57
6 165 0.024 79.15 0.1728 17.27 36.07
0.7
7 155 0.032 75.39 0.1710 16.22 31.50
8 150 0.036 73.25 0.1697 15.70 29.28
 PROELL GOVERNOR

OBSERVATION :-

1) Length of each link (L)

= 125 mm 0.125 mtr

2) Initial height of governor (h0) for

Wa=0.5 65 mm 0.065 mtr
Initial height of governor (h0) for Wa=1 52 mm 0.052 mtr

3) Initial radius of rotation (r0) = 145 mm 0.145 mtr

4) Weight of each ball

0.350+0.350
(Wb) = 0.7 Kg

5) Weight of sleeve (Ws) = 0.5 Kg

6) distance of Pivot and centre of sleeve

(a) 50 mm 0.05 mtr

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

initial height of governor (h0) = 0.065 mtr

Sr. N X Wa
No. (RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 120 0.065 0.5
2 115 0.042 0.5
3 100 0.03 0.5
4 90 0.015 0.5

initial height of governor (h0) = 0.052 mtr

Sr. N X Wa
 No. (RPM) (mtr) (Kg)
1 130 0.052 1
2 125 0.04 1
3 110 0.009 1
4 106 0.002 1

SAMPLE CALCULATIONS :-

N
Sr. No. (RPM) X (mtr) Wa (Kg)
2 115 0.042 0.5

1)Weightof each ball,Wb

0.7
= 0.7 Kg

2) Height of the Governor h = h0 - X/2 in mm

h = 0.065-(0.042/2)= 0.044 mtr

3) Angle of inclination, α
= cosα = h/L = (h0 - X/2)/L

cosα = h/L = (0.044/0.125)= 69.38

4) Radius of rotation, r = 0.050 + L sinα in mm

0.050 +( 0.125× Sin 69.38) = 0.1670 mtr

5) Angular velocity,ω = (2 ×π ×N) / 60

(2 ×3.14×115)/60 = 12.04 rad/sec

6) Centrifugal force, Fc = (Wb) × ω² × r in Kg

0.7 ×12.04^2 ×0.1670 16.94 Kg

RESULT :-

Sr. speed Weight

Height of Angle of Radius Angular Centrifug
 of
of each
inclinatio rotatio
ball
Governor n n velocity al force
No. N Wb h α r w Fc
(RPM
) Kg mtr mtr rad/sec Kg
1 120 0.0325 74.92 0.1707 12.56 18.85
2 115 0.044 69.38 0.1670 12.04 16.94
0.7
3 100 0.05 66.41 0.1646 10.47 12.62
4 90 0.0575 62.60 0.1610 9.42 10.00
5 130 0.026 77.98 0.1723 13.61 22.33
6 125 0.032 75.16 0.1708 13.08 20.47
0.7
7 110 0.0475 67.66 0.1656 11.51 15.37
8 106 0.051 65.91 0.1641 11.09 14.14

HARTNELL GOVERNOR

OBSERVATION :-

1) Length of vertical(Lv) = 75 mm 0.075 mtr

2) Length of the horizontal(Lh) = 122 mm 0.122 mtr

3) Initial radius of rotation (r0) = 170 mm 0.17 mtr

4) Weight of each ball (Wb) = 0.7 Kg

5) Free height of spring = 145 mm 0.145 mtr

6) Weight of sleeve (W) = 0.5 Kg

OBSERVATION TABLE :-

For Spring of Wire Diameter 2 mm

N
(RPM
Sr. No. ) X (mtr)
1 260 0.036
 2 230 0.031
3 180 0.028

Where
For Spring of Wire Diameter 3 mm ,
1) X = Sleeve displacement in mtr.
N
(RPM
Sr. No. ) X (mtr) 2) N = Speed of govrnor in RPM.
1 260 0.03 3) ω = Angular velocity in rad/sec.
4) Fc = Centrifugal force in
2 220 0.025 Kg.
5) W =Weight of sleeve in
3 185 0.006 Kg.
6) r = Radius of rotation in
mtr.
For Spring of Wire Diameter 4 mm

N
(RPM
Sr. No. ) X (mtr)
1 400 0.024
2 340 0.022
3 280 0.003

SAMPLE CALCULATION FOR READING 1 :-

r0 + (X
1) Radius of rotation, r in mtr. = ×(Lv/Lh))

0.170 0.192
+(0.036×(0.075/0.122)) = 1 mtr

2) Angular velocity,w in rad/sec = (2 × π × N) / 60

(2 × 3.14 × rad/
260)/60 = 27.21 sec

3) Centrifugal force, Fc in kg = (Wb) × ω² × r

0.7 × 27.21² 99.60 Kg

 ×0.1921 =

RESULT :-

Radiu Angul
s of ar Centrifu
Sr. No. speed
displacem rotati velocit gal force
ent on y
N X r w Fc
(RP rad/
mtr Kg
M) mtr sec
For Spring of Wire
Diameter 2 mm
1 260 0.036 0.1921 27.21 99.60
2 230 0.031 0.1891 24.07 76.69
3 180 0.028 0.1872 18.84 46.52
For Spring of Wire
Diameter 3 mm
1 260 0.03 0.1884 27.21 97.69
2 220 0.025 0.1854 23.03 68.80
3 185 0.006 0.1737 19.36 45.59
For Spring of Wire
Diameter 4 mm
1 400 0.024 0.1848 41.87 226.69
2 340 0.022 0.1835 35.59 162.69
3 280 0.003 0.1718 29.31 103.32
 Experiment:8
AIM: Study of Four bar mechanism with different Inversions.

Theory-
A four bar link mechanism or linkage is the most fundamental of the plane
kinematics linkages. It is a much preferred mechanical device for the
mechanization and control of motion due to its simplicity and versatility.
Basically it consists of four rigid links which are connected in the form of a
quadrilateral by four pin joints. A link that makes complete revolutions is the
crank, the link opposite to the fixed link is the coupler and the fourth link a
lever or rocker if oscillates or an another crank, if rotate. By fixing the link.

Inversions of Four Bar Chain

1 . Beam engine ( crank and lever mechanism) .

A part of the mechanism of a beam engine (also known ascrank and lever
mechanism) which consists of four links,. In this mechanism, when the
crankrotates about the fixed centreA, the lever oscillates abouta fixed centreD.
The end E of the lever CDE is connected to a piston rod which reciprocates due
to therotation of the crank. In other words, the purpose of thismechanism is to
convert rotary motion into reciprocatingmotion.
 2.Coupling rod of a locomotive (Double crank mechanism).
The mechanism of a coupling rod of a locomotive (also known as
double crank mechanism) which consists of four links.

In this mechanism, the links 2 and4 (having equal length) act as cranks
and are connected to the respective wheels. The link CD acts as a coupling rod
and the link A B is fixed in order to maintain a constant centre to centre
distance between them. This mechanism is meant for transmitting rotary
motion from one wheel to the other wheel.

3. Watt’ s indicator mechanism ( Double lever mechanism). A *Watt’s

indicator mechanism (also known as Watt's straight line mechanism or double
lever mechanism) which consists of four

Single Slider Crank Chain

A single slider crank chain is a modification of the basic four bar chain. It
consist of one sliding pair and three turning pairs. It is, usually, found in
reciprocating steam engine mechanism.
This type of mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice
versa.

In a single slider crank chain, as shown in Fig. the links 1 and 2, links 2 and 3,
and links 3 and 4 form three turning pairs while the links 4 and 1 form a
sliding pair.

The link 1 corresponds to the frame of the engine, which is fixed. The
link 2 corresponds to the crank ; link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod
and link 4 corresponds to cross-head. As the crank rotates, the cross-head
reciprocates in the guides and thus the piston reciprocates in the cylinder.

Inversions of Single Slider Crank Chain

We have seen in the previous article that a single slider crank chain is a
four-link mechanism.

We know that by fixing, in turn, different links in a kinematic chain, an

inversion is obtained and we can obtain as many mechanisms as the links in a
kinematic chain. It is thus obvious, that four inversions of a single slider crank
chain are possible. These inversions are found in the following mechanisms.

1. Pendulum pump or Bull engine. In this mechanism, the inversion

is obtained by fixing the cylinder or link 4 ( i.e. sliding pair), as shown in
Fig.. In this case, when the crank (link 2) rotates, the connecting rod (link 3)
oscillates about a pin pivoted to the fixed link 4 at A and the piston attached
to the piston rod (link 1) reciprocates. The duplex pump which is used to
supply feed water to boilers have two pistons attached to link 1, as shown in
Fig.

2. Oscillating cylinder engine. The arrangement of oscillating cylinder

engine mechanism, as shown in Fig., is used to convert reciprocating motion
into rotary motion. In this mechanism, the link 3 forming the turning pair is
fixed. The link 3 corresponds to the connecting rod of a reciprocating steam
engine mechanism. When the crank (link 2) rotates, the piston attached to
piston rod (link 1) reciprocates and the cylinder (link 4) oscillates about a pin
pivoted to the fixed link at A.
3. Rotary internal combustion engine or Gnome engine. Sometimes back,
rotary internal combustion engines were used in aviation. But now-a-days
gas turbines are used in its place. It consists of seven cylinders in one plane
and all revolves about fixed centre D, as shown in Fig., while the crank (link
2) is fixed. In this mechanism, when the connecting rod (link4) rotates, the
piston (link 3) reciprocates inside Rotary engine the cylinders forming link
1.

4 Whitworth quick return motion mechanism. This mechanism is mostly

used in shaping and slotting machines. In this mechanism, the link CD (link
 2) forming the turning pair is fixed, as shown in Fig.. The link 2
corresponds to a crank in a reciprocating steam engine. The driving crankC
A (link 3) rotates at a uniform angular speed. The slider (link 4) attached
to the crank pin at A slides along the slotted bar PA (link 1) which
oscillates at a pivoted point D. The connecting rod PR carries the ram at R
to which a cutting tool is fixed. The motion of the tool is constrained along
the line RD produced, i.e. along a line passing through D and perpendicular
to CD.

Double slider crank chain

A kinematic chain which consists of two turning pairs and two sliding
pairs is known as double slider crank chain, as shown in Fig. 5.34. We
see that the link 2 and link 1 form one turningpair and link 2 and link
3 form the second turning pair. The link 3 and link 4 form one sliding
pair andlink 1 and link 4 form the second sliding pair.

 Inversions of Double Slider Crank Chain

The following three inversions of a double slider crank chain are

important from the subject point of view :
1. Elliptical trammels.It is an instrument used for drawing ellipses.
This inversion is obtained by fixing the slotted plate (link 4), as shown
in Fig.. The fixed plate or link 4 has two straight grooves cut in it, at
right angles to each other. The link 1 and link 3, are known as sliders
and form slidingpairs with link 4. The link A B (link 2) is a bar which
forms turning pair with links 1 and 3.

When the links 1 and 3 slide along their respective grooves, any point
on the link 2 such as P traces out an ellipse on the surface of link 4, as
shown in Fig. (a). A little consideration willshow that AP and BP are the
semi-major axis and semi-minor axis of the ellipse respectively. This
canbe proved as follows :
2. Scotch yoke mechanism. This mechanism is used for converting rotary
motion into a reciprocating motion. The inversion is obtained by fixing either
the link 1 or link 3. In Fig., link 1 is fixed. In this mechanism, when the link 2
(which corresponds to crank) rotates about B as centre, the link4 (which
corresponds to a frame) reciprocates. The fixed link 1 guides the frame.
 Experiment 9

AIM: Study of different Clutches

THEORY:A clutch is a mechanical device that provides for the transmission
of power (and therefore usually motion) from one component (the driving
member) to another (the driven member) when engaged, but can be
disengaged.
Clutches are used whenever the transmission of power or motion must be
controlled either in amount or over time (e.g., electric screwdrivers limit how
much torque is transmitted through use of a clutch; clutches control whether
automobiles transmit engine power to the wheels).

CLUTCH TYPE:

1. FRICTION CLUTCHES- The vast majority of clutches ultimately rely

on frictional forces for their operation. The purpose of friction clutches is
to connect a moving member to another that is moving at a different speed
or stationary, often to synchronize the speeds, and/or to transmit power.
Usually, as little slippage (difference in speeds) as possible between the
two members is desired.

The friction clutches of the following types are important –

1. Disc or plate clutches.

2. Cone clutches.
3. Centrifugal clutches.

SINGLE PLATE CLUTCH: A single disc or plate clutch consists of a clutch

plate whose both sides are faced with a frictional material. It is mounted on the hub
which is free to move axially along the splines of the driven shaft. The pressure
plate is mounted inside the clutch body which is bolted to the flywheel. Both the
pressure plate and the flywheel rotate with the engine crank shaft or the driving
shaft. The pressure plate pushes the clutch plate towards the flywheel by a set of
strong springs which are arranged radially inside the

body. The three levers (also known as release levers or fingers) are carried on
pivots suspended from the case of the body. These are arranged in such a manner
so that the pressure plate moves away from the flywheel by the inward movement
of a trust bearing. The bearing is mounted upon a forked shaft and moves forward
when the clutch pedal is pressed. When the clutch pedal is pressed down, its
linkage forces the thrust release bearing to move in towards the flywheel and
pressing the longer ends of the levers inward.

The axial pressure exerted by the spring provides a frictional force in the
circumferential direction when the relative motion between the driving and driven
members tends to take place. If the torque due to this frictional force exceeds the torque
to be transmitted, then no slipping takes place and the power is transmitted from the
driving shaft to the driven shaft.

Single plate clutch

MULTI- PLATE CLUTCH:Multi-plate clutch consists of more than one

clutch plates contrary to single plate clutch which consists of only one plate.
Friction surfaces are made in case of multi-plate clutch. Due to increased number
of friction surfaces, a multi-plate clutch can transmit large torque. Therefore, it is
used in racing cars and heavy motor vehicles witch have high engine power. The
clutch plates are alternatively fitted with engine shaft and the shaft of gear box.
He plates are firmly held by the force of coil springs and they assembled in a
drum.
One plate slides in the grooves on the flywheel and the next plate slides on
spines provided on pressure plate. Thus, each alternate plate slides in grooves on
the flywheel and the other on splines of pressure plate. If we take two
consecutive plates, then one has inner and other has outer splines.
When the clutch pedal is pressed, the pressure plate moves back against the force
of coil spring, hence the clutch plates are disengaged and engine flywheel and
gear box are decoupled. However, when clutch pedal is not pressed the clutch
remain in engaged position and the power can be transmitted from engine
flywheel to the gear box.

MULTI PLATE CLUTCH

CONE CLUTCH: Cone clutch is the type which consists of inner and outer
conical surface. Its outer cone is keyed with driving shaft and the inner cone is free
to slide on the driven shaft axially because of splines. Axial force which is required
to connect clutch is provided with the help of helical compression spring. In this
connecting position, power is transmitted from driving shaft to outer cone with the
help of key. After that power is transmitted from outer cone to inner cone with the
help of friction.

A cone clutch has conical friction surfaces. The cone's taper means that a given
amount of movement of the actuator makes the surfaces approach (or recede) much
more slowly than in a disc clutch. As well, a given amount of actuating force
creates more pressure on the mating surfaces. The best known example of a cone
clutch is a synchronizer ring in a manual transmission. The synchronizer ring is
responsible for "synchronizing" the speeds of the shift hub and the gear wheel to
ensure a smooth gear change.

In the end power then transmit from inner cone to driven shaft by using splines.
For disconnecting the clutch, fork is placed in shifting collar to shift it axially
towards right side. This process releases pressure between both cones and no
transmission of torque occurs.
For friction lining in inner cone, we use leather, asbestos or cork. Conical force
results into notable frictional force because of the action of wedge. The angle
which is recommended for semi cone is 12.50. In construction cone clutches are
very simple and easy to disconnect. But the major drawback for using this cone is
the strict requirement for coaxially of two shafts.

CONE CLUTCHES
APPLICATIONS OF CLUTCHES:

Vehicular (general)-

There are different designs of vehicle clutch but most are based on one or more
friction discs pressed tightly together or against a flywheel using springs. The
friction material varies in composition depending on many considerations such as
whether the clutch is "dry" or "wet". Friction discs once contained asbestos but this
has been largely eliminated. Clutches found in heavy duty applications such as
trucks and competition cars use ceramic plates that have a greatly increased
 friction coefficient. However, these have a "grabby" action generally considered
unsuitable for passenger cars. The spring pressure is released when the clutch
pedal is depressed thus either pushing or pulling the diaphragm of the pressure
plate, depending on type. However, raising the engine speed too high while
engaging the clutch causes excessive clutch plate wear. Engaging the clutch
abruptly when the engine is turning at high speed causes a harsh, jerky start. This
kind of start is necessary and desirable in drag racing and other competitions,
where speed is more important than comfort.
Automobile powertrain-

In a modern car with a manual transmission the clutch is operated by the left-most pedal
using a hydraulic or cable connection from the pedal to the clutch mechanism. On older
cars the clutch might be operated by a mechanical linkage. Even though the clutch may
physically be located very close to the pedal, such remote means of actuation are
necessary to eliminate the effect of vibrations and slight engine movement, engine
mountings being flexible by design. With a rigid mechanical linkage, smooth
engagement would be near-impossible because engine movement inevitably occurs as
the drive is "taken up."
The default state of the clutch is engaged - that is the connection between engine
and gearbox is always "on" unless the driver presses the pedal and disengages it.
If the engine is running with clutch engaged and the transmission in neutral, the
engine spins the input shaft of the transmission, but no power is transmitted to the
wheels.
MOTORCYCLES:

Motorcycles typically employ a wet clutch with the clutch riding in the same oil as
the transmission. These clutches are usually made up of a stack of alternating plain
steel and friction plates. Some plates have lugs on their inner diameters that lock
them to the engine crankshaft.
Other plates have lugs on their outer diameters that lock them to a basket that turns
the transmission input shaft. A set of coil springs or a diaphragm spring plate force
the plates together when the clutch is engaged.

On motorcycles the clutch is operated by a hand lever on the left handlebar. No

pressure on the lever means that the clutch plates are engaged (driving), while
pulling the lever back towards the rider disengages the clutch plates through cable
or hydraulic actuation, allowing the rider to shift gears or coast. Racing
motorcycles often use slipper clutches to eliminate the effects of engine braking,
which, being applied only to the rear wheel, can cause instability.
 EXPERIMENT 10
AIM: Study of Brakes and Dynamometers
THEORY: A brake is a mechanical device which inhibits motion. Most
commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other
methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative
braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for
later use. Other methods convert kinetic energy into potential energy in such stored
forms as pressurized air or pressurized oil. Eddy current brakes use magnetic fields
to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc, fin, or rail, which is
converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into
different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels, but may also take other forms
such as the surface of a moving fluid (flaps deployed into water or air). Some vehicles
use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel
brakes and a parachute, or airplanes with both wheel brakes and drag flaps raised into
the air during landing. Since kinetic energy increases with velocity (K=mv^2/2), an
object moving at 10 m/s has 100 times as much energy as one of the same mass
moving at 1 m/s, and consequently the theoretical braking distance, when braking at
the traction limit, is 100 times as long. In practice, fast vehicles usually have significant
air drag, and energy lost to air drag rises quickly with speed. Almost all wheeled
vehicles have a brake of some sort. Even baggage carts and shopping carts may have
them for use on a moving ramp. Most fixed-wing aircraft are fitted with wheel brakes
on the undercarriage. Some aircraft also feature air brakes designed to reduce their
speed in flight. Notable examples include gliders and some World War II-era aircraft,
primarily some fighter aircraft and many dive bombers of the era. These allow the
aircraft to maintain a safe speed in a steep descent. Friction brakes on automobiles
store braking heat in the drum brake or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the
air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their engines to brake.
When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately
a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On
the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum
which also slows the wheel down.

Types of brakes: Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided broadly into
"shoe" or "pad" brakes, using an explicit wear surface, and hydrodynamic brakes, such
as parachutes, which use friction in a working fluid and do not explicitly wear. Typically
the term "friction brake" is used to mean pad/shoe brakes and excludes hydrodynamic
brakes, even though hydrodynamic brakes use friction.
Friction (pad/shoe) brakes are often rotating devices with a stationary pad and a
rotating wear surface. Common configurations include shoes that contract to rub on
the outside of a rotating drum, such as a band brake; a rotating drum with shoes that
expand to rub the inside of a drum, commonly called a "drum brake", although other
drum configurations are possible; and pads that pinch a rotating disc, commonly called
a "disc brake". Other brake configurations are used, but less often. For example, PCC
trolley brakes include a flat shoe which is clamped to the rail with an electromagnet;
the Murphy brake pinches a rotating drum, and the Ausco Lambert disc brake uses a
hollow disc (two parallel discs with a structural bridge) with shoes that sit between the
disc surfaces and expand laterally.

Hydraulic brakes are often used where a pump is already part of the machinery. For
example, an internal-combustion piston motor can have the fuel supply stopped, and
then internal pumping losses of the engine create some braking. Some engines use a
valve override called a Jake brake to greatly increase pumping losses. Pumping brakes
can dump energy as heat, or can be regenerative brakes that recharge a pressure
reservoir called a hydraulic accumulator.

Electromagnetic brakes are likewise often used where an electric motor is already part
of the machinery. For example, many hybrid gasoline/electric vehicles use the electric
motor as a generator to charge electric batteries and also as a regenerative brake.
Some diesel/electric railroad locomotives use the electric motors to generate
electricity which is then sent to a resistor bank and dumped as heat. Some vehicles,
such as some transit buses, do not already have an electric motor but use a secondary
"retarder" brake that is effectively a generator with an internal short-circuit. Related
types of such a brake are eddy current brakes, and electro-mechanical brakes (which
actually are magnetically driven friction brakes, but nowadays are often just called
“electromagnetic brakes” as well).

Band Brakes: A band brake is a primary or secondary brake, consisting of a band of

friction material that tightens concentrically around a cylindrical piece of equipment to
either prevent it from rotating (a static or "holding" brake), or to slow it (a dynamic
brake).

Disk Brakes: A disc brake is a wheel brake which slows rotation of the wheel by the
friction caused by pushing brake pads against a brake disc with a set of calipers. The
brake disc (or rotor in American English) is usually made of cast iron, but may in some
cases be made of composites such as reinforced carbon–carbon or ceramic matrix
composites. This is connected to the wheel and/or the axle. To stop the wheel, friction
material in the form of brake pads, mounted on a device called a brake caliper, is
forced mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or electromagnetically against both
sides of the disc. Friction causes the disc and attached wheel to slow or stop. Brakes
convert motion to heat, and if the brakes get too hot, they become less effective, a
phenomenon known as brake fade.
Disc-style brakes development and use began in England in the 1890s. Compared to
drum brakes, disc brakes offer better stopping performance, because the disc is more
readily cooled. As a consequence discs are less prone to brake fade; and disc brakes
recover more quickly from immersion (wet brakes are less effective). Most drum brake
designs have at least one leading shoe, which gives a servo-effect. By contrast, a disc
brake has no self-servo effect and its braking force is always proportional to the
pressure placed on the brake pad by the braking system via any brake servo, braking
pedal or lever. This tends to give the driver better "feel" to avoid impending lockup
Prony brake dynamometer Construction & Working :

• A simplest form of an Absorption type Dynamometer is a Prony Brake Dynamometer

It consists of Two wooden blocks around a Pulley fixed to the shaft of an engine ,
whose power is required to be measured . The blocks are clamped by means of Two
Bolts and Nuts.

A Helical Spring is provided between the nut and the upper block to adjust the
Pressure on the Pulley to Control its Speed.

The upper block has a long lever attached to it and carries a weight W at its outer end .
A Counter Weight is placed at the other end of the lever which balances the Brake
when Unloaded.

Two stops S1 and S2 are provided to limit the motion of the Lever.
.